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Factors and comparative analysis of COVID-19’s impact
on household food security in rural and urban regions
Panggulu Ahmad RAMADHANI UTORO1, Agustu SHOLEH PUJOKARONI1, Qurratu AINI2, Bernatal SARAGIH1
1 Department of Agricultural Product Technology, Mulawarman University, Jl. Pasir Balengkong, Gunung Kelua, Samarinda, Indonesia.
2 Department of Agribusiness, Mulawarman University, Jl. Pasir Balengkong, Gunung Kelua, Samarinda, Indonesia.
Recibido: 8/noviembre/2024. Aceptado: 5/diciembre/2024.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly
affected household food security in Indonesia, particularly in
both rural and urban areas. This study compares food secu-
rity between rural and urban households during the pan-
demic. This study aims to compare food security between ru-
ral (Paser Regency) and urban (Balikpapan City) households
during the pandemic.
Methods: Using a cross-sectional design, 300 households
were sampled (150 each from Balikpapan and Paser), with data
collected through interviews and questionnaires. Household in-
come, food, and non-food expenditure were analyzed using
Pearson correlation with IBM SPSS Statistics 24.
Result: The results of the correlation test showed that the in-
crease in spending on food consumption during the COVID-19
pandemic had a significant positive correlation with food secu-
rity in rural areas and moderate overall. Spending on non-food
items had a small positive correlation in rural and urban. Post-
COVID-19 income positively correlated in rural areas but weaker
in urban areas. Social assistance receipts are negatively associ-
ated with food security in rural areas and urban areas. Maternal
concerns about home food provision significantly negatively cor-
related with rural and overall.
Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly im-
pacted household spending on food consumption, both in ur-
ban and rural areas. A positive correlation exists between in-
creased food expenditure and food security in rural areas, but
social assistance recipients tend to have lower food security.
The government needs to strengthen food assistance pro-
grams and diversify sources of income in rural areas through
job training and small business support.
KEYWORDS
Basic needs, food vulnerability, inequality, socioeconomic
impact, subsistence.
INTRODUCTION
The COVID-19 pandemic that has spread since early 2020
has changed various aspects of human life throughout the
worldwide. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted
Indonesia, with the first confirmed case reported on March 2,
2020. As of June 3, 2020, there have been 28,233 confirmed
cases of COVID-19 in the country, resulting in a current inci-
dence rate of 0.11‰. Unfortunately, the senior population has
been hit the hardest, with a death rate of 17.68%. Among
COVID-19 patients, the most common symptoms reported
were fever in the past (50.4%), fever at present (47.1%), and
cough (76.2%)1. Research by Bautista Jacobo et al. 2023 re-
garding eating disorders, it was found that one in five
University in North-Western Mexico students surveyed were at
risk of developing an eating disorder. The dominant level of
anxiety in respondents during the pandemic ranged from mod-
erate to severe. The most common symptoms experienced by
students are nervousness, lack of relaxation, and fear that
something bad will happen. This suggests that the effects of
COVID-19 can attack psychology.
One of the significant impacts of this pandemic is related
to household food security, especially in rural and urban ar-
eas. Food security is the ability of a household or community
to meet staple food needs such as food, and access to suffi-
cient, safe, balanced, and nutritious food. The COVID-19
pandemic has triggered several factors that can influence
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Nutr Clín Diet Hosp. 2025; 45(1):61-68
Correspondencia:
Bernatal Saragih
saragih_bernatal@yahoo.com
Nutr Clín Diet Hosp. 2025; 45(1):61-68
DOI: 10.12873/451utoro
household food security, including limitations on the acquisi-
tion of farm inputs, movement restrictions, and job loss or
reduced income3,4.
Indonesia’s economy has been significantly impacted by
COVID-19, which has caused economic decline in several sec-
tors. The industries most impacted were the household sec-
tor, trade, tourism, transportation, and health5. The impact of
the pandemic on economic activity and food supply networks
has raised serious concerns about the relationship between
COVID-19 and food security in Indonesia. Research has indi-
cated that food insecurity has increased because of the epi-
demic, especially for vulnerable groups like young children6.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, food security in Indonesia
is a complicated problem that differs depending on the area
and people. A study carried out in Indonesia revealed that
42% of the nation still experiences low food security, with ar-
eas like DKI Jakarta, West Java, Banten, Bali, Central
Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, North
Sulawesi, West Papua, and Papua being particularly affected7.
