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International Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences- ISSN (2522-6584) Nov & Dec 2024 Dec 31, 2024
December 31, 2024
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https://ijoabs.com/
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.14845355
Status of Underutilized Crops in Ethiopia: Opportunities, Challenges and Policy
Recommendations for Development of Underutilized Crops
Author’s Details:
Dhaba Mengesha and Bogale Ayana
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Holeta Agricultural Research Center, Holeta Ethiopia
The corresponding author email address: dhabaadula@gmail.com
Received Date: 19-Oct-2024 Accepted Date: 06-Dec-2024 Published Date: 31-Dec-2024
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
Underutilized crops are an important part of agro-biodiversity, and they have the potential to help poor rural
communities adapt to climate change, enhance food security, and gain food sovereignty. Despite increased
interest in research, they remain on the peripheries of the agricultural mainstream. Its main goal is to give
policy suggestions for supporting the production, conservation, and expanded use of underutilized crops for
improved food and livelihood security, particularly for Ethiopia's rural poor. A survey study and literature
analysis were used to assess the state of Ethiopia's underutilized crops in order to identify existing gaps,
opportunities, challenges, and potential future policy suggestions and guidelines. According to the study,
Ethiopia's food and agricultural legislation and policy frameworks allow certain opportunities for the
development and use of underutilized crops, but the majority of them do not support or favor these crop
products. From agricultural research, production, and extension to agricultural marketing and the country's
approach to food security, Ethiopia's policy planning is tilted towards promoting the large crops at the expense
of the rural poor people's crops—the underutilized crops. This is unfortunate because many Ethiopian
households, especially those in rural areas where the majority of the population resides, rely on these crops not
just for food and nutrition but also for income and overall stability. Reforming Ethiopia's food and agricultural
policy is also crucial to ensuring that underutilized crops are adequately supported in order to improve
Ethiopians' food and livelihood security, particularly in rural areas. It's crucial to identify underutilized crops
with the greatest potential for success and the ability to be incorporated into a variety of production or
cropping systems, as well as to prioritize them for future research, development, and innovation
Keywords: climate change; challenges; food and nutrition security; opportunities; sustainability
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
The modern agriculture system and recent technologies are promoting the production and productivity of high-
input and high-yielding crop species, with the intensification of a limited number of crop species, especially the
only cereal crops. This has led to a decline in crop diversity and a monotonous nutrition system in agricultural
systems across the world, which has been associated with a diminishing of nutrition diversity and a decline in
the regulatory services of the environment. Different agricultural and development programs were not focused
on analyzing local opportunities for the community’s livelihood based on local crop species and other local
agricultural resources; rather, orienting the production and farming systems toward high-input and only high
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yielding crops is the only option for uplifting the livelihoods of the farmers (John et al., 2006). Especially, the
cultivation and production of underutilized or neglected crops has declined and continues to decline all over the
world; even though such crops provide greater potential to improve the food and nutritional security of
communities. This is particularly important to ensure food and nutritional security for the current increasing
population in a world of limited resources (Hughes, 2008).
For developing countries, new approaches, strategies, and policies are important to ensure food and nutrition
security. These should be sustainable, resilient, and practical solutions to solve the food security problem in
drought-prone countries like Ethiopia. Given this context, crop diversity, especially neglected or underutilized
crops, is essential to addressing food and nutrition security and mitigating the impacts of climate change
(Mabhaudhi et al., 2019). They are nutrient-rich crops that demonstrate the potential for adaptation and
productions on several continents, reinforcing the importance of crop diversity in the face of food shortages and
climate change, which must be a priority in future, research (Manners, 2018).
It is instructive to note that the majority of the food insecure, hungry, poor and vulnerable Ethiopians live in
rural areas and depend on agriculture for food, income, and livelihood security. Part of the problem is that the
government, the private sector, and development partners often focus their efforts in the fight against food
insecurity and hunger on a few major crops that are considered important for food security (Regassa and
Management, 2011). They often ignore or give very little attention to underutilized crops such as mushrooms,
yams, indigenous fruits, and vegetables. Peter (2008), yet millions of Ethiopians in rural marginal areas rely on
these crops for their sustenance and livelihood security. If given the necessary policy attention, these crops have
great potential not only to improve the food and nutrition security of the people in rural areas but also to provide
and improve income opportunities for the most vulnerable in these areas, particularly the women and the youth.
It is from the above context that this paper sets out to examine Ethiopia’s agriculture and food security-related
policies and policy frameworks to provide recommendations that can be adopted to scale up the production and
use of underutilized crops in Ethiopia (Regassab and Management, 2011). The paper has three specific
objectives. First, it aims to identify the overall gaps or challenges concerning the production and utilization of
underutilized crops in Ethiopia. Second, it aims to identify the existing policy opportunities for promoting
underutilized crops in Ethiopia’s development. Finally, the paper provides policy recommendations or
guidelines that can be taken to support the production and wider use of underutilized crops in improving food
and income security in Ethiopia. Generally, the main objectives are to: assess the challenges and opportunities
for exploitation of the underutilized crops in Ethiopia; and develop a guideline (proposing recommendations)
for the promotion and development of underutilized crops in Ethiopia.
