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Carbon Farming Strategies for Sustainable Development Goals in India
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ISSN 0973-1822 84 Pages July 2024
Carbon
Farming
Practices
Organic farming
Intercropping
Biochar
Recycling crop
residues
Livestock
management
Nutrient
management
Agro
advisories
Water
management
Agroforestry
Conservation
agriculture
INDIAN JOURNAL OF FERTILISERS
CONTENTS
Vol.20 No.7 July 2024
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Editors
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Indian Journal of Fertilisers 20 (7)
Rao et al.
cherukumalli2011@gmail.com
Carbon Farming and Sustainable Development Goals in India
Indian Journal of Fertilisers 20 (7) : 644-657, July, 2024
12
The imminent challenges presented by the changing climate and its resulting impacts on soil quality, and food
production highlights the necessity for transformative shifts in Indian agriculture. This review emphasizes the
role of carbon farming towards mitigating climate change, enhancing agricultural sustainability and achieving
sustainable development goals (SDGs) through carbon farming practices. The potential advantages of carbon
farming include enhancing agricultural yield, safeguarding farmers’ incomes, and fortifying ecosystem well-
being, offering a promising solution to current challenges. Government initiatives in India actively advocate for
sustainable agricultural practices, illustrating the need for collaborative efforts to steer agriculture towards a
sustainable, carbon-sequestering model. This comprehensive approach, encompassing innovative techniques,
supportive policies, and empowering farmers, sets a positive course towards a future where agriculture can
meet global food demands while promoting environmental resilience and health. Henceforth, a forward-thinking
perspective on carbon farming as a cornerstone for sustainable agriculture and food security highlights its
transformative potential to achieve the SDGs.
Key words: Climate change, carbon farming, policy action, land degradation neutrality, natural resources,
sustainable agriculture, SDGs
Received : 17/04/2024 Accepted : 19/06/2024
Ch Srinivasa Rao, M. Jagadesh, Kirttiranjan Baral and R. Karthik
ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad, Telangana
Abstract
Introduction
Agriculture has been a significant part of the
Indian economy from the past to the present,
providing raw materials for most of the Indian
industry. Hence, agriculture is often termed as the
backbone of the Indian economy (Gulati and
Juneja, 2022). It also contributes significantly to
the export of goods, earning valuable foreign
exchange through the production of processed milk
products, fruits, vegetables, nuts, spices, rice, and
other items. The agricultural sector in India,
which supports over 70% of the rural population,
constitutes 17% of the GDP, employing around 58%
of the population. Today, meeting the demands of
an increasing population presents a significant
challenge to agriculture (Vos and Bellu, 2019). As
a result, the agricultural industry in India is
undergoing structural changes (Ghosh, 2010). This
decline is not due to agriculture’s diminishing
importance or the impact of agricultural policy,
but rather a result of India’s economic growth from
2000 to 2010. The percentage contribution of
agriculture to Indian GDP serves as a significant
indicator of the sector’s health and its influence
on the country’s overall economic performance.
Over the years, with an ever-evolving agricultural
landscape and technological advancements, the
percentage contribution of agriculture to GDP has
shown fluctuating trends (Alston and Pardey,
2020). There has been significant strides in
agriculture through the development of hybrids,
the growth of resistant and fast-growing varieties,
and advancements in production techniques.
These improvements in production and
processing technologies have enabled the
country to expand its exports to numerous
nations. Agriculture in India cultivates a wide
variety of crops, fruits, nuts, and spices,
contributing to a substantial amount of
agricultural commodities being exported and
earning foreign exchange. Therefore, India’s
economy places considerable emphasis on
agriculture. Despite the current coronavirus
pandemic causing economies of many nations
to falter due to industries ceasing operations,
the Indian economy remains stable, in part due
to its agriculture sector, hence the saying that
agriculture is the backbone of the Indian
economy and overall SDG targets.
While agriculture holds immense importance
for humanity, the current climate change
presents notable obstacles to food production
and accessibility, impacting the livelihoods and
earnings of small-scale farmers (Srinivasarao et
al., 2016). The changing climate influenced by
various factors may also impact the soil quality,
nutritional quality of certain foods, particularly
major cereals, by reducing protein and some
vitamin and mineral concentrations due to
elevated CO2 levels (Muthumani et al., 2022). In
response to prevailing food challenges, all
members of the World Health Organisation
(WHO) embraced the United Nations’ 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015,
including the objective of achieving zero hunger
or eliminating undernourishment by 2030.
July 2024 Carbon Farming and Sustainable Development Goals in India 645
13
Various sectors related to agriculture and its
allied fields such as field crops, horticulture,
livestock, fishery, and poultry are closely linked
to various United Nations SDGs, particularly
those related to zero hunger, nutrition, and
climate action. Adverse effects of climate change
and its consequencies have been the most
challenging obstacles. Towards this, immediate
action is required for sustainable development
of bio-diversity and enhancing soil organic
matter in the soil to improve soil health. This
current review highlights the importance of
carbon farming opportunities (Figure 1) as a
strategy towards addressing the events of
climate change and achieving the SDGs in India.
