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The Validation of the Dutch Teacher Questionnaire of Montessori Practice
Journal of Research In Childhood Education
Abstract
Montessori education has existed for over 100 years, with almost 16,000 schools worldwide. The results from research on Montessori effectiveness are difficult to interpret due to different ways of implementing the method. To elucidate research findings from future studies on Montessori education more adequately, it is necessary to develop and validate an instrument to measure implementation. This study describes the need to assess Montessori implementation to gain a better understanding of its effectiveness, the validation of the Dutch Teacher Questionnaire of Montessori Practice (TQMP), and explores the implementation of Montessori principles in Dutch Montessori schools. Results among 318 elementary Montessori teachers indicated a 5-factor model. Although the psychometric properties of this version seem promising, there is room for improvement, particularly in enhancing the reliability of the factors. Mean scores and the range of scores highlight considerable variation among the five factors in Montessori implementation, suggesting variation in the way Dutch schools apply these Montessori principles.
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Montessori education has existed for more than 100 years and counts almost 16,000 schools worldwide (Debs et al., 2022). Still, little is known about the implementation and fidelity of Montessori principles. Measuring implementations holds significant importance as it provides insight into current Montessori practices and because it is assumed that implementation might influence its effectiveness. In the Netherlands, it is especially important to measure fidelity because of the country’s history of flexible implementation of Montessori principles. No instruments currently exist that are specifically designed to measure Montessori implementation in the Dutch context. This study aims to validate a translated version of the Teacher Questionnaire for Montessori Practices, developed by Murray et al. (2019), within the Dutch early childhood education context. Additionally, it seeks to investigate the extent to which Montessori principles are implemented in Dutch early childhood schools. Data were collected from 131 early childhood Montessori teachers. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the Dutch dataset did not align with the factor structure proposed by Murray et al. (2019). Subsequent exploratory factor analysis led to the identification of a 3-factor solution, encompassing dimensions related to Children’s Freedom, Teacher Guidance, and Curriculum, which shows some similarities with Murray et al.’s (2019) factors. Implementation levels in the Netherlands varied, with the highest level of implementation observed in Children’s Freedom and the lowest in Curriculum.
Montessori education, implemented in nearly 16,000 schools globally, exhibits variations in practice. While the effectiveness of Montessori education is evident, it remains unclear which specific factors of Montessori education caused its ffectiveness. Which Montessori principles are related to the fact that Montessori students outperformed their counterparts in conventional schools? Understanding these factors is crucial, especially given the diverse implementations of Montessori education. This lack of explanations of why Montessori education works, stems partly from limitations in research, which often does not measure Montessori implementation and for mostly assumes that all schools implement Montessori principles in the same ways and to the same extent. To better understand how Montessorio works, requires a better understanding of the way it is implemented. This way we can gain more insights into the relationship between Montessori implementation and effectiveness. Therefore, we developed a practice-based observation tool, the Tool for Observing Montessori Implementation (TOMI), for measuring Montessori implementation in elementary classrooms in the Netherlands. Its development included clarifying subscales, aligning it with the Dutch context, conducting literature reviews, and adding criteria for scoring. Pilot testing involved observations, questionnaires, and follow-up interviews, revealing varying levels of Montessori implementation in the Netherlands. Results underscore the importance of integrating observed practices and teacher perspectives for a comprehensive understanding of Montessori implementation. The development of TOMI contributes to advancing the measurement and understanding of Montessori implementation.
Background
Montessori education is the oldest and most widely implemented alternative education in the world, yet its effectiveness has not been clearly established.
Objectives
The primary objective of this review was to examine the effectiveness of Montessori education in improving academic and nonacademic outcomes compared to traditional education. The secondary objectives were to determine the degree to which grade level, Montessori setting (public Montessori vs. private Montessori), random assignment, treatment duration, and length of follow‐up measurements moderate the magnitude of Montessori effects.