2. Underutilized Crops' Contribution to National Development
Underutilized crops are those that have a lot of promise for food production and development, but their potential
isn't properly acknowledged or exploited. Underutilized crops are also known as "minor crops," "neglected
species," "orphan crops," "underdeveloped species," and "underexploited species," among other terms
(Wenhold et al., 2007). They are referred to as "minor" crops or species since their commercial value of
production and trade is low in comparison to the main crops/species (Srivastava et al., 2017). The term
"neglected" refers to the fact that underutilized crops receive very little research and development attention in
comparison to major crops (Tadele, 2019). As a result, the vast majority of them are poorly characterized, with
little scientific information available about them. As a result, these crops are still "underutilized" in terms of
national development. One thing to keep in mind with underutilized crops is that they differ from one location
to the next (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). In Kenya and Rwanda, what may be an underutilized crop in Ethiopia or
elsewhere might become a big crop. Even within a single country, underutilized crops might vary from region
to region, however, several crops can be found in both.
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So, the necessity for Ethiopia to promote the production and use of underutilized crops can be justified for five
primary reasons. To begin with, the bulk of these crops and species are frequently farmed by impoverished
farmers and communities in marginal and fragile habitats such as dry lands and wetlands, which are not
conducive to the growth and production of more commonly used crops. The majority of underutilized crops are
resistant to harsh weather and environmental extremes. Underutilized crops are thus not "small crops" to many
farmers living in marginal locations. They are the foundation of their agricultural systems and are essential to
their livelihoods and food security. Given the current threat of climate change and its implications for food and
agricultural output, boosting underutilized crops is a key policy option for guaranteeing food and livelihood
security for the poor rural masses living in marginal areas.
Second, there is mounting evidence that many underutilized crops are extremely nutritious, providing several
nutrients and other health benefits that far outnumber those provided by mainstream crops (Ebert, 2014).
Promoting the production and greater use of these crops should therefore be a vital part of the government's
efforts to combat malnutrition, as well as malnutrition-related diseases and fatalities, which, as mentioned
earlier, are highly common in Ethiopia. Third, unlike main crops, underutilized crops require fewer pesticide
and fertilizer inputs. Many underutilized crops, in fact, are pest and disease resistant. This means that rural poor
farmers can grow neglected crops at a low cost and in a long-term manner. Given the terrible cycle of poverty
that the majority of Ethiopia's farmers are trapped in, this is crucial.
Fourth, underutilized crops provide a significant source of income and empowerment, particularly for women,
who are the primary cultivators. There is evidence that a large percentage of Ethiopia's underutilized crops
make it to market, particularly in the geographical areas where they are farmed (Gebreselassie, 2006). Given
that agriculture is the primary source of income for individuals living in rural regions and that women farm the
majority of underutilized crops, these crops are a vital source of income and empowerment for vulnerable
women. Promoting underutilized crops can thus be a useful policy tool in the fight against poverty and women's
empowerment.
Over and above the aforementioned advantages, underutilized crops are vital not just for the preservation of
agricultural biodiversity, but also for the long-term sustainability of food and agricultural production. The
general decline and erosion of Ethiopia's underutilized crops/species (due to neglect) could erode the genetic
foundation and impede the utilization of specific valuable features in agricultural adaptation and improvement.
This would be miserable, especially given Ethiopia's rapid population expansion, which requires additional food
and income-generating activities for the country's overall survival, not to mention the threat of climate change,
which could make today's major crops unsustainable. Underutilized crops must therefore be promoted as a
primary means of preserving and conserving agricultural biodiversity for current and future generations.
2.1 Factors Influencing the Promotion and Development of Underutilized Crops
Technological and scientific supports for the big crops (e.g., maize, rice, wheat, and potato), large-scale
adoption of monocultures, as well as economic incentives for select crops, have to a great extent stalled the
adoption of crop diversification. Global attention is increasingly shifting towards sustainable agricultural
systems (Samberg et al., 2016). However, as the prevalence of smallholders varies between Africa, Asia, and
Latin America, so do the farming practices and dimensions of rural poverty. This should be a key consideration
in developing policies and technologies that improve productivity and uplift the rural poor more effectively
(Kassie et al., 2018).
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2.1.1 Resources and Knowledge Systems
Large-scale cultivation of the big crops generated significant emphasis on the research of these main crops, such
as on disease infection and resistance patterns (Mustafa et al., 2019). Consequently, it results in neglecting the
study of underutilized crops and their role within their communities (Cheng et al., 2019). The domestication and
introduction of underutilized crops will be largely influenced by our current knowledge of these crops. Crop
improvement programs are dependent on the availability of knowledge on the variability within germplasm
collections (Ahmad et al., 2016).
This disparity in our available knowledge can even be seen in the research carried out on the agronomic
practices of crop production as well as its response to climate change. Agronomic practices of underutilized
crops remain understudied, while rapid developments in the fields of precision agriculture of major crops have
been witnessed that allow for optimizing irrigation and chemical input (Mayes et al., 2019). Dedicated models
have been established for forecasting cropping outcomes under various climate change scenarios, such as
CERES-wheat and CERES-rice (Lin, 2011; Lin et al., 2017). These models are very powerful, with the ability
to estimate various climate change scenarios as well as different agricultural farming systems, yet very little has
been done on studying the response of underutilized crops (Karunaratne et al., 2014).
Nonetheless, the availability of general information might not always be a limiting factor in the adoption of crop
diversification systems. In a study by Mango et al. (2018), greater access to general information and an increase
in years of farming experience were found to be inversely related to the adoption of diversification systems,
with a 29.7% and 5.5% decrease, respectively, in the probability of adopting diversification reported.
Alternatively, a positive relationship was reported between land size holding and the adoption of crop
diversification (Mango et al., 2018).