Challenges in Carbon Farming
Since the onset of the industrial age, it has been
widely believed that the green revolution in the
1970s introduced technological and chemical
innovations that boosted yields, increased
productivity, and effectively addressed hunger
(Fusari, 2022). However, this has coincided with
a sharp increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) in
the atmosphere, leading to a changing climate
characterized by higher temperatures and more
extreme precipitation patterns, including more
frequent droughts and floods (IPCC, 2022).
Scientific consensus attributes 25% increase in
atmospheric carbon to the planet’s significant
warming due to the intensified GHG effect,
resulting in shifts in temperatures, seasonality,
and conditions necessary for optimal crop
growth (ESA, 2022). Furthermore, excessive use
of fertilizers and intensive farming practices have
led to desertification, compromised water
quality, and soil depletion. Despite the annual
global application of 195 million MT of fertilizers,
people suffering from hunger marked a 16%
increase from 2019 (FAO, 2017; Fusari, 2022). Thus,
it is imperative to significantly reduce GHG
emissions, particularly those stemming from
fossil fuel burning and agriculture, to reverse this
trend. One approach to achieve this is by
activating carbon sinks to absorb CO2 from the
atmosphere. A method to accomplish this is by
storing CO2 in the soil for extended periods as
soil organic carbon (SOC) and woody vegetation
(Ramesh et al., 2019). The pivotal strategic
element needed to combat and reverse climate
change is carbon farming (Annys et al., 2022;
McDonald et al., 2021). As defined by the IPCC,
nature-based solutions encompass carbon
farming and offer various benefits across
environmental, social, and economic dimensions.
However, there are challenges in implementation
of all the carbon farming practices on any farm
land due to small holder farming and differential
socio-economic dimensions of the farmers. Over
the last decade, policymakers have increasingly
turned to nature-based solutions, recognizing the
interconnectedness between biodiversity loss,
ecosystem degradation, and climate change, as
highlighted (Fusari, 2022). To sequester
atmospheric carbon and store it in the soil, crop
roots, wood, and leaves, various agricultural
practices are collectively referred to as carbon
farming (Avasiloaiei et al., 2023). In addition to
mitigating climate change, increasing soil carbon
stocks through carbon farming is linked to
enhanced ecosystem functions such as biomass
production, water retention, and biodiversity
(Wiesmeier et al., 2019; Schluter et al., 2023).
Carbon Farming Opportunities
The world is on the hunt for novel and practical
solutions to the growing problems of climate
change and environmental degradation. Among
these, the SDGs of the United Nations and carbon
credits have become two of the most important
tools in the worldwide plan to fight climate
change and advance sustainable development.
Global economic loss is estimated to touch up to
USD 1.8 trillion among countries, which directly
hit the targets of SDGs implementation
particularly zero hunger, nutrition, etc. (https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_
analysis_of_climate_change) (Figure 2).
Numerous businesses have pledged to reach net
zero emissions, and many of them anticipate
using carbon credits to offset part of their
remaining emissions, indicating a spike in
demand in the future (Kreibich and Hermwille,
Figure 1. Carbon farming practices for sustainable
agriculture and lowering GHGs
Indian Journal of Fertilisers 20 (7)
Rao et al.646
14
conventional credits into publicly ledger-based,
trackable, and secure tokens. Through this
method, every token is given a unique identifier
and safely recorded on a blockchain. The carbon
credit market benefits from a number of factors
thanks to the decentralized and impenetrable
ledger that blockchain technology provides
(Sorensen, 2023).
Carbon Farming Practices
India is densely populated country in the world,
and food and nutritional security is a critical
challenge. Challenges are more severe in the
climate change scenarios of increasing
temperature and impacts of climate change like
droughts, floods, cyclones, heatwave, and coastal
land inundation. Natural resource degradation,
water depletion, loss of SOC, increasing land
degradation, biodiversity loss besides climate
change are serious challenges in the agriculture
sustainability and food security. Therefore, there
is an ample opportunity for developing alternate
agriculture practices which are carbon positive,
ecosystem friendly, remunerative, and
sustainable in tropical countries including India.
Several technological practices individually or
collectively have the potential towards
ecologically sustainable agriculture which
maintain sustenance of natural resource base and
contribute to adaptation and mitigation of GHG
emissions towards fulfilling Paris agreement and
net zero commitments (NZC) of Government of
India.
Recycling Crop Residues
Crop residues (CR) are a valuable repository of
plant nutrients, presenting an opportunity to
enhance soil fertility and productivity when
2021). One element of national and international
efforts to slow the rise in GHG concentrations is
the usage of carbon credits. One carbon credit
represents the right to emit one tonne of carbon
dioxide or the mass of another GHG with an
equivalent global warming potential (Baxi, 2023).
Carbon credits can greatly impact SDGs because
the money earned from them can be invested in
hydroelectric, solar, and wind power projects,
raising the proportion of renewable energy in the
world’s energy mix and lowering dependency on
fossil fuels. Carbon credits have the potential to
boost innovation and economic growth.