Search Methods
We searched for relevant studies in 19 academic databases, in a variety of sources known to publish gray literature, in Montessori‐related journals, and in the references of studies retrieved through these searches. Our search included studies published during or before February 2020. The initial search was performed in March 2014 with a follow‐up search in February 2020.
Selection Criteria
We included articles that compared Montessori education to traditional education, contributed at least one effect size to an academic or nonacademic outcome, provided sufficient data to compute an effect size and its variance, and showed sufficient evidence of baseline equivalency–through random assignment or statistical adjustment–of Montessori and traditional education groups.
Data Collection and Analysis
To synthesize the data, we used a cluster‐robust variance estimation procedure, which takes into account statistical dependencies in the data. Otherwise, we used standard methodological procedures as specified in the Campbell Collaboration reporting and conduct standards.
Main Results
Initial searches yielded 2012 articles, of which 173 were considered in detail to determine whether they met inclusion/exclusion criteria. Of these, 141 were excluded and 32 were included. These 32 studies yielded 204 effect sizes (113 academic and 91 nonacademic) across 132,249 data points. In the 32 studies that met minimum standards for inclusion, including evidence of baseline equivalence, there was evidence that Montessori education outperformed traditional education on a wide variety of academic and nonacademic outcomes. For academic outcomes, Hedges' g effect sizes, where positive values favor Montessori, ranged from 0.26 for general academic ability (with high quality evidence) to 0.06 for social studies. The quality of evidence for language (g = 0.17) and mathematics (g = 0.22) was also high. The effect size for a composite of all academic outcomes was 0.24. Science was the only academic outcome that was deemed to have low quality of evidence according to the GRADE approach. Effect sizes for nonacademic outcomes ranged from 0.41 for students' inner experience of school to 0.23 for social skills. Both of these outcomes were deemed as having low quality of evidence. Executive function (g = 0.36) and creativity (g = 0.26) had moderate quality of evidence. The effect size for a composite of all nonacademic outcomes was 0.33. Moderator analyses of the composite academic and nonacademic outcomes showed that Montessori education resulted in larger effect sizes for randomized studies compared to nonrandomized studies, for preschool and elementary settings compared to middle school or high school settings, and for private Montessori compared to public Montessori. Moderator analyses for treatment duration and duration from intervention to follow‐up data collection were inconclusive. There was some evidence for a lack of small sample‐size studies in favor of traditional education, which could be an indicator of publication bias. However, a sensitivity analysis indicated that the findings in favor of Montessori education were nonetheless robust.
Authors' Conclusions
Montessori education has a meaningful and positive impact on child outcomes, both academic and nonacademic, relative to outcomes seen when using traditional educational methods.
Most American classrooms employ a teacher-text-centered model of instruction that is misaligned with the developmental science of how children naturally learn. This article reviews that science and the origins of the common instructional model, including three modifications intended to make it work better (grades, age-graded classrooms, and high-stakes testing) yet which time has shown are problematic. Considering scientific theory change, I show how parallel circumstances exist between the situation in education today and pre-Copernican astronomy, building the case that education is now ripe for a paradigm shift in its instructional model, away from teacher-text-centered learning and to highly structured instructional environments that support self-construction through limited free choice. One proven model that responds to our world's contemporary needs is described, and a prescription is offered for how to bring about a paradigm shift in educational practice.
Montessori pedagogy is a century-old, whole-school system increasingly used in the public sector. In the United States, public Montessori schools are typically Title I schools that mostly serve children of color. The present secondary, exploratory data analysis examined outcomes of 134 children who entered a lottery for admission to public Montessori schools in the northeastern United States at age 3; half were admitted and enrolled and the rest enrolled at other preschool programs. About half of the children were identified as White, and half were identified as African American, Hispanic, or multiracial. Children were tested in the fall when they enrolled and again in the subsequent three springs (i.e., through the kindergarten year) on a range of measures addressing academic outcomes, executive function, and social cognition. Although the Black, Hispanic, and multiracial group tended to score lower in the beginning of preschool in both conditions, by the end of preschool, the scores of Black, Hispanic, and multiracial students enrolled in Montessori schools were not different from the White children; by contrast, such students in the business-as-usual schools continued to perform less well than White children in academic achievement and social cognition. The study has important limitations that lead us to view these findings as exploratory, but taken together with other findings, the results suggest that Montessori education may create an environment that is more conducive to racial and ethnic parity than other school environments.