2.1.2 Technology
The advancement of technologies has been specifically targeted towards the big crops, with little relevance to
the variety of other crops available. Molecular technologies generated significant data on the main crops, such
as gene expression under abiotic stresses (Bonthala et al., 2016). Unfortunately, these technologies such as
microarrays have yet to be developed for the research of underutilized crops. However, through the adoption of
other technologies such as Next Generation Sequencing, the available knowledge on the main crops can be
integrated to generate data on underutilized crops (Mayes et al., 2019).
Technologies can play a pivotal role in reducing rural poverty by improving resilience and closing the potential
yield gap. This requires broader investment in agricultural research as well as policy support to allow for more
effective research uptake and technology adoption by the communities (Kassie et al., 2018). Moreover, for
agricultural research to be beneficial to the rural poor, it must be demand-driven and consider the structural
differences between farming communities across different continents.
2.1.3 Farming Systems
Modern agricultural systems are increasingly dependent on monoculture farming systems that constantly require
external input and infrastructure (Altieri and Sustainability, 1999). These systems generally view the integration
of biodiversity as a competition for resources, hindering productivity (Kremen et al., 2012). Large-scale
adoption of such farming systems has contributed to improved biomass production but at an expensive
environmental cost. Such systems reduce biodiversity while degrading natural resources, resulting in soil
erosion and increased run-off from chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
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The mechanization of farming practices reduces labor costs and time but is only effective when single crops of
uniform variety are cultivated, as activities such as planting, irrigation, and harvesting can be carried out
uniformly (Lin, 2011). This development has brought about a scale-up in crop production and stability in food
prices in the short term, becoming the norm for modern agricultural practices. As long as national and global
interests remain solely focused on increasing immediate output, rather than on the functionality, and well-being
of the agro-ecosystem, such practices will continue to take precedence over sustainable agricultural farming
systems. Food sovereignty is negatively impacted by national policies that focus on yield, discouraging the
cultivation of local crops that are more adapted to the regional climate and less susceptible to global economic
impacts (Kijima et al., 2011). Such policies that emphasize intensification and the use of external farming
inputs disadvantage smallholder farmers and show little regard for the local needs of the community (Sisifa et
al., 2016).
Smallholder farms account for 30% of the global agricultural sphere, playing a key role in sustaining the food
needs of vulnerable populations (Samberg et al., 2016). These systems tend to adopt sustainable cropping
systems that support social, economic, and environmental needs (Samberg et al., 2016). It is a carefully planned
approach that considers the functional biodiversity and biotic interactions of the system. Thus, they are capable
of coexisting with threatened and marginal landscapes, maximizing the benefits of ecosystem services for a
productive and sustainable agricultural system (Kremen et al., 2012).
2.1.4 Investment and Financial Support
National economic incentives have shown a longstanding preference towards monoculture farming systems,
with government subsidies made available to select main crops. As an example, the United States offers
subsidies for the cultivation of rice, wheat, maize, soybeans, and cotton (Lin, 2011). According to Boody et al.
(2009), 89% of the agricultural subsidies in 1995–2002 were allocated to the cultivation of these crops, with
maize and soybean receiving 56% of the subsidies. Moreover, maximizing production of single crops is further
encouraged by these subsidies that are allocated based on the acreage of crops farmed.
The US is not alone in the adoption of such policies. African governments have also placed significant effort
into enhancing agricultural productivity by developing subsidy programs for specific crops, particularly maize
(Saenz and Thompson, 2017). The Zambian government recently acknowledged the impact of this policy on
increasing production risk due to increased specialization in input-dependent crops (Sisifa et al., 2016).
Similarly, Sri Lanka’s national emphasis on rice has encouraged its farmers to focus on the cultivation of this
water-intensive crop in a region that has suffered numerous drought spells with the advent of climate change
(Mustafa et al., 2019). With no subsidies available for other less-water-demanding crops, households will
continue to struggle with the cultivation of rice.
The liberalization of agricultural policies and markets means that farmers are now exposed to global
fluctuations in produce prices, regardless of domestic conditions (Pellegrini and Tasciotti, 2014; Dawson et. al.,
2016). Thus, small farmers producing global crops struggle to compete with large producers in the global
market, with cheap imported grains flooding the local market. Crop diversification addresses this challenge and
minimizes the external influences of the big players, encouraging small farmers to produce diverse crops for
their local market. However, this external influence is encroaching on the lands of smallholders due to the
increasing acquisition of farmland by foreign investors.
3. Conceptual Framework
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Consolidating previous activities, establishing new objectives that accommodate specific NUS with potential,
and ensuring that future research targets all parts of the stakeholders and the value chain are all significant goals
of the policy and plan. Prioritization and research are universally accepted as essential components of any
effective and cohesive strategic plan for the development of this sector. Priority setting on the research,
challenges, and opportunities can be considered as a process of determining actions that provide the most value
and have the best chances of success for NUS development in the framework of this strategy. Prioritization and
research efforts harmonize activities that will allow NUS to be mainstreamed into current farming and cropping
systems. Prioritization of opportunities and challenges should (i) manage all resources appropriately (Kassie et
al.) allow for research and farming system development, (iii) enhance stakeholder involvement Mabhaudhi et
al. (2017) allow the use of beneficial technologies and (iii) Enhance the market development and value chain.
These characteristics align with Figure 1's six-step priority-setting approach and the establishment of guidelines
or policy recommendations for the NUS development plan.
Figure 1: Concepts of strategies recommendation for the development and promotion of underutilized crops in
Ethiopia (Source: Developed by student researcher from a literature review and own understanding, 2021)
4. Research Approaches
4.1. Description of the Study Area
GutoGida is one of the woredas in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia. It is part of the East Wollega Zone. It is
bounded by Wayu Tuka in the east, Sasiga and Diga in the west, Gida Ayana and Gudaya Bila in the north, and
Leka Dulacha to the south. Mixed agriculture is the major livelihood strategy in the study area. In this system
crop and livestock production prevails. The cereals crop production is the common farming system of Rain-fed
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maize, sorghum, millet, and teff are the main sources of food in the farming system while sesame and niger seed
are mostly grown for market.