Companies may become more innovative and
create new, clean processes and technology as a
result of the necessity to minimize pollution.
Additionally, initiatives supported by carbon
credits have the potential to generate
employment, which is consistent with SDGs 8
(Decent Work and Economic Growth) and 9
(Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure).
Carbon credits present a market-driven approach
to reducing GHG emissions, aligning directly
with SDG 13 (Climate Action). Companies are
incentivized to decrease emissions and invest in
clean technologies by establishing a carbon price.
This can substantially decrease global GHG
emissions, thereby mitigating the impacts of
climate change. The creation of carbon credits
through reforestation and forest conservation
initiatives can benefit SDG 15 (Life on Land).
These initiatives play a crucial role in halting land
degradation, preventing desertification, and
conserving biodiversity. Additionally, they
sequester carbon, leading to a reduction in GHG
emissions and contributing to the deceleration of
global warming. Tokenization transforms carbon
credits into digital tokens. Blockchain converts
Figure 2. Global economic damage caused by GHGs among countries from 1990 to 2014
USD trillion
July 2024 Carbon Farming and Sustainable Development Goals in India
15
reintegrated into the ground. The carbon content
in CR can play a vital role towards maintaining
the sustainability of agricultural ecosystems
(Sahu et al., 2015). Of the total nutrients absorbed
in rice, about 40% nitrogen, 35% phosphorus, 85%
potassium, and 40-50% sulphur, remain in their
vegetative parts during maturation (Dobermann
and Witt, 2000). Therefore, managing CR has
significant role in overall balance of nutrients
extracted from and returned to the soil. In this
regard the added soil organic matter (SOM),
containing essential elements for plant growth,
improves the dynamics and bioavailability of
nutrients (Dhaliwal et al., 2019; Srinivasarao et
al., 2012b). SOM, acting as a primary energy
source, is a key factor in biological activity for
both plants and soils. Each plant nutrient follows
a carbon-dependent cycle that governs the next
generation availability. The carbon compounds
within the residues serve as fuel for soil microbes,
facilitating the biological recycling of inorganic
plant nutrients (Sahu et al., 2015). The chemical
elements released during the microbial
decomposition of CR provides resource that
living plants or organisms can utilize. This
process forms the foundational structure of
nutrient cycle. Within the context of carbon
farming opportunities and the pursuit of SDGs
in India, CR acts as a primary food source for soil
microorganisms, thereby promoting nutrient
cycling.
Biochar
Biochar, a carbon-rich byproduct resulting from
biomass pyrolysis, presents a promising avenue
for carbon farming, offering benefits to soil health,
agricultural productivity, and climate mitigation
(Liu et al., 2015). Effective utilization of biochar
necessitates dedicated funding for research into
production techniques, understanding its
effectiveness across various soil types, and
exploring crop-specific applications.
Encouraging collaboration between agricultural
research institutions, universities, and private
sector entities can advance biochar research and
facilitate the dissemination of knowledge.
Incorporating biochar-related activities into
carbon credit and trading programmes can serve
as an incentive for carbon sequestration through
biochar, aligning with climate action objectives.
The adverse effects of burning CR underscore the
need for an efficient management of CR to support
sustainability. To address open CR burning,
production of solid biochar, has been proposed.
Biochar production presents significant
opportunities as a resource conservation
technology, contributing to sustainable
agroecosystem services and fostering a lasting
agricultural revolution (Tilman, 1998; Conway,
2002).
The conversion of biomass carbon into biochar
carbon enhances carbon retention in the soil, with
the biochar system retaining approximately 50%
of the original carbon for an extended period. This
contrasts notably with conventional agricultural
methods like burning (which retains only 3%,
with the remainder released into the atmosphere
immediately) and microbial degradation post-
incorporation (where 10-20% is retained for 5-10
years), as outlined (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006).
Being a cost-effective feedstock for biochar
(Lehmann, 2007a, b), the CR serves as a promising
soil amendment (Beesley and Dickinson, 2011).
The biochar is particularly suitable for soil
improvement due to its easy availability, while
wood biochar could place additional strain on
forest resources (Cornelissen et al., 2013). The
biochar has been reported to have positive effects
on reduction in GHG emissions as well as
improving the quality of soil (Sohi et al., 2009;
Woolf et al., 2010). Despite its potential as a soil
ameliorant, the concentration of salt in biochar
may present its limitations. However, Singh et
al. (2015) suggested that an integrated approach
involving retention and removal, along with a
‘closed-loop model of reversion’ could be a more
favourable option. Therefore, the incorporation
of biochar as a component of carbon farming is
expected to result in enhanced soil health and
fertility, increased agricultural productivity, a
reduction in GHG emissions through carbon
sequestration, empowerment of smallholder
farmers, and significant progress towards
achieving relevant SDGs. Huge potential exists
of converting crop residues, farm wastes and
other agro-industry wastes into valuable
manures at farm level as well as community level
at agro-ecosystem level in India.