Montessori teachers in public schools navigate a system daily that often does not align with their pedagogy, and district policies push them to stray from high-fidelity implementation. Using Weick’s sensemaking theory and literature on Montessori teacher identity, I contend that Montessori teachers’ identity plays a crucial role in how, or if, they respond to educational policies that may not seemingly align with the Montessori Method. The overarching purpose of this study was to understand Montessori public school teachers’ experiences with policies that influence their pedagogy. Through qualitative interviews and a culminating group-level assessment session, three themes emerged as teachers shared their experiences with educational policies: (a) Montessori pedagogy is more than the materials, (b) districts often force district-wide requirements that are at odds with the Montessori pedagogy, and (c) Montessori teachers in public schools do not feel supported. This article concludes with a discussion of how to better support Montessori teachers in public school settings based on the study’s findings.
Montessori education is distinct for its implementation in 154 countries around the world. Lacking a Montessori trademark or comprehensive overseeing body, the expansion of the Montessori approach has often been diffuse and fragmented among competing organizations. The absence of centralized, accurate, and consistent accounting has made it difficult to document the scope, growth trends, and diverse populations of students served in Montessori schools. The primary objective of this study was to gather evidence to support a robust estimate of the number of Montessori schools worldwide. This estimate relies on national and regional organizations' broadest definitions of what constitutes a Montessori program. The study included two components: a survey of regional and national Montessori organizations and supplemental sources, including other published estimates and direct inquiries within key countries. Multiple sources allowed for triangulating data to reach a more confident estimate for the number of schools in each country and for synthesizing global perspectives on significant elements of Montessori fidelity worldwide. Through these sources, we document a total of 15,763 Montessori schools around the globe, roughly 9% of which are government funded. Countries with the largest number of Montessori schools are the United
Philipp Abraham Kohnstamm (1875–1951) was one of the founders of Dutch educational science and a key figure in the New Education movement in the Netherlands. This article has three aims: first, to depict Kohnstamm as an insightful example in the process of sharing and adopting ideas around New Education and the implementation of these ideas in the Dutch context. Second, to demonstrate that the New School ideas Kohnstamm embraced − such as the Dalton Plan (of Helen Parkhurst, 1887−1952) and the Gary Plan (of William Wirt, 1874–1938) − fitted in with his philosophy of personalism; this philosophy also explains why he did not choose Montessori education, which was very popular in the Netherlands during his time. Third, that this philosophy at the same time partly explains the initial limited impact Kohnstamm had on Dutch education.
Previous research on Montessori preschool education is inconsistent and prone to analytic flexibility. In this preregistered study, disadvantaged preschoolers in a French public school were randomly assigned to either conventional or Montessori classrooms, with the latter being adapted to French public education. Adaptations included fewer materials, shorter work periods, and relatively limited Montessori teacher training. Cross-sectional analyses in kindergarten (N = 176; Mage = 5–6) and longitudinal analyses over the 3 years of preschool (N = 70; Mage = 3–6) showed that the adapted Montessori curriculum was associated with outcomes comparable to the conventional curriculum on math, executive functions, and social skills. However, disadvantaged kindergarteners from Montessori classrooms outperformed their peers on reading (d = 0.68). This performance was comparable to that of advantaged children from an accredited Montessori preschool.