There are also mixed cropping practices in some of the study areas that include: Maize + haricot bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris), Maize +pumpkin (Cucurbite maxima), Maize+ Cabbage (Birassicaoleracea), Maize) +
Sweet potato + Anchote + Oromo Dinich + Taro in mid highland of the study area. However, there is a limited
production of underutilized and neglected crops such as DinnichaOromoo (Coleus edulis), Anchote, sweet
potato, Taro, Mungbeans, some Legume crops, Amaranths, some leaf vegetables, some pulses, Pumpkins, Inset,
Millet and Forest products crops in the household of the study area (Negasa, 2013).
In GutoGida district, there is a concentration of neglected and underutilized crops and there is a crop production
type variation among the farmers. Wollega Zones are identified as historically important farming regions with a
considerable amount of underutilized root crops (Desta, 2010). GutoGida district will be purposely selected for
this study since it belongs to the east Wollega zone where many farming regions of underutilized crops could be
observed.
4.2. Research Design
For the study's outcome investigations, a combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches was
applied. The paper is largely based on a desk review and survey interview of the relevant policy frameworks
and other limiting factors connected to it. It was focused on identifying the policy gaps or challenges regarding
promoting underutilized crops in Ethiopia, identifying the major existing policy opportunities for promoting
underutilized crops in Ethiopia, and suggesting policy recommendations for promoting underutilized crops.
Overall, this paper is a review and survey study that focuses on identifying opportunities and challenges for the
development and promotion of underutilized crops in Ethiopia and other African countries, and possible
recommendations for promoting underutilized crops are suggested. The current paper provides more specific
analyses of Ethiopia and other East African countries. A mixed-methods review approach, which included
combining quantitative and qualitative research or outcomes, was used to compile the review. Emphasis was
placed on the use of literature from Ethiopia and other African countries, with limited comparisons to
international literature; this allowed for an assessment of local knowledge relative to international knowledge on
neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS). Articles were identified through searches on Google Scholar
databases for the period from 2000 to August 2021. In addition, the professional interview of stakeholders was
undertaken in the GutoGida district of the East Wollega zone of Ethiopia.
4.3. Sampling and Data Collection Technique
The identification of study literature relevant to Ethiopian underutilized or indigenous agricultural species was
prioritized. The keywords or words often used to refer to underutilized crops in Ethiopia and other East African
nations were initially found using an online literature search. (i) underutilized crops, Kassie et al. (2018)
indigenous crops, (iii) traditional crops, and (v) neglected crops were found as the four most frequently and
generally used phrases. This terminology search was based on the findings of the initial research (Joshi et al.,
2020). Google and Google Scholar, Science Direct, and Springer Link search engines were used to conduct
online searches. Articles about Ethiopia were of particular interest, and other African nation literature was used
to narrow down the results.
Primary data was obtained from the study area population and agricultural officials for the opportunities and
challenges for the development and promotion of underutilized crops were collected from the selected
households and agricultural officers’ interviews were conducted focusing on the determinant factories for the
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development of underutilized crops. A semi-structured questionnaire was utilized to collect quantitative data
from household heads in three Kebeles: Abdeta, Nagassa, and Qitesa, to generate primary data. A total of 18
key informant households were chosen for the survey (12 male-headed households and 6 female-headed
households). A survey of underutilized crop producers and non-producers was undertaken once. To obtain
primary data, the study used a home questionnaire survey, focus groups, and key informant interviews.
4.4. Data Analysis Techniques
An analysis of variance was performed on the data. SPSS was used for the statistical analysis. The SPSS Least
Significant Difference (LSD) with a significance level of 5% was used to separate the means. The coefficients
of variation were calculated using the means, standard errors, and least significant differences (LSD) (Singh et
al., 1997). To determine the relationship between all parameters, a linear correlation was used. The SPSS
computer software package was used to evaluate the quantitative data gathered mostly from household surveys.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Overview of Farming and Cropping Systems in Ethiopia and Other African Countries
Ethiopian farming and cropping practices are largely influenced by the agro-ecological zone in which they are
located. According to agroecological zones developed by MOA and EIAR, the country may be categorized into
three agroecological zones based on altitude and temperature averages: low land, mid-high land, and high land
production zones. As a result, the discussion on farming and cropping systems will concentrate on their
suitability for smallholder farmers in mid-highland and highland climates.
Smallholder populations consume a variety of NUS, including cereals, legumes, root and tuber vegetables, and
leafy greens. The short growing season, high nutrient content, low agronomic requirements, drought resistance,
unique and acquired taste, and abundance in the wild have all contributed to the appeal of leafy vegetables, also
known as African Leafy Vegetables (ALVs) (Mustafa et al., 2019). In East African countries, there are more
than 42 NUS documented in use (Modi and Mabhaudhi, 2014). The diversity of NUS was found to be higher in
the mid-high land zone, where they are harvested, grown, and traded in informal markets. The potential of NUS
under water scarcity in lowland and mid-highland areas has previously been established (Chivenge et al., 2015).
