Determinants of academic performance of armed forces schools: perceptions of teachers of Ghana armed forces basic schools

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the determinants of academic performance in armed forces basic schools from the perspectives of teachers in Ghana Armed Forces basic schools. The study was underpinned by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and McGregor’s Theories X and Y. A concurrent mixed method approach was used, allowing the authors to utilise both qualitative and quantitative evidence. Specifically, the study employed semi-structured questionnaires and interviews to collect data from sixty-one (61) participants. The study utilised simple random sampling for collecting qualitative data, while purposive sampling was employed for gathering quantitative data. The outcomes of the study revealed that prescribed school uniforms for teachers, effective supervision and inspections, teacher motivation, parental concern, as well as safety and security of armed forces schools, contribute to the academic performance of these schools. Other determinants identified include the conduciveness of the school environment, good leadership, and discipline among learners, teachers, and school administrators. The authors suggested that the study should be extended to other armed forces schools to consolidate the findings and help formulate recommendations to inform theory, policy, and practice.

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Discover Education
Research
Determinants ofacademic performance ofarmed forces schools:
perceptions ofteachers ofGhana armed forces basic schools
EricSefaBoye1 · DouglasDarkoAgyei2
Received: 6 July 2024 / Accepted: 4 February 2025
© The Author(s) 2025 OPEN
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate the determinants of academic performance in armed forces basic schools
from the perspectives of teachers in Ghana Armed Forces basic schools. The study was underpinned by Maslow’s Hierar-
chy of Needs and McGregor’s Theories X and Y. A concurrent mixed method approach was used, allowing the authors to
utilise both qualitative and quantitative evidence. Specically, the study employed semi-structured questionnaires and
interviews to collect data from sixty-one (61) participants. The study utilised simple random sampling for collecting quali-
tative data, while purposive sampling was employed for gathering quantitative data. The outcomes of the study revealed
that prescribed school uniforms for teachers, eective supervision and inspections, teacher motivation, parental concern,
as well as safety and security of armed forces schools, contribute to the academic performance of these schools. Other
determinants identied include the conduciveness of the school environment, good leadership, and discipline among
learners, teachers, and school administrators. The authors suggested that the study should be extended to other armed
forces schools to consolidate the ndings and help formulate recommendations to inform theory, policy, and practice.
Keywords Academic performance· Armed forces schools· School environment· Discipline· Military schools
1 Introduction
Long before Ghana gained independence in 1957, British and other European merchants established schools that pri-
marily served the children of colonial masters and elites within the Ghanaian community [1, 2]. These schools were not
solely intended to promote literacy but also to train individuals to spread the gospel among indigenous people [1, 2].
Basic education in Ghana was established to produce citizens equipped with core skills such as critical thinking and
problem-solving, creativity and innovation, and communication and collaboration [17].
The Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) basic schools were predominantly established to provide education for the children
of military personnel. Services Primary and Junior High School, located at Burma Camp, Accra, was the rst GAF basic
school, established in 1948 by the British Canadian Joint Services to educate the children of ocers from Britain, Canada,
and Pakistan working with the GAF [41]. Presently, there are GAF basic schools in all seven garrisons where military per-
sonnel and their families are accommodated. Currently, there are 50 GAF basic schools from Kindergarten to Basic 9 and
two Senior High/Technical Schools.
GAF basic schools are public schools under the Ghana Education Service (GES) but directly managed and controlled
by GAF. They are considered military units; hence, garrison education centres are established with commissioned military
* Eric Sefa Boye, boyesefa@yahoo.com; Douglas Darko Agyei, ddagyei@ucc.edu.gh | 1Ghana Armed Forces, Burma Camp, Accra,
Ghana. 2Department ofMathematics andICT Education, University ofCape Coast, CapeCoast, Ghana.

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ocers in charge of administration and supervision [15]. This is done in consultation with the Municipal and Metropolitan
Directors of Education appointed by GES. Currently, admission into GAF basic schools is not restricted to only children
of military personnel.
Statistics on Basic Education Certicate Examinations (BECE) from the Municipal Education Oces for 2021, 2022, and
2023 show that GAF basic schools are ranked among the top-performing schools in their respective municipalities [16].
This impressive performance has sparked an inquiry into the determinants of such outstanding academic achievements.
Despite extensive reviews of databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR, no literature has investigated this,
highlighting the need to ll this gap to make informed decisions regarding armed forces basic schools.
2 Theoretical framework
The study is underpinned by two theories, namely Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Douglas McGregor’s Theo-
ries X and Y. These theories and their implications for the study are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs.
3 Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy ofneeds
Learners at all levels require basic needs to achieve their desired learning outcomes and undoubtedly, they learn better
when their needs are fullled. In education, this theory is heralded as a motivational approach for learners and teachers
alike in the teaching and learning environment. Particularly, in the strive to attain a set educational goal, learners and
teachers require motivation and satisfaction, while the school environment requires some form of serenity [52]. This
is to produce the desired educational teaching–learning outcomes. Maslow [30] proposed a hierarchy of needs that is
philosophically accepted (though not scientically proven) although Kaufman [22] argued that the pyramid associated
with the hierarchy was not created by Maslow. These needs and their educational implications are discussed.