Legume Intercropping and Cover Crops
Intercropping is proposed as a strategy to
mitigate carbon footprints (Yang et al., 2021). The
practice of crop diversity through intercropping
reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides
while maintaining yield because it fosters more
efficient resource utilization, weed and pest
management, and crop protection (Cheriere et al.,
2020). This presents a vital pathway for reducing
carbon footprints associated with resource
inputs, both directly and indirectly. Additionally,
several long-term studies indicate that
intercropping with greater biomass absorption
leads to increased soil carbon stocks (Liu et al.,
647
Indian Journal of Fertilisers 20 (7)
Rao et al.
16
2015), which can help offset carbon emissions
induced by inputs. However, despite short
experimental durations, more substantial
evidence is needed to confirm gains in soil carbon
stock. Lal (2004) has proposed a carbon
sustainability index, which is the (output-input)/
input ratio of carbon, as means to estimate the
carbon sustainability of production systems. This
index, by integrating both carbon output and
input, could provide a comprehensive assessment
of carbon-based input use efficiency. Given the
enhanced productivity and reduced carbon
footprint associated with intercropping, it could
be inferred that intercropping is more carbon
sustainable than monocropping. However, for a
wider adoption of intercropping, a thorough
analysis is necessary to elucidate its
comprehensive effects.
Leguminous plants (such as peas, beans, lentils,
and clover) possess the unique ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen with the assistance of
symbiotic bacteria in their root nodules
(Carranca, 2013). This nitrogen-fixing process
enriches the soil with essential nutrients,
particularly nitrogen. Legumes contribute to soil
fertility by adding nitrogen, which benefits other
crops. Intercropping promotes biodiversity,
making the agricultural system more resilient to
pests and diseases. Legumes in terms of
intercropping or cover crops can provide support
to other crops, resulting in overall increased
yields. Typically, the second crop is planted
before harvesting of first crop, ensuring
continuous vegetation cover on the field. Relay
cropping optimizes land use by enabling the
cultivation of two or more crops in the same field
within a single growing season. It can aid in weed
suppression by maintaining ground cover
throughout the growing season. Different crops
can be chosen based on market demand, climate
conditions, and specific crop requirements. Both
intercropping with legumes and relay cropping
contribute to sustainable agriculture by fostering
biodiversity, enhancing soil fertility, and
maximizing resource efficiency (Yang et al., 2021).
Legume based intercropping as well as cover
crops have a greater potential in both rainfed and
irrigated ecosystems of India (Srinivasarao et al.,
2015).
Organic Farming
Carbon farming has become a critical strategy
for climate change mitigation due to its role in
carbon footprint reduction. The transition to
organic farming is essential for reducing reliance
on conventional agriculture, which is major
contributors to GHG emissions. These practices
not only improve the soil health and reduce the
emissions but also contribute to sustainable
agriculture. Robust organic certification
programmes are crucial for ensuring the
authenticity of organic produce. In India,
initiatives such as the Paramparagat Krishi
Vikas Yojana and Mission Organic Value Chain
Development for Northeastern Region, among
others, have significantly promoted organic
farming. This has led to the certification of
approximately 2.66 million hectares (Mha) of
land, making India the fifth-largest country
globally in terms of organic cultivation
(MOA&FW, 2021). The growth of organic farming
has necessitated creation of marketing
opportunities for organic produce and support
for research and development in organic farming
techniques tailored to Indian agro-climatic
conditions. In addition to existing policies and
schemes like Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati,
Organic Value Chain Development in the North
Eastern Region Scheme, National Programme for
Organic Production, One District – One Product
initiative, Agriculture Infrastructure Fund, etc.
support organic farming nationwide. Promotion
of resource conservation through solar energy
and biogas adoption, and embracing a cluster
approach involving self-help groups (SHGs),
farmer producer organizations (FPOs), can
further adds benefits to the existing practice.
The evaluation recommends restoring 2-3 Mha
of degraded lands through resource conservation
technologies to achieve the ambitious target of
26 Mha of organic farming by 2030. To optimize
the effectiveness of organic farming practices, it
highlights the significance of identifying specialty
crops and specific locations, such as promoting
organic fenugreek cultivation in Maharashtra.
Figure 3, illustrates that with low fertilizer
consumption (NPK) relative to the gross cropped
area, there is an opportunity to transition all or
parts of these states to organic cultivation. This
transition can be facilitated through tailored
policies aligned with carbon farming
opportunities and action plans aimed at
advancing SDGs in India. Our strategy is to target
the regions where chemical input load is low
initially in different ecosystems of India and
accumulate a lot of experience to build further.
At the same time, higher market price, and supply
chain management need to be linked with organic
farming as sustainability business model for
Indian farmers.