The impact of the COVID-19 outbreak in Indonesia has been
different in urban and rural areas, affecting various aspects of
life. Furthermore, a cross-sectional study conducted in
Indonesia suggested that the limitations placed on commu-
nity activities during the pandemic hurt the mental well-being
of residents living in both urban and rural areas8. In another
research during the COVID-19 pandemic, 20.2% of individu-
als in a study on pregnant women in Semarang, Indonesia,
reported having mild to moderate to severe anxiety. Low
COVID-19 knowledge and gravida for the first or > fourth
time were factors linked to anxiety levels9.
The following are the primary causes of food insecurity in
Indonesia during the COVID-19 pandemic: 1. Economic
downturn: people who are unemployed or losing their income
have seen a decrease in purchasing power due to the epi-
demic, primarily affected the middle and lower classes10,
2. Cost increases for staple foods: as a result of the epidemic,
staple food costs have gone up, making it more difficult for
households to afford a balanced diet10, 3. Food supply chain
disruption: as a result of the pandemic’s disruption of food
supply systems, there is a shortage of food in some places7,
4. Legal and economic policies: food insecurity and inequality
in Indonesia have been made worse by ingrained elements
connected to the country’s legal and economic systems10, and
5. Lack of access to assistance: due to a lack of legal identity,
impoverished women, especially those who have recently di-
vorced, may encounter difficulties getting support from pro-
grams aimed at reducing poverty11. In summary, the relation-
ship between COVID-19 and food security in Indonesia is a
complicated one that calls for constant observation and action
to lessen its detrimental effects on people who are already at
risk. This study aims to compare food security in rural and ur-
ban households during the COVID-19 pandemic with 16 inde-
pendent variables that have been selected.
METHODS
Study Design
The methodology for this study involved a clustered sam-
pling approach, in which each location was carefully chosen
based on its frequency in the area12. The study honed in on
households within each subdistrict and utilized the clusters of
each integrated healthcare center as a basis. The total num-
ber of samples used was n = 300 with the division of n = 150
Balikpapan City and n = 150 Paser Regency. This study is a
cross-sectional investigation aimed at documenting the state
of household food security in East Kalimantan, Indonesia,
amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. This research encompasses
both urban (Balikpapan City) and rural (Paser Regency) ar-
eas, guided by the Decree of the Minister of National
Development Planning of the Republic of Indonesia Number
42/M.PPN/HK/04/202013. This investigation take place be-
tween May and September 2022 and received ethical ap-
proval from the Ethics Committee for Research Involving
Human Subjects at the Bogor Agricultural Institute (refer-
ence number 680/IT3.KEPMSM-IPB/SK/2022).
Data Collection
This study collected primary data obtained from interview us-
ing questionnaire and in-depth interview about COVID-19 im-
pact at household level. Household income and expenditure are
assessed using instruments adapted from the 2020 National
Social Economic Survey14 about household food expenditure,
consumption, income, and revenue. Expenditure covers ex-
penses on food (staple food, vegetables, and raw protein, pre-
pared food, and beverages) and non-food (medicine, vitamins,
sanitation, cellular credit/data pacakge). The structure of the
selected survey questions is presented in table 1.
Statistical Analysis
The data obtained was processed using Ms. Office Excel
2019 related to the 16 variables selected. Pearson’s correlation
descriptive statistics were used to analyze 16 variables selected
with food security through the Food Insecurity Experience
Scale (FIES) using software IBM SPSS Statistic 24.
RESULTS
Based on the data in table 2, several significant findings are
related to changes in maternal expenditure and conditions in ur-
ban and rural areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. First,
changes in household spending on food consumption have
mainly remained stable in both regions, with 58% of households
in urban areas and 65% in rural areas unchanged. However,
there is almost the same percentage between the increase in
food expenditure in urban (24%) and rural (25%).
Second, spending on non-food items was essentially un-
changed in both regions, although there was a slight differ-
ence, with more households in rural areas (58.7%) reporting
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FACTORS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVID-19’S IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN RURAL AND URBAN REGIONS
no change than in urban (48.7%). The same is true for
changes in total household spending, with most households
in rural (56%) and urban (45.3%) reporting no change.
Expenditure on staple foods showed a dominance of increase
in both regions, although slightly higher in urban areas
(78.7%) than in rural areas (74%). As for ready-to-eat food
and beverages, more households in rural areas (54.7%) re-
ported changes compared to urban (50%).