Because most NUS are resistant to a variety of environmental stress conditions, they should be promoted in
agricultural-producing areas with limited resources. Their huge genetic pool represents a significant subset of
agro-biodiversity, hence promoting landscape diversity in remote locations (Galluzzi et al., 2010). NUS
promotion in smallholder communities should not aim to replace current major crops; rather, it should focus on
diversifying current cropping systems to reduce the current global cropping system, which is characterized by
low agro-biodiversity, with only five crops accounting for more than 60% of daily calorific intake (maize,
wheat, rice, potato, and sorghum). Through increased food options, availability, and access, there is a clear link
between high agro-biodiversity and food and nutrition security (Kumar et al., 2015). As a result, enhanced agro-
biodiversity, as a result of NUS promotion, can improve food options, resulting in improved food sovereignty
and livelihoods for smallholder communities. The role of NUS in Ethiopia and other African households' food
consumption patterns is highly diverse and is influenced by characteristics such as economic status, degree of
urbanization, distance to fresh produce markets, and time of year (Ng’endo et al., 2016). It could be argued that
consumption of NUS has always been a livelihood strategy by smallholder farmers located in marginal areas.
5.2. Production Status of NUS in Ethiopia
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By 2030, Ethiopia's population is predicted to grow to 145.5 million Benson et al. (2005), and the proportion of
the population suffering from malnutrition will rise. To address this issue, more than a 45% increase in food
production is needed (Ketema, 1993). Expanding the area under cultivation, breeding for new high-producing
varieties, and improving resource efficiency are all suggested strategies for enhancing agricultural production.
Ethiopia possesses unused land, mostly in rural areas, but agriculture is hampered by a lack of water. As a
result, the focus on resource efficiency has shifted to enhancing water efficiency. Emphasis on production
diversification using underutilized crops is a possible option that could be pursued to boost agricultural yield
and production sustainability. They can (i) increase the amount of area under cultivation; Kassie et al. (2018)
diversify crop varieties for future sustainable production; and (iii) improve resource utilization efficiency (land
and water). The underutilization of NUS presents an opportunity for the creation of new value chains to
promote rural agriculture development and food security. The research value chain, which includes
breeding/crop enhancement, production, agro-processing, and marketing, can help achieve this.
5.3. Ethiopia's Underutilized Crop Promotion Status and Policy Gaps
Although Ethiopia's agricultural and food security policies unquestionably encourage the production, protection,
and use of underutilized crops in national development, the majority of them do not. Ethiopia's policy planning
is often not supportive of the role of underutilized crops in national development, from agricultural research,
production, and extension to agricultural marketing and the country's approach to food security. In terms of the
production, conservation, and use of underutilized crops, this section emphasizes the inadequacies in Ethiopia's
agricultural and food security policy.
Starting with agricultural production and marketing, Ethiopia has started to follow a zonal agricultural
production, agro-processing, and marketing policy in recent years, in which the country has been divided into
zones of production excellence (Gebreselassie, 2006). Climate variances, socioeconomic traits, and the need for
sufficient land under production for selected high-value companies were all used to map out the zones. The
enterprises for each zone were chosen based on factors such as product availability and accessibility to regional
and international markets; product competitiveness and Ethiopia's comparative advantage; product profitability;
zone potential to produce targeted products on a long-term basis; and production, processing, and marketing
constraints.
Ethiopia's export plan does not include the promotion of underutilized crops for national growth. Although it
calls for broadening Ethiopia's exports to include a wide range of items (Moreda, 2017), it focuses on the
traditional key crops that are already in demand on the international market for agricultural exports.
5.4. Challenges and Opportunities for Full Utilization of Underutilized Crops in Ethiopia
Following the exercise in developing and promoting underutilized crops, various open-ended questioners, group
discussions, key informant interviews, and personal observations from the study area, district, and zone
agricultural offices were used to assess the challenges, barriers, and opportunities for all activities and
development opportunities. On the general obstacles and prospects of implementing underutilized crops, 15
informant persons from households, professionals, and officers were interviewed, as well as six group
discussions and eight key informant interviews. The primary goal was to identify the major issues for NUS in
terms of research, development, and innovation, which would serve as a road map for future national promotion
and funding. Second, to find ways to promote and grow the contribution of these underutilized crops in such a
way that the national development plan and food security challenges are addressed.
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The challenges identified were lack of awareness, institutional and organizational involvement, limited sources
of funding, limited sources of production materials, lack of emphasis from concerned bodies, farmers'
adaptation to crop diversification, and limited firm policies and strategies on the development and promotion of
crop diversification (Fig. 4.4). On the other hand, the characteristics of its opportunities were identified: it is
easily produced in a small area of land, easily cultivated in local materials, has a short maturity stage, has a high
productive or yield potential, is drought and stress tolerant, contains dense and good nutrition value, has high
demand and high market value, has high social and cultural value, and creates job opportunities (Fig 2).
5.4.1. Challenges
According to the results of this survey, the most problematic problems for professionals, offices, and even
farmers themselves are a lack of firm development and promotion policies and strategies for crop diversification
with underutilized crops (Fig. 2). The most challenging problem in the research area as well as the country was
the lack of government attention to the farming system, particularly crop diversification. According to the
findings of this study, government policies, plans, and follow-up concentrated solely on cereal crop production
and a specialized agricultural system rather than crop diversification. Furthermore, 71 percent of respondents
said that a lack of production resources, such as improved and readily available seed and other inputs was one
of the most difficult problems in this region (Fig. 2). The greatest challenge in this area, according to 50% of
respondents, is a lack of awareness and excellent information about the overall implementation of crop
diversity.