648
July 2024 Carbon Farming and Sustainable Development Goals in India
17
Carbon Farming through Conservation Agriculture
Conservation Agriculture (CA) emerges as a
crucial strategy for carbon farming, focusing on
soil health improvement, carbon sequestration,
and sustainable crop management practices. This
involves exploring strategies and an action plan
to enhance carbon farming through the promotion
of CA methods in India, with a focus on no-till,
reduced tillage, cover cropping, and addressing
the challenge of crop residue burning. India is
confronted with a significant challenge in
managing crop residues, with 683 million MT
produced annually. Despite the utilization of a
major portion for fodder, fuel, and industrial
processes, approximately 178 million MT of
surplus CR are available, leading to the burning
of an estimated 87 million MT. Cereal crop
residues, particularly from rice and wheat,
contribute substantially to this surplus, releasing
harmful pollutants such as PM2.5 and CO2 during
burning (Datta et al., 2020; TERI, 2019).
Government efforts such as the National Policy
for Management of Crop Residue and initiatives
like the ban on crop residue burning by the
National Green Tribunal are in place.
Programmes such as the Crop Residue
Management Scheme, Haryana Bioenergy Policy,
and utilization of crop residues for biofuel
production contribute to addressing this
challenge. The decrease in paddy crop residue
burning events in 2022 indicates progress,
supported by the establishment of custom hiring
centers and the release of funds for machinery
procurement. Transitioning from traditional
rice-wheat cropping systems to diverse cropping
cycles reduces dependence on monoculture.
Adoption of CA practices, including no-till and
reduced tillage methods, enhances soil health and
carbon sequestration (Srinivasarao et al., 2019b).
Policies incentivizing private investment in crop
residue collection and aggregation promote the
creation of biomass depots and mandate state/
national organizations to aggregate crop residue.
A special credit line or scheme to provide
financing for farm equipment and high working
capital encourages private sector participation
in CA. Markets for crop residue-based briquettes
involving FPOs and farmer cooperatives,
facilitating a sustainable value chain, need to be
created. Satellite-based remote sensing
technologies, in collaboration with the National
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) and Central
Pollution Control Board, can aid in effectively
monitoring and managing CRs. Limited studies
have explored the potential of cover crops to
enhance SOC (Lal, 2004; Srinivasarao et al.,
2012a). Agricultural soils exhibit lower SOC
levels compared to those under natural
vegetation, with crop cultivation resulting in
SOC losses ranging from 30 to 40% when
contrasted with natural vegetation (Don et al.,
2011; Poeplau et al., 2011). SOC sequestration in
both conventional tillage and no-till soils varies
based on diverse crop management practices,
influenced by disparities in plant carbon inputs
and mineralization rates. Though, there are
challenges in holistic implementation of CA in
rainfed dryland ecosystems in India, the strategy
Figure 3. List of states with low fertilizer consumption (NPK) to gross cropped area (Source: India stat, 2023)
(kg ha-1)(kg ha-1)
649
Indian Journal of Fertilisers 20 (7)
Rao et al.
18
is to look the package of practices towards
resource conservation technologies based on soil
type, water regime, farm size and depth of soil
(Prasad et al., 2023; Naorem et al., 2023;
Srinivasarao et al., 2022)
Carbon Farming and Land Degradation Neutrality
Land degradation neutrality (LDN) and carbon
farming are interconnected concepts that focus
on sustainable land management practices to
combat soil degradation, enhance carbon
sequestration, and promote overall ecosystem
health (SDG 8). LDN aims for a scenario where
the quantity and quality of land resources either
remain stable or improve over time, balancing
any degradation with restoration efforts (Feng
et al., 2022). Moreover, there are specific
thresholds for land degradation and restoration.
Key components of LDN include preventing soil
erosion, maintaining soil structure, and
enhancing fertility. Actions such as afforestation
and reforestation, involving tree planting and
forest restoration, can effectively combat soil
erosion, improve water retention, and enhance
biodiversity (Srinivasarao et al., 2019a). The soil
conservation and agroecological practices reduce
soil disturbance, improve water retention, and
foster biodiversity (Jagadesh et al., 2023a, b).
Carbon farming entails agricultural methods
that enhance the capture and storage of carbon
in soils and vegetation, contributing to climate
change mitigation (Liniger et al., 2019). Previous
research has summarized the practical impacts
and associated costs of sustainable land
management practices (Giger et al., 2018; Liniger
et al., 2019; Stavi and Lal, 2015). Maintaining
vegetative cover during fallow periods is
beneficial for enhancing soil structure, reducing
erosion, and sequestering carbon. Both LDN and
carbon farming stress the importance of
preventing soil erosion through approaches such
as cover cropping, agroforestry, and CA (Jhariya
et al., 2022). Improving soil structure, achieved
through additions of organic matter and reduced
tillage, is crucial for both carbon sequestration
and preventing land degradation (Franzluebbers
and Doraiswamy, 2007). Adopting sustainable
nutrient management practices, such as utilizing
organic fertilizers and reducing reliance on
synthetic inputs, aligns with objectives of both
LDN and carbon farming, as highlighted (Baritz
et al., 2018). The conservation of biodiversity, a
fundamental aspect of LDN, corresponds with
carbon farming initiatives that aim to establish
diverse and resilient ecosystems, thus enhancing
the capacity for carbon sequestration.