3.1 Physiological orbasic needs
The theory suggests that learners in primary schools require some basic needs such as energy (food), good ventilation
(oxygen), appreciable temperature (warmth) and water. These could be provided to the learners from home and/or at
the school canteen to prevent hunger and thirst, which may distract learners’ attention in class. These fundamental needs
are crucial for learners, hence parents are encouraged to provide for their wards when sending them o to school. The
schools could provide suitable canteens for learners to buy from in case they are not provided for from home.
3.2 Safety needs
After learners have fullled their physiological needs, they tend to become concerned about safety and security. Maslow’s
theory [30] requires that school management put structures in place to prevent learners from danger and pain, and
also to minimise the risk of any uncertainty that may aect learners’ concentration in school. Responsible parents often
advocate for measures that protect their children to prevent any unfortunate situations that may arise due to poor safety
and security measures in place. While the safety of the learners is the responsibility of the school, parents are encouraged
to support this process.
3.3 Love andbelongingness needs
The social needs of love and the feeling of belonging become necessary once safety needs are satised [43]. This can include
and require the need for learners to mix, relate, love, and form mutual friendships with one another. A lack of these needs
may negatively aect the health and well-being of the learner whilst in school. Such social needs may also include friendship,
trust, and acceptance, which dene the tone of the school. Unfortunately, learners with special needs often struggle to cope
well at this level, aecting their ability to attain self-actualisation [28]. This sense of love and belongingness is also crucial for
teachers since a lack of this may indirectly aect the well-being of their learners. Teachers are required to use dierentiated
instruction that caters for learners with special needs [42], as this approach can increase their sense of belonging. The wearing
of prescribed school uniforms by learners and teachers could also enhance their sense of belonging during contact hours.

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3.4 Self‑esteem needs
This is the fourth stage and comes after the love/belonging needs of the learner are fully satised. Smith [43] asserted
that these needs are said to motivate the learner if they are addressed. Maslow [30] indicated that self-esteem and the
desire for respect and reputation from others constitute esteem needs. These are highly encouraged during contact
hours in school. Learners may develop this respect and recognition from peers and teachers alike. The onus, therefore,
lies on the learners to exude mastery of learnt concepts in class to merit this recognition and praise from others to full
these needs. Learners’ acquisition of excellent or outstanding grades in school is an example of how they achieve their
self-esteem needs.
3.5 Self‑actualisation
At this nal stage of the hierarchy, attention is shifted to the need for learners and teachers to achieve their full potential.
This can be seen in learners’ ability to demonstrate the acquisition of new skills and the application of learnt concepts in
real-life situations towards the attainment of life goals. Maslow asserted that this is an ongoing process, however, only
a small percentage of people can reach this height. On the other hand, Maslow [31] admitted that one does not need
to satisfy a lower-order need 100% before attaining a higher-order need. Thus, learners must justify the attainment of
this level by showing a commendable change in behaviour and being able to incorporate learnt concepts to address
new situations.
Maslow [31] introduced Self-Transcendence as the sixth hierarchy of needs. Gorman [18] explained that at this level,
learners could, in turn, have a better understanding of concepts learnt and their application in real life, which can con-
sequently enhance their personal experience. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been criticised as being culturally biased
and lacking empirical grounding to support the ordering of needs, advocating for the modernisation of the theory to
provide exible and culturally sensitive tools to address the complex needs of individuals [7, 46]. The authors argue that
for learners to achieve self-actualisation, school authorities need to be guided by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and provide
essential needs, including shelter and healthcare, accessible by the learners in schools. Moreover, the school environment
must be safe and secure to prevent any unwarranted intrusion that may pose a threat to the learners during contact
hours. When these conditions are met, the learners will begin to feel belonging and loved when they are with their peers.
The authors further argue that learners could learn together to promote the acceptance of cultural dierences among
them. This will stimulate their thinking, promote recognition and mutual respect among them, and eventually improve
their learning to attain set goals. Finally, feedback must be prompt, and learners must be commended for good work
done, as this could encourage them to display excellence and attain self-actualisation. Consequently, when learners can
meet these levels of needs, they are motivated to learn and positively inuence the lives of others. The support from
parents is highly commendable. Figure1 depicts Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
In summary, Maslow’s theory advocates for:
a. Conduciveness of the school environment.
b. Safety and security of school environment.
c. Prescribed School uniforms for teachers to promote a sense of love and belongingness.
d. Motivation for learners and teachers to promote self-esteem and self-actualisation.
e. Parental concern or involvement to support feasible academic process.
