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MEDICIÓN DEL POTENCIAL EMPRENDEDOR DE LOS MIGRANTES MICHOACANOS. UNA APLICACIÓN DEL ÍNDICE DE CARLAND
Abstract
El presente trabajo estudia el potencial emprendedor en Michoacán, que es el principal estado receptor de remesas en México, mediante la utilización de índice de Carland. Los resultados de la investigación muestran la existencia de un bajo potencial de emprendimiento tanto en los migrantes como en la población receptora de remesas. Este factor aunado aun entorno general poco propicio a la inversión productiva explicaría parcialmente el bajo uso de inversión que presentan los flujos de remesas en Michoacán. Los resultados del trabajo apoyarían la tesis de que los migrantes, como una parte sustantiva de la población auto empleada en México, perciben la actividad de un nuevo emprendimiento como una estrategia de sobrevivencia más que como una actividad empresarial.
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This article analyses the determinants of individuals' choice for self-employment and entrepreneurial success in Cote d'Ivoire. Entrepreneurial activity is found to be undertaken by individuals who succeed in increasing their entrepreneurial abilities and reducing the risk of starting a business through a learning process that takes place through ageing, professional experience, and apprenticeship or, alternatively, formal education. The learning process takes place both before and after entry into the industry, as firms grow into a larger size. However, financial constraints continue to play a major restraining role for entrepreneurship and firm growth.
This meta-analytical review of empirical studies of the impact of schooling on entrepreneurship selection and performance in developing economies looks at variations in impact across specific characteristics of the studies. A marginal year of schooling in developing economies raises enterprise income by an average of 5.5 percent, which is close to the average return in industrial countries. The return varies, however, by gender, rural or urban residence, and the share of agriculture in the economy. Furthermore, more educated workers typically end up in wage employment and prefer nonfarm entrepreneurship to farming. The education effect that separates workers into self-employment and wage employment is stronger for women, possibly stronger in urban areas, and also stronger in the least developed economies, where agriculture is more dominant and literacy rates are lower. Copyright 2005, Oxford University Press.
169 1 Al respecto basta señalar que, para 1995 y según el Informe del Estudio Binacional sobre Migración, ... "Las remesas fueron equivalentes a más de la mitad (57%) de las divisas disponibles mediante la inversión extranjera directa durante el mismo año" (véase Martin y Loaeza 1997, pág. 42). Y también, que de acuerdo con el Consejo Nacional de Población, ..."el volumen total de las remesas que ingresaron al país durante 1996 representó alrededor del 30% del gasto nacional en educación ejercido durante ese año; poco menos del 65 por ciento del presupuesto ejercido en salud; y más de 1.5 veces (197%) la inversión en vivienda" (véase CONAPO1999, pág. 162). 2 Un ejemplo de este incremento en la cuantía del fenómeno se aprecia en la modalidad de emigración permanente (compuesta por quienes cambian de residencia de México a Estados Unidos), que se elevó de alrededor de 28 mil mexicanos que anualmente se fueron a vivir al país del norte durante la década 1960-69, a cifras aproximadas de 135 mil en los 70's y de 235 mil migrantes anuales en el decenio de los 80's, así como un flujo neto anual superior a las 300 mil personas al año durante la primera parte del decenio 1990 al 2200 (estas magnitudes de migración neta permanente de mexicanos a Estados Unidos corresponden a estimacio-nes residuales en función de la combinación de distintas fuentes de datos generadas en los dos países; véanse Corona 1993 y Corona 1994a para el intervalo 1960-1989, y para el lapso 1990-96 el capítulo II de Martin y Loaeza 1997).
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This paper provides an analytical review of empirical studies into the impact of schooling on entrepreneurship selection and performance in less developed countries. We analyze the variation of this impact across various characteristics of studies. We find that a marginal year of schooling raises enterprise income by an average of 5.5 percent, which is closely similar to the average return in industrial countries. The return varies by gender, rural/urban residence, and the share of agriculture in the economy. Furthermore, more educated workers typically end up in wage employment but also prefer non-farm entrepreneurship to farming. The education effect that separates workers from self-employment into wage employment is stronger for women, possibly stronger in urban areas, and also stronger in the least developed economies where agriculture is more dominant and literacy rates are lower.
Is the capitalist function distinct from the entrepreneurial function in modern economies? Or does a person have to be wealthy before he or she can start a business? Frank H. Knight and Joseph A. Schumpeter held different views on the answer to this question. The authors' empirical findings side with Knight: liquidity constraints bind, and a would-be entrepreneur must bear most of the risk inherent in his venture. The reasoning is roughly this: the data show that wealthier people are more inclined to become entrepreneurs. In principle, this could be so because the wealthy tend to make better entrepreneurs, but the data reject this explanation. Instead, the data point to liquidity constraints: capital is essential for starting a business, and liquidity constraints tend to exclude those with insufficient funds at their disposal. Copyright 1989 by University of Chicago Press.
Remittances have emerged as an important source of external development finance for developing countries in recent years. This paper examines the causes and implications of remittance flows. It first highlights the severe limitations in remittance data, in sharp contrast to other sources of external finance. It then examines the key trends in remittance flows, and their importance relative to other sources of external finance. The paper subsequently analyses the many complex economic and political effects of remittances. It highlights the fact that remittances are the most stable source of external finance and play a critical social insurance role in many countries afflicted by economic and political crises. While remittances are generally pro-poor, their effects are greatest on transient poverty. However, the long-term effects on structural poverty are less clear, principally because the consequences of remittances on long-term economic development are not well understood. The paper then concludes with some policy options. It suggests a role for an international organization to intermediate these flows to lower transaction costs and increase transparency, which would both enhance these flows and maximize their benefits
This paper studies the evolution of sectoral concentration in relation to the level of per capita income. We show that various measures of sectoral concentration follow a U-shaped pattern across a wide variety of data sources: countries first diversify, in the sense that economic activity is spread more equally across sectors, but there exists, relatively late in the development process, a point at which they start specializing again. We discuss this finding in light of existing theories of trade and growth, which generally predict a monotonic relationship between income and diversification.
The factors that affect the supply of entrepreneurs are important but poorly understood. We study a sample of individuals who choose either to be employees or to run their own businesses.
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