Researchers who study any intervention must rule out potential alternative explanations for their results by establishing that the program being investigated is implemented with fidelity. Various instructional practices are attributed to the Montessori Method because the term is not legally protected, meaning any school can say it is Montessori regardless of the degree to which it adheres to practices generally understood to represent Montessori education. Researchers have used a variety of tools to measure the fidelity of Montessori environments they study, but most of these tools lack an extensive psychometric foundation or are labor intensive, requiring in-person observation. The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of instruments that were developed to measure Montessori implementation through Early Childhood (EC) and Elementary (EL) teachers’ reported instructional practices. Findings supported three hypothesized dimensions of Montessori implementation (structure, curriculum, and freedom), which worked fairly well in describing practices. While the properties of these instruments are promising and provide preliminary supporting evidence, results of this analysis suggest further refinement of the items in these instruments is necessary with larger and more diverse samples. While we do not suggest that these are finalized tools, we believe they provide a valuable starting point that is a vast improvement over the requirement of investigators to develop their own instruments as part of each Montessori study they design. The authors hope other researchers will incorporate these instruments into their studies to help build a robust body of evidence supporting their use.
Maria Montessori developed a form of education in the first half of the last century that came to be called by her surname, and research indicates it often has positive outcomes. In the years since its development, tens of thousands of schools worldwide have called their programs Montessori, yet implementations vary widely, leading to confusion about what Montessori education is. Although there are varied opinions, here we use Dr. Montessori’s books and transcribed lectures to describe the conclusions of her work at her life’s end. We term this final conclusion authentic in the sense of “done in the traditional or original way,” (the primary definition of the adjective in Oxford English Dictionary, 2019). We do not claim that the original is superior to variants; this is an issue for empirical science. Our overarching goal is to provide researchers, policy makers, administrators, teachers, and parents with a benchmark from which to measure and evaluate variations from the education method Dr. Montessori bequeathed at the end of her life. In the ongoing search for alternative educational methods, the time-honored and burgeoning Montessori system is of considerable interest. Dr. Montessori conceptualized the system as a triangle for which the environment, the teacher, and the child formed the legs. Part I of this two-part article examines Dr. Montessori’s view of what constitutes the environment, in terms of its material, temporal, and social features. An appendix to Part II summarizes the features. In the ongoing search for alternative educational methods, the time-honored and burgeoning Montessori system is of considerable interest. Dr. Montessori conceptualized the system as a triangle for which the environment, the teacher, and the child formed the legs. Part I of this two-part article examines Dr. Montessori’s view of what constitutes the environment, in terms of its material, temporal, and social features. An appendix to Part II summarizes the features.
Montessori education has a long history, but its recent growth in American public
schools has led to increased interest in research efforts, particularly in exploring the potential of the Montessori experience to moderate the effects of poverty and in gathering data to evaluate public investment in Montessori schools. To assist research efforts, this paper introduces a comprehensive visual model, or logic model, that depicts the core components, underlying assumptions, and intended outcomes of the Montessori approach. Logic modeling, which results in a visual representation depicting the connections among a program’s inputs, primary activities, and outcomes, is often used in program planning and research to provide a common framework from which to work. Developed over a 3-year period by a collaborative group of experienced Montessori researchers and practitioners, the Logic Model for Montessori Education presented in this paper is a valuable tool for researchers with the potential to lay a foundation across disciplines for future research that
is both rigorous and systematic in its measurement of Montessori processes and outcomes.