4 Douglas McGregor’s theories X andY
McGregor’s Theories X and Y have been extensively used in the management and motivation of individuals within
enterprises [32]. Fortunately, educational enterprises practise classroom management and heavily rely on motivation
to achieve set educational goals. McGregor’s Theories X and Y can be applied in the teaching and learning process to
realise desired teaching–learning outcomes. Theory X views the learner, like any other human being, as lazy and likely to
avoid commitment to learning or work. Therefore, learners perceived under Theory X need direction and supervision to
facilitate their learning. In contrast, Theory Y disputes the notion proposed by Theory X that learners are inherently lazy.
Instead, it asserts that when the necessary teaching–learning environment is provided, both learners and teachers will
perform as expected. Theory Y perceives classroom teachers as democratic, which motivates learners to do their best [23].

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According to the self-determination theory of motivation, basic psychological needs theory posits that humans are
intrinsically motivated when their psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and social connections are satised
[6, 49]. These basic needs, such as monetary gain, food, and achievement, create internal tension that motivates specic
behaviours to full these needs. Classroom management, on the other hand, is based on learners’ understanding of
the expected behaviours. A system of procedures and rules, carefully planned by teachers and school authorities, can
promote discipline and boost learning. Learners’ non-adherence to rules and procedures may result in unacceptable
behaviours, undermining discipline and consequently aecting academic progression.
Rewards and punishments are consequences of behaviour. A reward is something desirable that learners receive for
achievement or appropriate behaviours, while punishment is something undesirable that learners receive to correct
their misbehaviours [3, 4]. Ensuring appropriate discipline can lead to desirable behaviours in school, contributing to a
congenial teaching–learning environment for academic growth. Punishment is necessary to deter the violation of rules
and procedures.
The educational implications of Theories X and Y are geared towards improving the academic performance of learners.
The implication of Theory X is that teachers, who serve as classroom managers, could use motivation and supervision to
encourage learners to learn. Disciplinary measures and their consequences could be used to regulate learners’ behaviours.
Theory X learners prefer to be directed in their learning. Such learners need intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn.
The theory also suggests that learners should be supervised and protected to produce the desired teaching–learning
outcomes. The theory advocates for eective leadership, particularly from the teachers. The implication of Theory Y
highlights that the management and leadership of armed forces schools should provide learners and teachers with the
necessary environment and resources to change behaviour. These resources must be supervised or inspected regularly
to ensure they are used for their intended purposes.
The authors argue that McGregor’s Theories X and Y are meant to describe, understand, and suggest ways teachers
could handle learners. Consequently, adhering to these theories could lead to improved academic performance if learners
and teachers are well supervised and motivated. The authors further assert that the tactical employment of Theories X
and Y in classrooms by teachers and administrators could yield the desired learning outcomes. It is signicant to add that
the wearing of prescribed school uniforms by teachers could instil discipline and enable them to address indiscipline.
In summary, McGregor’s Theories X and Y advocate for:
a) Supervision and inspection of learners and schools.
b) Motivation for both learners and teachers.
c) Prescribed school uniforms for teachers.
d) Discipline to regulate behaviours of learners and teachers.
e) A conducive environment to promote eective teaching and learning.
Fig. 1 Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs (Adapted from McLeod
[33])
SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
(fulfilment , inner
talent)
SELF-ESTEEM
NEEDS(recognition,
respect, concept
mastery)
LOVE & BELONGING NEEDS (friends
and loved ones)
SAFETY NEEDS (security, freedom from danger)
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS (food, shelter, warmth, Oxygen)

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5 Towards aconceptual framework
The framework in Fig.2 is underpinned by Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and McGregor’s Theories X and Y,
which culminate in determinants of performance. The authors draw on these theories and hypothesise that if teachers
and school administrators provide the necessary learning needs, academic performance will improve. These needs, as
reiterated by Maslow and McGregor, are depicted in Fig.2.
In this study, these learning needs have been conceptualised as determining factors that could inuence the academic
performance of armed forces schools. These factors are discussed in the following paragraphs.
5.1 Safety andsecurity ofschool compound
A growing body of literature shows that a safe and healthy learning environment is crucial for learners to achieve high
academic excellence. In some cases, primary school learners in unsafe schools may suer from mental health challenges
such as low self-esteem, absent-mindedness in class, and depression [5, 10]. In 2016, the United States Agency for Inter-
national Development (USAID) dened a safe and secure teaching–learning atmosphere as a place where structured
learning is free from external, internal, and environmental threats to learners’ safety and well-being, and where the
infrastructure of a learning environment is deemed safe. According to USAID, safety issues are largely classied as inter-
nal threats, external threats, and environmental threats. All these threats in a developing society have the potential to
signicantly decrease learners’ academic performance. Therefore, it is essential for the management of primary schools
to ensure maximum security to guarantee the learners some form of protection. Fortunately, the barracks where GAF
schools are located appear safe and protected.