Furthermore, as this result demonstrates, the lack of participation of various institutions and organizations, as
well as a lack of financing sources for the development of this field, is another problematic issue in the research
area as well as for the country. The promotion of NUS policy and strategy can only be successful if it is backed
up by, linked to, and connected with international, regional, and national policies (RISDP, 2015). The National
Integrated Growth and Development Planning (IGDP) (2010), the National Department of Agriculture,
Forestry, and Fisheries (DAFF) Strategic Plan for 2016–2020, the National Food Security Production
Programme, and the National Policy on Food and Nutrition Security are all aligned with the high-yielding crops
promotion strategy (2014). All of these programs emphasize the importance of increasing smallholder
participation in mainstream agriculture and the adoption of sustainable farming techniques to promote food and
nutrition security in households.
As a result, NUCS presents a unique opportunity for the agriculture industry to capitalize on to combat food
insecurity among indigenous or rural communities. NUCS's role in resolving the food insufficiency crisis has
been validated in several research studies, including Nyadanu et al. (2014) and Magbagbeola et al. (2010). In
terms of resources being scarce and providing competitive advantages, NUCS have some unique agronomic
qualities that allow them to survive in a variety of ecological niches and adverse conditions such as poor soils
and drought (Chivenge et al., 2015). NUCS can also be used as a backup crop if the main crop fails or is
unavailable, according to Mabhaudhi et al. (2011). NUCS are likewise one-of-a-kind and non-replaceable.
Although NUCS can be found in both tropical and temperate climates, their function and significance are not
widely recognized in many nations (; FAO, 2010; Padulosi et al., 2013). As a result of the preceding debates, it
is clear that Ethiopia's agricultural sector has not completely exploited NUCS as a plant resource, and that it
requires immediate attention.
There is now a scarcity of information on the growth, development, nutritional value, and economic impact of
neglected and indigenous crops. When such material does exist, it is frequently hidden away in indigenous
knowledge systems and other ancient literature that is difficult to access. Furthermore, there has been little
coordination on NUCS-related investigations, both on a regional and international basis. Because of the lack of
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coordination and uniformity of an umbrella word, there is little information available in search of
environmental, food, and nutritional security, as well as the economic impact on NUCS (Amsalu et. al., 2008).
Fig 2: Challenges in underutilized crop production and promotion in Guto Gida district (Source: Computed
from authors' field survey, 2021)
5.4.1.1. Policy Gaps
According to the results of this poll, existing policies do not expressly recognize NUS as a feasible option for
attaining policy goals. To integrate NUS into mainstream agriculture, the existing institutional and policy
environment must acknowledge the prospects for rural economic development that NUS provides. The results
of a targeted research survey on identified and priority NUS, as well as demonstrated successes, will be used to
develop a policy framework that (i) encourages a stable and underutilized crop and regulatory environment for
NUS, and Kassie et al. (2018) encourages a stable and underutilized crop and regulatory environment for NUS.
Kassie et al. (2018) support NUS capacity development, (iii) offer appropriate financial and material support for
NUS RDI, and Mabhaudhi et al. (2019) encourage NUS to innovate in agro-processing technology. (John et al.)
administration of resources, knowledge, and culture (v) increasing stakeholder involvement Mabhaudhi et al.
(2019) managing the market and value chain Increased access to empirical data on NUS could be used to push
for existing policies to be updated and/or strengthened so that they are explicit about the importance of
Ethiopian agro-biodiversity—NUS. For example, the strategic grain reserves system, which now prioritizes
maize and wheat, may be changed to include a larger range of underutilized crops and the cereals and legume
crops already mentioned. Through the formal acknowledgment of a broader selection of crops, such inclusion
50 44 48 56
71
84
35
26
97
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
% of respondents
List of challenges
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would likewise address dietary diversity. Another example is ensuring that cross-cutting issues like the water-
energy-food nexus, poverty, unemployment-inequality nexus, water-food-nutrition-health nexus, and
agriculture-environment-health nexus are mainstreamed into new policies now being developed. NUS could
become more widely recognized for the various functions that they can perform as a result of this
mainstreaming.
5.4. 2. Opportunities for Promoting Underutilized Crops in Ethiopia
Various prospects for the promotion and growth of underused crop production have been reported or observed
in the Guto Gida district, as well as in Ethiopia. The survey found that there is favorable production land and
human power, that there is good/dense nutritional value, that there is high demand and high market value, that
there is high social and cultural value, that it is safe for the environment, that it is tolerant to drought and stress
conditions, that it is high productivity, that it is produced with local materials on a small area of land, and that it
creates job opportunities for all members of the household (Fig 3). NUCS have been demonstrated to have an
essential role in the promotion of local livelihood, nutrition, and food security among indigenous groups in
several studies conducted in remote parts of emerging countries (Baa-Poku, 2019). NUCS has been recorded as
a source of food and medicine throughout Asia and the Pacific countries, like India, Nepal, Malaysia, and the
Philippines. NUCS is also widely used in Sub-Saharan African countries like Malawi, Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire,
Uganda, and Zimbabwe (Padulosi et al., 2013; FAO, 2010). Interest in NUS stems from a variety of concerns
and needs, including their contribution to agricultural diversification, better use of marginal land and changing
environments, food security and a more balanced diet, better safeguarding of our agro-biodiversity and
associated cultural heritage, agricultural system self-sufficiency, an additional source of income for farmers, and
job opportunities (Padulosi, 1998a).
There are calls for a paradigm shift in agriculture, with non-traditional pathways such as underutilized crops
(NUS) being explored as potential future crops (Massawe et al., 2015). This is based on findings that NUS is
adaptable to a variety of agroecologies, is nutrient-dense, and offers greater chances in low-yielding locations
(Mayes et al., 2012; Chivenge et al., 2015). As a result, their promotion in marginal agricultural production
areas may increase rural people's availability and access to nutritious food (Gahukar, 2015). Their promotion in
rural regions could also lead to the development of new value chains, which could lead to rural economic
development (Mabhaudhi et al., 2016a, 2017).