Quality preschool programs that develop the whole child through age-appropriate socioemotional and cognitive skill-building hold promise for significantly improving child outcomes. However, preschool programs tend to either be teacher-led and didactic, or else to lack academic content. One preschool model that involves both child-directed, freely chosen activity and academic content is Montessori. Here we report a longitudinal study that took advantage of randomized lottery-based admission to two public Montessori magnet schools in a high-poverty American city. The final sample included 141 children, 70 in Montessori and 71 in other schools, most of whom were tested 4 times over 3 years, from the first semester to the end of preschool (ages 3–6), on a variety of cognitive and socio-emotional measures. Montessori preschool elevated children’s outcomes in several ways. Although not different at the first test point, over time the Montessori children fared better on measures of academic achievement, social understanding, and mastery orientation, and they also reported relatively more liking of scholastic tasks. They also scored higher on executive function when they were 4. In addition to elevating overall performance on these measures, Montessori preschool also equalized outcomes among subgroups that typically have unequal outcomes. First, the difference in academic achievement between lower income Montessori and higher income conventionally schooled children was smaller at each time point, and was not (statistically speaking) significantly different at the end of the study. Second, defying the typical finding that executive function predicts academic achievement, in Montessori classrooms children with lower executive function scored as well on academic achievement as those with higher executive function. This suggests that Montessori preschool has potential to elevate and equalize important outcomes, and a larger study of public Montessori preschools is warranted.
The Montessori educational method has existed for over 100 years, but evaluations of its effectiveness are scarce. This review paper has three aims, namely to (1) identify some key elements of the method, (2) review existing evaluations of Montessori education, and (3) review studies that do not explicitly evaluate Montessori education but which evaluate the key elements identified in (1). The goal of the paper is therefore to provide a review of the evidence base for Montessori education, with the dual aspirations of stimulating future research and helping teachers to better understand whether and why Montessori education might be effective.
Over many decades, educators have developed countless interventions and theories about
how to create lasting change. Implementation research is the study of these efforts with a
set of basic questions: What are we doing? Is it working? For whom? Where? When? How?
And, Why? In other words, implementation research is an endeavor to understand if and
how educational efforts are accomplishing their goals. This chapter describes the landscape
of implementation research, tracing it back to its historical roots and connecting it to
other fields with the aim of identifying common threads across diverse efforts. The authors
survey where the field is today and highlight different perspectives on complex questions
that have long troubled researchers. They outline some of the sticky issues ahead and make
a case for shared conceptual clarity and clearly communicated and understood language
that will help researchers understand how various bodies of implementation research
work are related. The authors conclude by describing the opportunity presented to the
education research community in this moment: to capitalize on and learn from historical
and contemporary work in education and other fields, and to identify connections across
theories and approaches and find ways to collectively move forward toward the shared goal
of making education better.
Predicting the factor structure of a test and comparing this with the factor structure, empirically derived from the item scores, is a powerful test of the content validity of the test items, the theory justifying the prediction, and the test's construct validity. For the last two decades, the preferred method for such testing has often been confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA expresses the degree of discrepancy between predicted and empirical factor structure in X ² and indices of “goodness of fit” (GOF), while primary factor loadings and modification indices provide some feedback on item level. However, the latter feedback is very limited, while X ² and the GOF indices appear to be problematic. This will be demonstrated by a selective review of the literature on CFA.
Researchers must make numerous choices when conducting factor analyses, each of which can have significant ramifications on the model results. They must decide on an appropriate sample size to achieve accurate parameter estimates and adequate power, a factor model and estimation method, a method for determining the number of factors and evaluating model fit, and a rotation criterion. Unfortunately, researchers continue to use outdated methods in each of these areas. The present article provides a current overview of these areas in an effort to provide researchers with up-to-date methods and considerations in both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. A demonstration was provided to illustrate current approaches. Choosing between confirmatory and exploratory methods is also discussed, as researchers often make incorrect assumptions about the application of each.
Social scientists frequently study complex constructs. Despite the plethora of measures for these constructs, researchers
may need to create their own measure for a particular study. When a measure is created, psychometric testing is required,
and the first step is to study the content validity of the measure. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how to conduct
a content validity study, including how to elicit the most from a panel of experts by collecting specific data. Instructions
on how to calculate a content validity index, factorial validity index, and an interrater reliability index and guide for
interpreting these indices are included. Implications regarding the value of conducting a content validity study for practitioners
and researchers are discussed.