5.2 Motivation forteachers andlearners
Motivated teachers are more likely to inspire learners in the classroom to ensure their feelings of satisfaction and full-
ment [26]. Dornyei [9] states that teacher motivation signicantly inuences learners’ motivation and learning achieve-
ment. Motivation contributes to improving teacher performance [53]. Teachers motivate their learners by providing
positive feedback to develop their competence. Providing feedback enables learners to gain control over their learning
and a sense of belief in their abilities [13], which motivates them to improve academically. In this regard, learners and
teachers of GAF primary schools may require motivation to boost their morale and enhance their work output.
Fig. 2 Proposed conceptual
framework Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
•Conducive environment
•Safety & Security
•Teachers’ uniform
•Motivation
•Parental concern
McGregor’s Theory X and Y
•Supervision/Inspection
•Motivation
•Leadership
•Discipline
•Environment
Improved Academic
Performance
Determinants of Performance
•Safety and Security
•Motivation
•Discipline
•Supervision/Inspection
•Teachers’ Uniform
•Parental concern
•Leadership

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5.3 Discipline amonglearners andteachers
Teachers and learners are required to work in a controlled manner to achieve the expected learning outcomes [47].
Fabelo etal. [12] in a study involving three groups of Texas Seventh Graders discovered that the rate at which learners
drop out of school increased with the number of disciplinary violations a learner was involved in. Discipline is widely
acknowledged as crucial for creating a positive school climate conducive to sound academic performance [29]. It is a
basic requirement for successful teaching and learning in school and a subject of concern for school teachers [11]. The
authors align with the views of Fabelo, Misitsa, and Eshetu and argue that punctuality and adherence to school rules
and regulations by both teachers and learners can promote discipline in schools. The study revealed that discipline in
GAF basic schools is comparatively better.
5.4 School supervision andinspection
The eective utilisation of educational resources to achieve the expected improvement in academic performance in
school requires proper inspections and supervision. Inadequate school inspections and supervision result in teachers’
inability to demonstrate adequate knowledge of the school [36]. Researchers, including Mutabaruka etal. [34], opine
that school inspection is carried out to identify discipline issues, ensure minimum standards, and monitor and improve
teaching and learning. Supervision of schools is a commendable process that enables teachers whose work is supervised
to gather feedback on their performance, follow their continuous progress, and identify their development needs [48].
The authors argue that inspection and supervision must be well planned and executed to address educational problems
and enhance academic performance. Apart from the supervision conducted by GES, GAF has an inspectorate cell that
conducts inspections of GAF basic schools.
5.5 Prescribed uniform forteachers
A prescribed school uniform aects the perception of both learners and teachers, and helps to identify the teacher
with an institution. Educators are more likely to make intelligent choices in developing a professional wardrobe if they
consider the inuence of learner attitudes through attire at dierent times in the educational process [19, 21]. Freeburg
and Workman [14] asserted that a prescribed school uniform aects not only the career identity of the teacher but also
the teacher as a role model for learners. It is further argued that teachers in prescribed attire appear professional and
project the image of the school in the community, earning them more respect [21, 45].
The authors strongly align with the views expressed by Steinberg [45] and Kashem [21], and argue that because teach-
ers can easily be identied in a prescribed uniform, they are likely to desist from behaviours that would bring disrepute
to their institutions. The GAF basic school teachers wear prescribed uniforms to school.
5.6 Parental concern
The home is one of the agents of education. Therefore, the role of parents towards the education of their children cannot
be overlooked. Oswald etal. [37] and Kim and Hill [24] argued that parental involvement can yield various outcomes in
learners’ academic performance. When parents are involved in their children’s education, the entire approach enhances
commitment and interest [38, 51]. A study conducted by Raja etal. [38] on the role of parental involvement in education
showed that it positively impacts learners’ academic achievement, behaviour, and social and emotional growth. The
authors argue that parents can also show their involvement by buying textbooks and reading materials for their children
and assisting them with homework to improve their academic performance.
5.7 School environment
Studies have shown a signicant and positive correlation between the school environment and academic performance
[20, 25]. According to Kweon etal. [27], a well-composed school compound with attractive topography, beautiful lawns,
and infrastructure signicantly aects the academic performance of schoolchildren. Roebuck [39] also discovered that
the general environment of a school positively inuences learners’ academic performance and well-being. Roebuck

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argued that factors such as class size, wall décor, paint colour, lighting system, good ventilation, temperature, and odour
have a psychological impact on learners’ personalities. The authors align with the scholars, particularly Roebuck [39],
who focuses more on the classroom environment, which directly aects the learner. Good ventilation, lighting, and
room temperature can create the conducive atmosphere required for understanding concepts taught by the teacher.
5.8 Leadership
Leadership plays a crucial role in school administration, and armed forces schools are no exception. The phenomenon
includes the basics of management and covers the task of inuencing people and inspiring them to succeed. A study
conducted by Steins [44] revealed that failed leadership at various educational levels results in failed schools. Whitehead
[50] argued that school leaders are the rst point of contact in the realisation of school goals and that failure on the part
of the leader can cause the school to fail. According to Rutherford [40], heads of schools are the major stakeholders in
determining the success of a school. Rutherford further argues that schools need leaders who focus on improving teach-
ing and learning, monitoring performance, and motivating sta to give their best. The authors argue that schools need
leaders, not managers, since education is geared towards shaping thoughts, emotions, and skills leading to behavioural
change rather than the mere management of resources.