Importantly, NUS, which contains crop wild cousins, is a valuable source of germplasm for future crop
advances such as nutritional value and abiotic and biotic stress tolerance (Castaeda-Alvarez et al., 2016).
Underutilized crops are an important part of local culture, are used in traditional food preparations, and are the
focus of current culinary revival trends; they have advantages over staple crops in that they have been adapted
to stressful environments and can be grown with low input and biological techniques (Mayes et al., 2011).
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Fig 3: Opportunities for underutilized crop production and promotion (Source: Computed from authors' field
survey, 2021)
A closer look at some of Ethiopia's food and agricultural policies and policy frameworks suggests that there is
some potential to boost the production and use of underutilized crops in the country's development. Ethiopian
Food and Nutrition Policy is one such policy framework (EFNP). The EFNP's main goals include: ensuring the
availability, accessibility, and affordability of food in sufficient quantities and quality to meet the dietary needs
of individuals in a sustainable manner; promoting good nutrition for the entire population; and ensuring the
availability, accessibility, and affordability of food in sufficient quantities and quality to meet the dietary needs
of individuals sustainably and ensuring food and income security at all levels for improving the nutrition as well
as the socio-economic status of the population (Burchi et al., 2011). The ENFP framework intends to stimulate
and diversify the production of food commodities to meet the nutritional needs of households as one of the key
ways of attaining its objectives (Capone et al., 2014). It might be argued that diversifying food commodities to
meet the dietary and nutritional needs of households, particularly those in rural and marginal areas, necessitates
promoting underutilized crop production and consumption. The ENFP also expressly mentions the necessity to
plan and conduct sensitization programs to popularize the production and use of under-exploited food crops to
broaden the food base as a major approach for promoting and diversifying food commodity production (Garnett,
2013). This is a crucial policy statement that can be used to persuade the government to support the production
and use of underused crops for national development.
The National Biotechnology and Biosafety Policy is another key policy framework that allows for the
conservation, development, and utilization of underused crops (NBBP). Through the safe application of
biotechnology, this policy framework aims to contribute to the national development goals of poverty
eradication, improved healthcare, food security, industrialization, and environmental protection (Mtui and
Reviews, 2011). The enhancement of biodiversity conservation and utilization is one of the key priority areas
for this policy framework. The use of biotechnology to characterize indigenous plants to assess their economic
potential for biotechnology applications is one of the ways to reach this goal (Penner, 2011). Because one of the
major reasons for the underutilization and non-competitiveness of underutilized crops is a lack of or insufficient
78
62
45
57
89
65
82
69
98
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Easily
produced in
small area
of land
Easily
cultivated in
local
materials
Have short
maturity
stage
Have great
productive
or yield
potential
Ability to
tolerant
drought and
stress
conditions
Consist
dense
nutrition
and good
for health
Have high
demand and
high market
value
Have high
social and
cultural
value
Favarable
lands and
human
power
% of respondents
Opportunities
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scientific information about their potential value, using biotechnology to characterize these crops and assess
their economic potential is a critical opportunity for promoting their production and use in national
development.
(NEMP) (Amsalu et al., 2014) also offer significant prospects for encouraging underutilized crops in the
country's growth. The NEMP strives to secure the conservation and sustainable management of Ethiopia's
biological diversity, among other things. It proposes a variety of actions in this regard, including the
enactment/reactivation of legislation to ensure the conservation of Ethiopian biodiversity in its broadest sense
(Kassa, 2017). Biodiversity should be considered at the species, genetic, and ecosystem levels, according to one
of the policy guiding principles. Although the NEMP does not directly include underutilized crops, it is clear
that the generalized nature of its declarations and methods includes underutilized crops and their various
species. From this perspective, the NEMP presents significant prospects for the conservation of Ethiopia's
underutilized crop genetic diversity.
The National Agricultural Research Policy is another important agricultural-related policy framework that
offers some options for promoting neglected crops. ―To empower farmers by including them in defining and
prioritizing their research needs and acquiring agricultural research services while technically and
professionally advising them to make informed choices,‖ says one of the policy framework's main goals. All
farmers, particularly the poorest rural farmers, will be able to explain their research needs, including those
linked to the cultivation of underutilized crops if they are adequately empowered.
6. Towards the Promotion of Ethiopia's Underutilized Crops
In addition to taking advantage of the opportunities given by the various policy instruments, as summarized in
section 5 above, the following policy initiatives are recommended to promote and support the protection,
production, and wider use of Ethiopia's underutilized crops.
6.1.Invest in Underutilized Crops Scientific Research and Innovation
One of the most important concerns in promoting underutilized crops is the need to enhance investment in
scientific research and innovation. Scientific study and innovation are critical in determining their potential
value, increasing their production capacity, and preserving their genetic resources. Underutilized crops deserve
considerable attention in terms of scientific study and innovation, given their relevance in national development.
It is advised that the government establish and sufficiently support a dedicated program focusing on scientific
research and innovation for Ethiopia's underutilized crops to ensure that underutilized crops receive the essential
research attention.
6.2. Ensure that the Public Extension System is maintained and improved
It was suggested that Ethiopia's policy, which advocates for a market-driven, private-sector-led agricultural
extension and advisory services system, cannot meet the needs of poor farmers in marginal and fragile areas,
where the majority of underutilized crops are farmed. Because underused crops play such an essential role in
national development, the government should sustain and improve the public agricultural extension system to
meet the requirements of the rural poor who have fostered and continue to raise them.