Education researchers are being asked to conduct rigorous, scientifically based studies of K–12 curriculum interventions; therefore, the need for measuring fidelity of implementation and empirically relating it to outcomes (the chief rationale for this review) is warranted to ensure internal and external validity. The results of this review indicate that there are too few studies to guide researchers on how fidelity of implementation to core curriculum interventions can be measured and related to outcomes, particularly within efficacy and effectiveness studies, where the requirements for fidelity measures differ. This review attempts to clarify the definition, conceptualization, and measurement of fidelity of implementation and to guide future researchers in understanding how fidelity of implementation can be used to adjust or interpret outcome measures.
Research on the outcomes of Montessori education is scarce and results are inconsistent. One possible reason for the inconsistency is variations in Montessori implementation fidelity. To test whether outcomes vary according to implementation fidelity, we examined preschool children enrolled in high fidelity classic Montessori programs, lower fidelity Montessori programs that supplemented the program with conventional school activities, and, for comparison, conventional programs. Children were tested at the start and end of the school year on a range of social and academic skills. Although they performed no better in the fall, children in Classic Montessori programs, as compared with children in Supplemented Montessori and Conventional programs, showed significantly greater school-year gains on outcome measures of executive function, reading, math, vocabulary, and social problem-solving, suggesting that high fidelity Montessori implementation is associated with better outcomes than lower fidelity Montessori programs or conventional programs.
An analysis of students' academic and social scores compares a Montessori school with other elementary school education programs.
Determining the number of factors in exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is crucial because it affects the rest of the analysis and the conclusions of the study. Researchers have developed various methods for deciding the number of factors to retain in EFA, but this remains one of the most difficult decisions in the EFA. The purpose of this study is to compare the parallel analysis with the performance of fit indices that researchers have started using as another strategy for determining the optimal number of factors in EFA. The Monte Carlo simulation was conducted with ordered categorical items because there are mixed results in previous simulation studies, and ordered categorical items are common in behavioral science. The results of this study indicate that the parallel analysis and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) performed well in most conditions, followed by the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) and then by the comparative fit index (CFI). The robust corrections of CFI, TLI, and RMSEA performed better in detecting misfit underfactored models than the original fit indices. However, they did not produce satisfactory results in dichotomous data with a small sample size. Implications, limitations of this study, and future research directions are discussed.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was an Italian physician, anthropologist, and educator known around the world for her educational philosophy and pedagogy. Her work encourages educational environments tailored to the child where autonomy and independence are encouraged in the contexts of building community and peace education. The Bloomsbury Handbook of Montessori Education showcases the history, pedagogy, global nature of Montessori and current cutting-edge work in the field of Montessori education. Divided into six sections, the Handbook covers the foundations and evolution of the field; Montessori's key writings; implications for pedagogy; key themes and scientific research; the global reach of Montessori; and contemporary considerations such gender, inclusive education, race and multilingualism. Written by scholars and practitioners based in over 20 countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Italy, Kenya, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, the UK and the USA, this the go-to reference work for anyone interested in Montessori education.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was an Italian physician, anthropologist, and educator known around the world for her educational philosophy and pedagogy. Her work encourages educational environments tailored to the child where autonomy and independence are encouraged in the contexts of building community and peace education. The Bloomsbury Handbook of Montessori Education showcases the history, pedagogy, global nature of Montessori and current cutting-edge work in the field of Montessori education. Divided into six sections, the Handbook covers the foundations and evolution of the field; Montessori's key writings; implications for pedagogy; key themes and scientific research; the global reach of Montessori; and contemporary considerations such gender, inclusive education, race and multilingualism. Written by scholars and practitioners based in over 20 countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Italy, Kenya, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, the UK and the USA, this the go-to reference work for anyone interested in Montessori education.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was an Italian physician, anthropologist, and educator known around the world for her educational philosophy and pedagogy. Her work encourages educational environments tailored to the child where autonomy and independence are encouraged in the contexts of building community and peace education. The Bloomsbury Handbook of Montessori Education showcases the history, pedagogy, global nature of Montessori and current cutting-edge work in the field of Montessori education. Divided into six sections, the Handbook covers the foundations and evolution of the field; Montessori's key writings; implications for pedagogy; key themes and scientific research; the global reach of Montessori; and contemporary considerations such gender, inclusive education, race and multilingualism. Written by scholars and practitioners based in over 20 countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Italy, Kenya, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, the UK and the USA, this the go-to reference work for anyone interested in Montessori education.