6 Research questions
The following research questions are framed to guide the study:
• What are the major factors that inuence the academic performance of learners in GAF basic schools?
• How can GAF basic schools be improved to further enhance learners’ academic performance?
7 Materials andmethods
7.1 Research design
The study employed a concurrent mixed-method design in which both qualitative and quantitative data were collected
simultaneously, guided by the stated research questions. This was ideal to give credence to the study ndings, aside
from fully exploring the phenomenon under study. Although the data sets were analysed independently, the ndings
were compared and combined during the interpretation phase to arrive at more robust conclusions.
7.2 Participants andsampling techniques
Sixty-one teachers, comprising 23 males and 38 females, were sampled from a population of 480 teachers using the
purposive sampling technique. This technique was used because it oered the authors the opportunity to select teach-
ers with teaching experience in both GAF basic schools and other public schools, providing a fair basis for comparison
and ensuring gender balance. The teachers were sampled from GAF basic schools within Burma Camp, Accra. All 61
sampled teachers participated in the quantitative study; however, 20 of them (12 females and 8 males) were selected for
the qualitative study using a simple random sampling technique. This selection method ensured that all 20 members of
the population had an equal chance of being selected, enhancing the representativeness of the sample.
7.3 Procedure anddata collection
The study commenced after approval from the ethics committee of the GAF Education Unit. Permissions were also
secured from the heads of the participating schools, and informed consent was obtained from the participants. Detailed
information about the study, including its purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benets, was provided to partici-
pants. They were assured that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study without
any consequences. To ensure anonymity, unique codes were assigned to each participant, and all identifying information
was removed from the data.

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A semi-structured questionnaire (41 items) and an interview schedule (10 questions) were used to gather data for the
study. The 41 items were categorised into eight constructs: discipline (6 items), inspection/supervision (6 items), moti-
vation (6 items), prescribed teachers’ uniform (4 items), leadership (6 items), safety and security (5 items), environment
(4 items), and parental concern (4 items). Each construct had possible answers on a Likertscale ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The questionnaires were administered to all 61 participating teachers, who completed
them in a supervised setting to ensure clarity and completeness. Table1 shows the reliability coecient for each construct
based on the data collected. All interviews were recorded with participants’ consent and transcribed verbatim. The tran-
scripts were then reviewed and coded for thematic analysis. The interviews were conducted face-to-face, allowing for the
observation of non-verbal cues and more interactive discussions. The entire data collection process lasted for two months.
Inferring from Table1, the reliability coecient could be interpreted as "respectable" based on DeVellis’s [8] guide-
lines. The interview schedule provided a more descriptive and qualitative approach to answering the research questions,
complementing the ndings established from data collected via questionnaires.
7.4 Data processing andanalysis
The data collected through the questionnaires were analysed using SPSS version 26. Initial data cleaning was performed
to check for any inconsistencies, missing values, or outliers. Descriptive statistics were used to calculate the means and
standard deviations for each item and construct within the questionnaire. This provided an overview of the central ten-
dency and variability in the responses. The reliability of the constructs was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha to ensure
internal consistency, with a reliability coecient calculated for each construct, indicating the extent to which the items
within each construct were correlated.
For the qualitative component of the study, data were collected through interviews using a semi-structured interview
schedule consisting of 10 questions posed to participating teachers. The analysis process involved several steps to ensure
comprehensive and credible ndings. Each interview was recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcribed data were
initially coded by identifying signicant statements, phrases, or words relevant to the research questions. The identi-
ed themes and patterns were analysed qualitatively to understand the underlying meanings and perceptions of the
participants. The most commonly expressed opinions by the teachers were highlighted to generalise their perceptions
regarding each research question, aiding in drawing meaningful conclusions from the qualitative data. Triangulation
was employed to enhance the validity and credibility of the ndings, involving cross-verifying the qualitative data with
the quantitative data collected through the questionnaires.
8 Results
A major question posed in the study was to ascertain the determinants of academic performance of armed forces basic
schools. The questionnaire was categorised into eight constructs herein referred to as determinants of academic perfor-
mance. Table2 shows the outcome of the degree to which each of the constructs contributed to answering the question.
The results showed favourable responses for all the constructs.
Inferring from Table2, it can be deduced that the prescribed uniforms worn by teachers of GAF basic schools con-
tribute to the sterling performance of the learners. In addition, the teachers opined that the inspections conducted by
Table 1 Reliability statistics Cronbach’s Alpha Number
of items
Discipline 0.767 6
Inspection/Supervision 0.793 6
Motivation 0.800 6
Teachers’ uniform 0.794 4
Leadership 0.819 6
Safety and Security 0.829 5
Parental concern 0.698 4
Environment 0.710 4

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GAF Inspectorate Cell are commendable. More so, even though discipline was rated next to the least, the respondents
asserted that it is better in GAF schools compared to their previous schools.