6.3.Strengthen the seed system for underutilized crops
Seed is the most significant and first input in any crop production chain and any agricultural production system
in general. Ethiopia's government should address the seed needs of farmers farming underused crops as part of
its ongoing seed policy formulation process. Protection and promotion of farmers' rights to guarantee the
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farmers' right to save and exchange seed, among other things; strengthening farmers' capacities in seed
multiplication to improve the quality of seeds produced; and facilitating the development of local seed
distribution networks are some of the measures that the government can take in this regard. The policy and
strategy should also encourage public-private partnerships in the provision of enhanced seed to agricultural
production areas that are marginal or isolated.
6.4.Invest in the Preservation and Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Culture
Many of Ethiopia's agricultural and food security strategies are unsupportive of underutilized crops. Many of
them stimulate the displacement and replacement of underutilized crops with more competitive and marketable
ones. As a result of this process, and as farmers with vital information about these crops continue to die,
traditional knowledge and culture about underutilized crops are in grave danger of eroding and disappearing.
Not only for the rural farmers who raise these crops but also for general scientific studies on crop development,
traditional knowledge, and common culture linked with underutilized crops are extremely essential.
Government investment in documentation is one of the most important ways to preserve and protect traditional
knowledge linked with underused crops from extinction. In this context, the government should provide
appropriate funding to the Plant Genetic Resources Centre so that it can properly carry out its crucial mission.
6.5. Incorporate underutilized crops into the agricultural production, processing, and marketing
strategies.
The Zonal Agricultural Production, Agro-processing, and Marketing Strategy should be updated to intentionally
bring underutilized crops on board as a crucial measure to encourage the production and wider use of
underutilized crops. The underused crops that are to be included do not have to meet all of the criteria that were
used to select the firms. It should be sufficient to say that they are regarded as extremely important by the local
populations in terms of ensuring their food and nutrition security as well as providing them with cash. It is
recommended that in each of the zones of production excellence, at least model underutilized crops of major
food and income security importance should be brought on board to support their production, agro-processing,
and marketing.
6.6.Underutilized crops should be included in the national export strategy.
The National Export Strategy should be updated to intentionally include some of Ethiopia's underutilized crops
to promote the greater utilization of underutilized crops for increased earnings for the rural poor. Initially, the
strategy should focus on increasing demand for these crops/species and their products in neighboring nations
with comparable consumer tastes. In neighboring countries like Southern Sudan and Kenya, there is already a
growing demand for Ethiopia's food products. As a result, Ethiopia should take advantage of this chance to
export some of its underutilized commodities.
6.7. Adopt and put the Draft National Policy on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture into
effect.
Many solid measures are included in the National Policy on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture,
which, if adopted and effectively implemented, can help to promote the protection, development, and use of
underutilized crops. Surveying and inventorying Ethiopia's, especially those for underutilized crops; developing
community gene banks; developing orthodox seed conservation facilities; and developing the ability to
assemble neglected, threatened, and underutilized species are just a few of these methods. The strategies also
include the creation of a sui generis to protect traditional knowledge relevant to PGRFA, as well as the support
and promotion of public awareness about the value of traditional crops and traditional and indigenous
knowledge systems related to the conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA, the adoption of incentive
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Page 16
measures to promote crop diversification, and the development of a sui generis to protect traditional knowledge
relevant to PGRFA. In this context, the government is being urged to expedite the adoption of the national
policy on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
7. Conclusion
For a long time, government policy has primarily focused on increasing the production and consumption of
major crops. With Ethiopia's present agricultural and food security strategies and policy frameworks, this is still
the case, according to this paper. Despite government support and investment in main crops, many Ethiopians,
particularly the rural poor, have been unable to secure food and livelihoods. It is now time for government
policy to pay attention to the underutilized crops of the poor. Underutilized crops have the ability to improve
not just food and nutrition security but also income-generating opportunities, all of which are crucial for
improving the livelihood security of Ethiopia's rural poor if given the required policy assistance. The
government can take some policy actions to encourage the conservation, production, and greater use of
underused crops, as outlined in this study.
The government must go beyond the economic considerations of underutilized crops when supporting them.
The importance of these crops in ensuring food and nutrition security for Ethiopia's rural poor, who make up the
majority of the country's population; their role in preserving and increasing biodiversity, which is essential for
sustainable environmental management and agricultural production; and their adaptability to marginal
environments and ability to stabilize fragile environments are all important considerations. In any event, many
of Ethiopia's underutilized crops have significant commercial potential both nationally and internationally if
given the necessary policy assistance in the fields of agricultural research, extension, agro-processing, and
marketing. Now is the moment to invest in our rural poor's crops to ensure their food and livelihood security.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the Center for Food Security Studies of Addis Ababa University for facilitating all
the activities of this research work, and Dr. Kassaye Tolessa and Dr. Dirba Gelete from the Food Science and
Nutrition Research Program of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research are acknowledged for initiating,
funding, and directing this survey or project for developing a research agenda for promoting underutilized,
indigenous, and traditional crops.
Declarations
Author Contribution Statement
Dhaba Mengesha Adula: conceived and designed the experiments; performed the survey; analyzed and
interpreted the data; wrote the paper.
Bogale Ayana analyzed and interpreted the data; wrote the paper.
Funding Statement
The present research has been supported by the Addis Ababa University and Ethiopian Agricultural Research
Institute.
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available on request.
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December 31, 2024
Page 17
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no conflict of interest
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