Agroforestry
Agroforestry, which involves the integration of
trees with crops, presents a sustainable approach
to carbon farming, benefiting both yields and
carbon sequestration. As of 2023, India has 80.9
Mha devoted to agroforestry with states such as
Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra, are
pivotal in driving agroforestry initiatives
forward. Government programmes like the
National Mission for a Green India, Nagar Van
Yojana and others focus on afforestation efforts,
restoring degraded lands, and promoting tree
planting outside forests (TOF) through
agroforestry (IFSR, 2023). A range of government
initiatives, including the ‘Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme,
National Bamboo Mission, Sub-Mission on
Agroforestry, and National Afforestation
Programme are in place to support the
development of agroforestry. The emphasis on
combating land degradation and desertification,
along with commitments to restore 26 Mha of
degraded land by 2030, aligns with the principles
and objectives of agroforestry. Additionally, the
emphasis on biofuels and bioenergy underscores
the importance of tree-borne oilseeds and
fuelwood potential trees within agroforestry
systems.
Considering the widespread land degradation in
India, agroforestry is recommended for the
biological improvement of chemically polluted
areas and for bringing wastelands under
cultivation (Kolawole and Iyiola., 2023).
Agroforestry can contribute significantly to
achieving SDG 15.3 on LDN and the Bonn
Challenge target by restoring degraded land,
particularly focusing on afforestation (Gichuki et
al., 2019). Developing strategies for ecosystem
service pricing through carbon trading and other
incentives can improve the economic viability of
agroforestry practices. This includes measures
such as the conservation of germplasm, clonal
propagation, and mass multiplication of essential
agroforestry species (Prasad et al., 2023).
Water Management
Technologies like micro-irrigation, rainwater
conservation methods, and solar-based lifting
devices irrigate the plant roots directly. By
employing sensors, irrigation schedules can be
optimized based on real-time soil moisture levels,
preventing overwatering. Harvesting rainwater
from rooftops and surfaces for later use reduces
reliance on external water sources. The use of
absorbent materials for driveways and
walkways allows rainwater to replenish
groundwater rather than becoming runoff.
Replacing traditional pumps with solar-powered
alternatives for irrigation (Lancaster and Lipkis,
2010) is a sustainable practice that reduces
operational costs and lowers carbon footprints
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July 2024 Carbon Farming and Sustainable Development Goals in India
(Wazed et al., 2018). In regions with brackish or
saline water sources, solar desalination offers a
method to obtain fresh water without relying on
conventional, energy-intensive techniques.
Utilizing solar or wind energy to power
irrigation systems also reduces dependence on
fossil fuels. Employing energy-efficient pumps,
motors, and irrigation systems helps minimize
energy consumption. Implementing regenerative
agriculture practices, such as cover cropping and
agroforestry, aids in carbon sequestration in the
soil (Srinivasarao et al., 2023b). Systems for
treating and reusing agricultural runoff and
drainage water can further reduce the demand
for freshwater sources (Srinivasarao et al.,
2023b).
Livestock Management
Efficient livestock systems play a vital role in
carbon farming by addressing methane
emissions, a potent GHG (Herrero et al., 2016).
India implemented various policies and
programmes to enhance livestock productivity
sustainably. Noteworthy initiatives include the
Intensive Cattle Development Projects, National
Livestock Policy 2013, Sub-Mission on Fodder and
Feed, Rashtriya Gokul Mission, Livestock Health
and Disease Control Scheme, and the Dairy
Processing and Infrastructure Development Fund.
These policies aim to boost livestock productivity,
improve health standards, and promote dairy
development. The implementation of
decentralized delivery of veterinary care and
artificial insemination services will ensure
broader coverage and support for livestock
farmers across diverse regions. Promoting a
contract farming system, coupled with the
enactment of state policies on contract farming,
can improve efficiency and accountability within
the livestock sector.
Nutrient Management
Improving nutrient use efficiency (NUE) in
agriculture is essential for sustainable food
production and it plays a significant role in
reducing GHG emissions (Hirel et al., 2011). NUE
refers to the amount of nutrients applied to crops
that are taken up and utilized by the plants.
Utilizing technology such as GPS-guided
equipment and sensors allows for precise
application of fertilizers at specific locations and
times, reducing unnecessary nutrient usage.