Interview responses further strengthened the ndings in Table2. The following question was posed during the inter-
view session “Have you identied any good teaching–learning practices or policies in GAF basic schools that can improve
academic performance?” Most of the respondents gave similar responses and these are briey captured below.
Response 1. I taught for three years in my previous school before joining the Armed Forces Education Unit and I am in my
fourth year with the Armed Forces. What I have noticed is that the discipline amongst the teachers and the learners is com-
mendable. The regular inspections conducted by the GAF education directorate and the School Inspections and Support Oc-
ers (SISOs) put us on our toes. I also think the motivation here is better; at least I am given some money at the end of the term
from the extra classes called the Community Sponsored Education Programme (CSEP). In addition, the environment is better
and safer than in my previous school. The prescribed teachers’ uniform we wear for school makes me feel belong and that I am
respected in this unit. About 80 per cent of the teachers interviewed shared the same view.
Response 2. If I compare this unit (Armed Forces) to my previous school, I can say that the parents of GAF schools are more
concerned with their ward’s education than in my previous school. Parents buy their wards books, attend Parent Association
meetings and assist their children to do their homework. I have also noticed that the head teachers are serious and do not
overlook any acts of indiscipline on the part of learners and teachers. The head teachers also vet lesson notes and ensure teach-
ers make good use of their instructional hours. Most of the schools are fenced and this restricts the movements of teachers
and learners during contact hours. Finally, the learners are punctual and regular to school and this motivates me to come to
school early to partake in the early morning classes sanctioned by the Education Unit. These statements represent the views
of about 80 per cent of the teachers interviewed.
Inferring from Table2 and the comments from the interviewees, it can be concluded that prescribed school uniforms
for teachers; eective inspections/supervision, and security and safety of the school compounds are major factors that
positively aect learners’ academic performance in GAF basic schools. Other factors include parental concern about
their wards’ education; conducive school environment; teacher motivation; discipline amongst learners and teachers,
and leadership.
Another question dealt with in the study was how the GAF basic schools could be improved upon to further enhance
learners’ academic performance. The responses from the interviewees are presented next.
Response 1. Even though GAF schools are doing well academically, I think they can do better if the management of the
schools could increase the frequency of the inspections conducted by the inspectorate cell since that puts us on our toes and
ensures standards do not fall. In addition, the early morning classes and the CSEP (remedial instructions) are helpful. Again,
if I compare GAF schools to my previous school, I can condently say that most learners in GAF schools have textbooks. These
and other resources make teaching–learning resources in GAF schools somewhat adequate. More so, other resources such as
Science Resource Centres, Information Communication Technology (ICT ) laboratories, and workshops for practical lessons will
help the learners understand concepts better. These were common opinions expressed by about 80% of the interviewees
the authors engaged.
Response 2. If we want to improve upon our performance, then we have to seriously consider the motivation of teachers.
Management could motivate teachers whose subjects the BECE graduates perform exceptionally. Thus, there could be the
Best Teacher Award Scheme for GAF basic school teachers. Largely, the classrooms have enough furniture but that alone is
not enough; the classrooms could also be well illuminated and ventilated to make them more conducive for teaching and
learning amidst the large enrolment. I have also noticed that co-curricular activities such as excursions, eld trips, and other
Table 2 Results of the
factors that aect academic
performance in GAF basic
schools (n = 61)
SA = 5, A = 4, NS = 3, D = 2, SD = 1
Performance dimension/constructs M SD
Discipline 3.81 1.092
Inspection/supervision 4.31 0.764
Motivation 4.14 0.931
Teachers uniform 4.33 0.829
Environment 4.02 0.915
Leadership 3.79 1.052
Safety and security 4.22 0.829
Parental concern 4.16 0.791

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competitive sporting activities such as basketball and handball are lacking in armed forces schools. Management could con-
sider co-curricular activities since they contribute to the total well-being of the learners. The over-enrolment must be checked.
These were largely the concerns raised by about 85% of the teachers interviewed.
Inferring from the comments, the authors conclude that the early morning classes and the extra remedial instructions
(CSEP); the provision of resource centres for practical lessons; and the reintroduction of co-curricular activities could
help improve performance. The authors further suggest that improving the classroom conditions to include illumination
and ventilation; instituting a reward scheme for the best teachers, and avoiding over-enrolment in the classrooms were
the measures that could be implemented to further improve the academic performance of armed forces basic schools.
9 Discussion
The outcome of research question one, as shown in Table2, revealed that prescribed school uniforms for GAF teachers
are the most signicant factor inuencing academic performance in GAF schools. The respondents opined that aside
from saving GAF teachers money on regular school attire, the prescribed uniforms make teachers appear formal [21]
and also make them feel like real role models ready to impart knowledge and shape the attitudes of their learners [14].