Regarding health, most households in both regions experi-
enced increased spending on medicines and sanitation, with the
percentage almost the same between urban (75.3%) and rural
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Nutr Clín Diet Hosp. 2025; 45(1):61-68
Table 1. List of survey questions
No Questions Category
1Compared to the time since the COVID-19 outbreak occurred, how has the expenditure on food/food
ingredients consumed/ eaten/ drunk/ cooked/ used/ consumed by your household today?
1. Increase
2. No Change
3. Increase
2Compared to the time since the COVID-19 outbreak occurred, how has your current expenditure on non-
household food items changed?
1. Increase
2. No Change
3. Increase
3When compared to since the COVID-19 outbreak occurred, what is the total of all your household
expenses today?
1. Increase
2. No Change
3. Increase
4Which production change is the most dominant? Food ingredients (staple food, vegetables, and raw
protein sources)?
1. Yes
2. No
5Which production change is the most dominant? Prepared food and beverages? 1. Yes
2. No
6Which production change is the most dominant? Health (medicine, vitamins, and sanitation)? 1. Yes
2. No
7Which production change is the most dominant? Cellular credit/data package? 1. Yes
2. No
8What has been the impact on your income since the Covid-19 outbreak occurred?
1. Increase
2. No Change
3. Increase
9During the pandemic, did you ever receive social assistance from the government? (cash or staple food) 1. Yes
2. No
10 The current condition and various news reports about Covid-19, have made me feel (Mother): 1. Not affected
2. Worried
11 After COVID-19, Mother’s perception of maternal health 1. Not affected
2. Worried
12 After COVID-19, Mother’s perception of the health of family members 1. Not affected
2. Worried
13 After COVID-19, Mother’s perception when going outside the house 1. Not affected
2. Worried
14 During COVID-19, did you experience unwanted weight loss? 1. Yes
2. No
15 During COVID-19, did your child experience unwanted weight loss? 1. Yes
2. No
16 During COVID-19, are you worried about food availability at home? 1. Yes
2. No
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FACTORS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVID-19’S IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN RURAL AND URBAN REGIONS
Table 2. Results of percentage data processing of each variable in urban and rural
Variabel Category Urban, n (%) Rural, n (%)
Change in food consumption expenditure during COVID-19
1. Increase 36 (24) 37 (25)
2. No Change 87 (58) 97 (65)
3. Increase 27 (18) 16 (11)
Change in spending on non-food items by current households
during COVID-19
1. Increase 62 (41.3) 54 (36)
2. No Change 73 (48.7) 88 (58.7)
3. Increase 15 (10) 8 (5.3)
The total change in all household expenditure now compared
since the COVID-19 outbreak occurred
1. Increase 56 (37.3) 53 (35.3)
2. No Change 68 (45.3) 84 (56)
3. Increase 26 (17.3) 13 (8.7)
The most dominant change in total expenditure for food
ingredients (staple food, vegetables, and raw protein sources)
1. Yes 118 (78.7) 111 (74)
2. No 32 (21.3) 39 (26)
The most dominant change in total expenditure for prepared
food and beverages
1. Yes 75 (50) 82 (54.7)
2. No 75 (50) 68 (45.3)
The most dominant change in total expenditure for health
(medicine, vitamins, and sanitation)
1. Yes 113 (75.3) 108 (72)
2. No 37 (24.7) 42 (28)
The most dominant change in total expenditure for cellular
credit/data package
1. Yes 40 (26.7) 36 (24)
2. No 110 (73.3) 114 (76)
Revenue since the COVID-19 outbreak
1. Increase 10 (6.7) 5 (3.3)
2. No Change 59 (39.3) 87 (58)
3. Increase 81 (54) 58 (38.7)
Received social assistance from the government during
the COVID-19 pandemic (cash or stapel food)
1. Yes 77 (51.3) 92 (61.3)
2. No 73 (48.7) 58 (38.7)
Mother’s worry about conditions during the pandemic due
to various report about COVID-19
1. Not affected 16 (10.7) 24 (16)
2. Worried 134 (89.3) 126 (84)
Mother’s worry about own health during COVID-19 1. Not affected 16 (10.7) 24 (16)
2. Worried 134 (89.3) 126 (84)
Mother’s worry about the health of family members during
COVID-19
1. Not affected 16 (10.7) 25 (16.7)
2. Worried 134 (89.3) 125 (83.3)
Afraid to go outside during COVID-19 1. Not affected 15 (10) 27 (18)
2. Worried 135 (90) 123 (82)
Mother’s experience unintended wight loss during COVID-19 1. Yes 27 (18) 27 (18)
2. No 123 (82) 123 (82)
Mother’s experience unintended child’s weight loss during
COVID-19
1. Yes 5 (3.3) 15 (10)
2. No 145 (96.7) 135 (90)
Mother’s worry about food availability at home 1. Yes 43 (28.7) 46 (30.7)
2. No 107 (71.3) 104 (69.3)
(72%). However, in terms of spending on mobile data packages,
most households have not changed, both in urban (73.3%) and
rural (76%). Household income experienced a significant de-
cline in both regions, with 54% of urban households and 38.7%
of rural households reporting a decrease in income. In addition,
more households in rural areas (61.3%) received social assis-
tance from the government than in urban areas (51.3%).