ABSTRACT An Examination of Implementation Practices in Montessori Early Childhood Education by Carolyn Jean Daoust Doctor of Philosophy
This study compared the motivation and quality of experience of demographically matched students from Montessori and traditional middle school programs. Approximately 290 students responded to the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) and filled out questionnaires. Multivariate analyses showed that the Montessori students reported greater affect, potency (i.e., feeling energetic), intrinsic motivation, flow experience, and undivided interest (i.e., the combination of high intrinsic motivation and high salience or importance) while engaged in academic activities at school. The traditional middle school students reported higher salience while doing academic work; however, such responses were often accompanied by low intrinsic motivation. When engaged in informal, nonacademic activities, the students in both school contexts reported similar experiences. These results are discussed in terms of current thought on motivation in education and middle school reform.
The authors conducted a content analysis on new scale development articles appearing in the Journal of Counseling Psychology during 10 years (1995 to 2004). The authors analyze and discuss characteristics of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis procedures in these scale development studies with respect to sample characteristics, factorability, extraction methods, rotation methods, item deletion or retention, factor retention, and model fit indexes. The authors uncovered a variety of specific practices that were at variance with the current literature on factor analysis or structural equation modeling. They make recommendations for best practices in scale development research in counseling psychology using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
A list is given, for reference, of various approximate tests, based on the asymptotic approximations for likelihood ratios, but with adjusted multiplying factors.
A review of the assessment of face validity in consumer-related scale development research is reported, suggesting that concerns over the lack of consistency and guidance regarding item retention during the expert judging phase of scale development are warranted. After analyzing data from three scale development efforts, guidance regarding the application of different decision rules to use for item retention is offered. Additionally, the results suggest that research using new, changed, or previously unexamined scale items should, at a minimum, be judged for face validity.
Considers the effects of those who wanted to minimize classroom teaching in elementary schools, infant schools and infant departments. Explores the ideas of Maria Montessori, the debate between whole-class methods and individualized instruction, grouping students by ability, and the notion of individualism. (CMK)
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
During her life, Cornelia Philippi-Siewertsz van Reesema (1880-1963) endeavoured to contribute to the improvement of preschool education in the Netherlands. She devoted herself to this work until very late in life. Nevertheless, after her death, she was all but forgotten and historians of pedagogy and education had little interest in her work. Historic pedagogical overviews pay ample attention to F. Frobel and M. Montessori, but not to Philippi. Consequently, very few people are familiar with Philippi's contribution to the development of early childhood education, making it an unexplored area in the history of education. Preschool education i tself has been a neglected subject in the history of early childhood education. In this thesis. I would like to explore these areas by researching Philippi's significance to early childhood education and giving her the recognition in the history of the preschool education that she deserves. Philippi left an impressive archive of her work, which I have used extensively during my research. The disadvantage of this approach is that the data are subjective because they have been interpreted by Philippi. However, I could not have written this book without this unexplored source. I have also consulted various other archives, such as the Siewertsz van Reesema family archive that I could use without restriction and the archives of the Dutch Montessori Association, J. Piaget's archive in Geneva and the Teachers College archive in New York where a copy of Philippi's book Pioniers der Volksopvoeding(Pioneers of Education) is stored. I used literature on history and pedagogy to describe the social and cultural context of Philippi's time.
An index of factorial simplicity, employing the quartimax transformational criteria of Carroll, Wrigley and Neuhaus, and Saunders, is developed. This index is both for each row separately and for a factor pattern matrix as a whole. The index varies between zero and one. The problem of calibrating the index is discussed.
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