This aligns with the views of Steinberg [45], who suggested that a teacher’s appearance promotes a professional and
positive image of the school in the community. The prescribed attire may also instil a level of discipline amongst learners
and teachers and prevent them from bringing the name of GAF into disrepute. Thus, the prescribed school uniforms for
GAF teachers contribute signicantly to academic performance by promoting professionalism, instilling discipline, and
fostering a sense of unity. This professional image helps teachers become role models, enhancing their commitment
and eectiveness. The formal attire also creates a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
The second most signicant factor inuencing academic performance in GAF schools, as revealed by the study, is
intensive supervision and inspections. The respondents applauded the management of GAF schools for ensuring regular
supervision and inspections, which have led to improvements in academic performance. The seriousness attached to
the supervision and inspections of GAF schools could help identify and address pressing needs to ensure a minimum
standard and improve academic performance [34, 48]. Thus, regular and rigorous oversight helps identify and address
pressing needs, ensuring that minimum standards are met and maintained. This consistent monitoring promotes account-
ability amongst teachers and students, leading to improved teaching practices and learning outcomes. Consequently,
the seriousness attached to supervision and inspections creates a disciplined and focused educational environment
that supports academic excellence.
The safety and security of GAF schools and their environs were highly commended by the respondent teachers. This
increases the patronage of the schools by soldiers and residents within the catchment areas. The respondents concluded
that the teaching and learning environment in GAF schools is safer and minimises learners’ exposure to threats that could
aect their well-being. Fortunately, GAF schools are located in barracks, and the assurance of security in the barracks
helps safeguard against threats and provides a conducive environment for learning. Thus, the secure environment attracts
more students, including those from military families and nearby residents, increasing school patronage. With a safer and
more secure learning environment, students can focus better on their studies without the distraction of potential threats.
The assurance of security within the barracks fosters a conducive atmosphere for teaching and learning, enhancing the
overall educational experience and contributing to higher academic achievement.
Parental involvement and teacher motivation were also identied as factors inuencing performance in GAF schools.
Parents provide their wards with supplementary textbooks and other study materials, alongside their active involvement
in their children’s education. The parental concerns expressed could help provide timely support where necessary [35].
The study also revealed that the parent-teacher relationship is cordial and that the sharing of school information on
social media platforms and other formal means has been helpful. Furthermore, learners in GAF basic schools are more
serious and eager to learn, which motivates the teachers [26]. This intrinsically motivates teachers to do their best to
improve performance [53]. Most of the teachers indicated that motivation in GAF schools is better than in their previous
schools. Thus, active parental participation provides essential support and resources for students, fostering a supportive
home environment that reinforces the importance of education. The positive relationship between parents and teachers,
along with the eective communication of school information, ensures timely support for students’ needs. Additionally,
motivated teachers, inspired by students’ eagerness to learn, create a dynamic and engaging learning environment,
leading to improved student performance.

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The school environment was also identified as one of the major determinants of academic performance. The
respondent teachers asserted that the teaching–learning environment in GAF schools is more conducive compared
to their previous schools. The study revealed that classrooms in GAF schools have adequate furniture and good
illumination and ventilation. This aligns with the view of Roebuck [39], who argued that a good lighting system,
ventilation, and temperature, amongst other factors, positively influence learners’ academic performance. The study
also uncovered that GAF schools are neater, more peaceful, and have adequate teaching–learning resources for
instruction. These factors create a comfortable and effective learning atmosphere, allowing students to focus bet-
ter on their studies. The neat and peaceful surroundings further reduce distractions and stress, fostering a positive
mindset conducive to learning. Additionally, the availability of sufficient teaching–learning resources ensures that
both teachers and students have the tools they need to achieve academic success.
Discipline and leadership were also identified as determinants of academic performance in GAF schools. Ensuring
discipline and good leadership in schools is a basic requirement for academic growth and a conducive academic
environment [11]. Because GAF schools are located in barracks, with most of the schools fenced, the behaviours of
learners and teachers are monitored and controlled. The respondents indicated that rules and regulations set by
the armed forces are well enforced and complied with. Additionally, the respondents indicated that parents do not
interfere unnecessarily or confront teachers rudely during contact hours. This could be attributed to the discipline and
exemplary leadership often displayed by learners, teachers, and management of GAF schools. Therefore, discipline
and leadership promote academic performance in GAF schools by ensuring a well-regulated and orderly environment,
with strict enforcement of rules and regulations that minimise disruptions. Strong leadership from school manage-
ment and the armed forces fosters accountability and inspires both teachers and students to strive for excellence.
The absence of unnecessary parental interference allows teachers to maintain authority and implement effective
teaching strategies. These contribute to a positive and productive educational atmosphere.