There is a larger scope to improve the NUE in
agriculture with GHG emission technology
interventions such as coated nutrient and slow
release nutrients, integrated nutrient
management, alternative nutrient sources and
precision nutrient application. One of the
significant climate action by the Government of
India is implementation of neem coated urea
(NCU) which has multi-dimensional benefits
towards improving NUE, reducing nutrient
losses, and saving fertilizers with low GHGs
(Figure 4). This, in turn, minimizes the potential
for nutrient runoff and emissions. Additionally,
leguminous cover crops contribute to nitrogen
fixation from the atmosphere, reducing the need
for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, as emphasized
by Wittwer and van der Heijden (2020) and
Srinivasarao et al., (2012c). Adopting slow-
release or controlled-release fertilizers that
gradually release nutrients provides a sustained
supply to plants, reducing the risk of leaching
(Vejan et al., 2021). These additives can be
incorporated into fertilizers to slow down the
conversion of ammonium to nitrate, thereby
decreasing nitrogen losses to the atmosphere as
nitrous oxide, a potent GHG. Implementation of
anaerobic digestion systems for manure
management not only produces biogas for energy
but also reduces methane emissions from manure
decomposition. Proper composting of manure can
improve nutrient content and lower methane and
nitrous oxide emissions. Integrating trees into
agricultural landscapes contributes additional
organic matter, enhances nutrient cycling, and
improves overall soil structure (Tully and Ryals,
2017). Employing efficient irrigation practices to
prevent waterlogging and nutrient leaching is
crucial. Effective water management helps retain
nutrients in the root zone, minimizing losses.
Restoring or conserving wetlands can act as
nutrient sinks, preventing nutrient runoff into
water bodies and reducing emissions. Promoting
the incorporation of nitrogen-fixers within the
leguminous crops can enhance nutrient
availability without the need for additional
synthetic fertilizers, (Singh et al., 2017). Adopting
a holistic approach to nutrient management that
considers the interaction between different
Figure 4. Benefits of neem coated urea in sustainable
agriculture and climate action in India
(Source: Srinivasarao et al., 2022)
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Rao et al.
nutrients helps prevent imbalances that could
lead to nutrient losses and adverse
environmental impacts (Srinivasarao et al.,
2023a).
Agro Advisories
Agro advisories play a vital role in providing
farmers with timely and pertinent information
to optimize crop management, decrease input
costs, and conserve irrigation water (Wolfe et al.,
2018). It is essential to deliver timely weather
updates to farmers, aiding them in planning
irrigation schedules, pest control measures, and
harvesting activities. Recommendations for crops
well-suited to the local climate and soil
conditions should be provided, taking into
account factors such as temperature,
precipitation, and water availability.
Determining the most favourable planting dates
to maximize crop yields and mitigate
vulnerability to weather extremes is crucial
(Moriondo et al., 2011). Guidelines on efficient
irrigation practices, including drip and sprinkler
systems, should be emphasized, along with
stressing the importance of monitoring soil
moisture levels. Encouraging farmers to integrate
rainwater harvesting systems to supplement
irrigation needs during dry periods is essential.
Early warning systems for pests and diseases,
based on weather conditions and historical data,
enable farmers to take preventive measures
(Garrett et al., 2013). Integrated pest management
strategies that prioritize biological control
methods and reduce reliance on chemical
pesticides should be promoted. Regular testing
of soil reduces unnecessary use of fertilizer
(Goulding et al., 2008). Precision farming
techniques that optimize nutrient application
based on specific crop requirements should be
encouraged (Ahmad and Dar, 2020). The use of
mobile applications and SMS alerts to deliver
personalized agro-advisories based on farmers’
location and crop choices is beneficial.
Additionally, satellite imagery and remote
sensing technology can assist in monitoring crop
health, assessing water stress levels, and
identifying areas requiring attention (Virnodkar
et al., 2020).
Food Systems Management
Improving food systems and reducing food loss
can positively impact carbon reduction. The food
supply chain significantly contributes to
greenhouse gas emissions, and addressing
inefficiencies within the system can help mitigate
climate change (Porter et al., 2016). When food is
wasted and disposed of in landfills, it
decomposes, releasing methane, a potent
greenhouse gas. Therefore, by reducing food
waste, we can decrease the emissions associated
with decomposition (Sanciolo et al., 2022). Efforts
to streamline transportation and distribution
processes can reduce carbon emissions related to
the movement of food products. Utilizing more
efficient transportation methods and optimizing
routes can help minimize the environmental
impact. Energy-intensive storage and processing
methods also contribute to carbon emissions. The
implementation of energy-efficient technologies
and practices can aid in carbon footprint
reduction. Introducing sustainable agricultural
practices such as agroforestry and cover cropping
can enhance carbon sequestration in the soil,
thereby helping to offset emissions from other
parts of the food system (Tanveer et al., 2019).
Minimizing the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides can reduce the carbon footprint
associated with their production and application.
Instead of sending food waste to landfills, the
implementation of composting programmes can
convert organic waste into valuable compost,
enriching soil health (Dirks, 2021).
Policy Actions in Carbon Farming in India
The Indian government actively promotes
sustainable farming practices such as carbon
farming through various policy interventions
and schemes. These include initiatives like the
National Mission on Natural Farming,
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (Conventional
Agriculture Development Scheme) under the sub-
mission of Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati
(BPKP), Andhra Pradesh Community Natural
Farming (APCNF), and Mission Organic Value
Chain Development for North Eastern Regions.