The outcome of the study revealed some measures that can be considered to further improve performance in
armed forces schools. First, the study revealed that the CSEP and the early morning classes sanctioned by GAF could
be enhanced further to serve as remedial instruction for the learners. It is envisaged that if these additional instruc-
tional hours are well planned and managed, they could improve performance. Second, the study suggested that the
provision of well-equipped resource centres, such as ICT laboratories, science laboratories, and workshops, could
help learners gain practical experience. This will help deepen their conceptual understanding of lessons taught.
Third, the study showed that co-curricular activities are lacking in GAF basic schools and advocated for them to be
reintroduced during contact hours. This is important because it helps develop the psychomotor skills of the learn-
ers. Undoubtedly, the introduction of sporting activities such as basketball, volleyball, and football in schools could
help boost learners’ agility and retention in class. GAF schools could integrate cultural activities, excursions, field
trips, and others to address the cognitive and affective domains of the learners. These activities could contribute to
the overall well-being of the learners, aside from introducing them to different cultures that will make them more
tolerant in society.
Fourth, the study also advocated for improving the classroom conditions for learners to impact their academic
performance [39]. This calls for the need for management of GAF schools to illuminate the classrooms, provide good
ventilation, paint the school buildings, and provide adequate furniture for learners. The study also suggested avoid-
ing over-enrolment since it may affect classroom management and control. Studies have shown that small class size
has a positive relationship with academic performance [39]. The interviewees indicated that although the classroom
situation is better in GAF schools, it could be improved to achieve maximum results.
Fifth, the study revealed that an award scheme dubbed the Best Teacher Award should be instituted to reward
deserving teachers every year. This could serve as motivation for teachers to discharge their duties with zeal and
compassion. Presently, this is practiced by GAF schools but can be improved with support from benevolent organi-
sations and management.
These suggestions can significantly improve the academic performance of GAF schools by enhancing the quality
and effectiveness of instruction through better-planned and managed additional instructional hours. Providing well-
equipped resource centres will enable learners to gain practical experience, deepening their conceptual understand-
ing. Reintroducing co-curricular activities, including sports and cultural activities, will develop learners’ psychomotor
skills and overall well-being. Improving classroom conditions with adequate furniture, good ventilation, and proper
illumination will create a conducive learning environment. Finally, instituting an award scheme for teachers will
motivate them to perform their duties with enthusiasm and dedication, further enhancing the quality of education.

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10 Limitations ofthestudy
The study experienced several limitations. Due to time and space constraints, the authors could not extend the study
to other parts of the country where military schools are established. Extending the study to cover other GAF basic
schools across the country could have strengthened the ndings for generalization. While the determinant dimensions
(discipline, motivation, environment, parental concern, teachers’ uniform, safety & security, and leadership) provided
useful information, the authors recognised that including opinions from head teachers could have enriched the study’s
outcome. Although head teachers were not directly involved, they provided the necessary environment and support for
the smooth conduct of the study. Additionally, the study’s focus on armed forces settings might limit the generalizability
of the ndings to other contexts. Furthermore, the lack of literature on GAF basic schools hindered the development of
a robust theoretical foundation for the study.
11 Conclusion
The notable academic performance of GAF basic schools, both historically and currently, has driven a signicant demand
for enrolment amongst soldiers, defence civilian sta of GAF, and the public. This study was initiated to investigate the
factors behind these outstanding performances and to explore ways to further enhance the educational environment.
The ndings revealed that the prescribed uniform for teachers emerged as the most inuential determinant, followed by
the supervision and inspection conducted by GES and GAF. Discipline, although recognised as a major factor, was rated
second to the least inuential determinant. Other signicant factors identied include safety and security, motivation,
parental concern, leadership, and the overall environment.
12 Suggestions forfuture research
The study solicited views from teachers on how to improve the academic performance of GAF basic schools. Respondents
suggested that the provision of well-resourced centres could support practical lessons, thereby deepening the conceptual
understanding of the material taught. Additionally, improving classroom conditions could enhance the current state
of GAF schools. The re-introduction of co-curricular activities was also recommended, as this could help in developing
the psychomotor and aective domains of the learners. Lastly, introducing a Best Teacher Award scheme for deserving
teachers could serve as a catalyst to promote the desired teaching and learning outcomes. The authors suggest extend-
ing the study to other armed forces schools to consolidate the ndings and develop comprehensive recommendations
for policy and practice.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the management and sta of 5 Garrison Education Centre, Burma Camp, Accra, Ghana, for their support
and for making the schools under command available for study.
Author contributions E.S.B: Conceptualization, design, investigation, analysis, writing. D.D.A: Editing/reviewing, supervision.
Funding The research was self-sponsored by the authors.
Dataavailability All data used for analysis in this manuscript is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the 5 Garrison Education Centre Ethics Committee (approval no. not
applicable) in line with theguidelinesof the Committee.
Informed consent Informedconsent was obtained from the participants to participate in the current study. They also consented to publishing
the anonymous data of the study.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which
permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to
the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modied the licensed material. You

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do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
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the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco
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