These efforts are aimed at achieving net-zero
emissions by 2070 (Kumar et al., 2023). The
‘National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture’
(NMSA) incorporates the Traditional
Agricultural Development Scheme, a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme, which includes the
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana introduced in
2015. PKVY promotes the cultivation of
agricultural products free from chemicals and
pesticide residues, encouraging organic farming
practices. This approach enhances soil health and
reduces costs through environmentally friendly
methods (PKVY, 2017). Under the Paramparagat
Krishi Vikas Yojana, a sub-mission of the NMSA,
the BPKP aims to support traditional indigenous
methods that reduce farmers’ reliance on external
inputs. It emphasizes the recycling of biomass
on farms, particularly through biomass
mulching, and utilizes formulations made from
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cow dung and urine while excluding all synthetic
chemical inputs, either directly or indirectly. The
Namami Ganga Programme has achieved
milestones in reforestation and biodiversity,
contributing to efforts to mitigate climate change.
The National Solar Mission, also known as the
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission,
launched in 2010, aims to create off-grid solar
applications with a capacity of 2 GW and 20 GW
solar grids (PM Gati Shakti). The National
Mission for a Green India, covering 2.1 lakh ha
(Economic Survey, 2022-23), focuses on
maintaining, restoring, and enhancing India’s
declining forest cover while adapting to climate
change through mitigation and adaptation
strategies (MOEF&CC, 2021). The National
Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
Change (NMSKCC) has established 12 Centers of
Excellence for climate change as of June 2021,
promoting research, knowledge generation, and
capacity building in climate science. The
‘National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan
Ecosystems’ (NMSHE) aims to understand the
complex processes affecting the Himalayan
Ecosystem and develop appropriate management
and policy measures for its preservation. It also
focuses on networking knowledge institutions
involved in research and creating a
comprehensive database on the Himalayan
Ecosystem. The National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture seeks to advance sustainable
agriculture through ten essential aspects,
including improved crop seeds, livestock, and fish
cultures, water use efficiency, pest management,
improved farm practices, nutrient management,
agricultural insurance, credit support, markets,
access to information, and livelihood
diversification.
Conclusions
The journey towards a sustainable future for
agriculture is rife with interconnected challenges
and promising solutions. The adverse impacts of
climate change, including heatwaves, floods, and
droughts, further complicate the landscape. In the
midst of these challenges, carbon farming
emerges as a beacon of hope. Beyond just storing
carbon in the soil, this regenerative farming
approach improves biodiversity, water quality,
and soil health. Carbon farming offers a holistic
solution towards a healthier planet and a more
resilient future, contributing positively to all 17
SDGs. Alongside boosting carbon sequestration,
practices like agroforestry, cover crops, and soil
carbon enhancement also increase agricultural
yields and bolster farmers’ livelihoods. Efforts to
reduce GHG emissions benefit significantly from
improved livestock management, optimized food
systems, and efficient water management.
Promoting ecological balance and reducing
chemical usage, natural and organic farming
methods play a significant role in sustainability.
The implementation of supportive policies is
crucial to incentivize farmers and encourage the
adoption of carbon farming practices. Recent
initiatives by the Ministries of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare and Environment, Forests, and
Climate Change demonstrate a commitment to
these goals. In conclusion, a collaborative effort
is imperative to transform agriculture into a
sustainable, carbon-sequestering industry. By
embracing innovative techniques, advocating for
supportive legislation, and empowering farmers,
we can unlock the vast potential of carbon
farming to nourish the planet, mitigate climate
change, and secure food for future generations
and overall faster meeting SDG goals in India.
Way forward
Holistic assessment of the entire GHG impact
within carbon-sequestering farming systems
is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of
soil carbon sequestration measures.
This assessment should encompass factors like
machinery usage, transportation, and
emissions associated with fertilizer
production.
Life-cycle analysis, as previously applied in
the context of biochar as a negative emission
strategy, are critical. These analysis becomes
particularly important when considering
nitrogen fertilizer use, which inherently
produces N2O emissions.
The approach that promote soil carbon
sequestration should involve a range of policies
and grassroot initiatives, including incentives
for farmers, societal standards, and actions to
encourage the adoption of carbon-sequestering
practices. It is important to recognize the
social, economic, and cultural challenges
associated with changing soil management
practices.
Agro-forestry: The land sector plays a pivotal
role in achieving a carbon-neutral economy by
sequestering carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. However, to promote the adoption
of environmentally friendly practices in
agriculture and forestry, there is a pressing
need for direct incentives.
Carbon credits and the establishment of
carbon banks: One approach to incentivize
farmers is to reward them through globally
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Rao et al.
tradable carbon credits. Additionally, the
establishment of carbon banks can facilitate
the purchase and sale of these credits from
farmers. These credits could then be made
available to corporations seeking to offset
their emissions.
Utilization of organic-carbon rich fertilizers
such as organo-mineral fertilizers: Fertilizers
with abundant organic carbon content, such
as compost and solid manure featuring
favourable carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratios,
undergo a slower carbon turnover compared
to other materials. It is imperative to
incorporate these fertilizers into the farming
system to enhance carbon retention.
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