Maternal concerns related to the pandemic, personal health,
and family members are particularly high in both regions, with
more than 80% of urban and rural mothers reporting such con-
cerns. In addition, fear of leaving the house is more reported
in urban areas (90%) than in rural areas (82%). Regarding
weight change, 18% of mothers in both regions reported unin-
tentional weight loss, but child weight loss was more common
in rural areas (10%) than in urban areas (3.3%).
Overall, these data show that despite some differences,
households in urban and rural areas experienced similar im-
pacts in various aspects during the COVID-19 pandemic, with
households in rural areas more vulnerable to declining in-
comes and more dependent on social assistance.
The results of the correlation test between the selected in-
dependent variable and the dependent variable (Food
Security) in rural, urban, and overall areas (table 3), reveal
several important findings related to changes in expenditure
and concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Changes in expenditure on food consumption have a sig-
nificant positive correlation with food security in rural areas
(r = 0.414), which shows that the increase in spending on
food during the pandemic is closely related to better food se-
curity conditions in rural areas. In urban areas, the correlation
was lower (r = 0.077), and overall, a correlation value of
r = 0.230 showed that a moderate increase in food expendi-
ture was related to food security.
Changes in expenditure on non-food goods showed a slight
positive correlation in rural (r = 0.144) and urban (r = 0.086)
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Table 3. Correlation between 16 variables and dependent variables (food security)
No Variable Rural
(r value)
Urban
(r value)
Overall
(r value)
1Change in food consumption expenditure during COVID-19 0.414** 0.077 0.230**
2Change in spending on non-food items by current households during COVID-19 0.144 0.086 0.113*
3The total change in all household expenditure now compared since the COVID-19
outbreak occurred 0.190* -0.013 0.076
4The most dominant change in total expenditure for food ingredients (staple food,
vegetables, and raw protein sources) 0.089 0.155 0.126*
5The most dominant change in total expenditure for prepared food and beverages 0.160 0.046 0.097
6The most dominant change in total expenditure for health (medicine, vitamins,
and sanitation) 0.080 0.067 0.079
7The most dominant change in total expenditure for cellular credit/data package 0.060 -0,005 0.034
8Revenue since the COVID-19 outbreak 0.177* 0.037 0.086
9Received social assistance from the government during the COVID-19 pandemic
(cash or stapel food) -0.100 -0.141 -0.149**
10 Mother’s worry about conditions during the pandemic due to various report about
COVID-19 0.071 0.047 0.046
11 Mother’s worry about own health during COVID-19 0.071 0.047 0.046
12 Mother’s worry about the health of family members during COVID-19 0.085 0.047 0.052
13 Afraid to go outside during COVID-19 0.076 0.036 0.038
14 Mother’s experience unintended wight loss during COVID-19 -0.100 -0.175* -0.132*
15 Mother’s experience unintended child weight loss during COVID-19 -0.126 -0.066 -0.125**
16 Mother’s worry about food availability at home -0.293** -0.082 -0.196**
(**) Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), (*) Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), and the sign on the correlation co-
efficient (positive or negative) indicates the direction of the relationship. If it is positive, it shows that the higher the independent variable, the
higher the dependent variable. Meanwhile, if it is negative, the higher the independent variable, the lower the dependent variable.
areas, as well as overall (r = 0.113). This indicates that changes
in spending on non-food items are related to food security, al-
though not as strongly as spending on food. The total house-
hold expenditure change had a minimal correlation (r = 0.076).
In rural areas, there was a slight positive correlation (r = 0.190),
while in urban areas, the correlation was negative and insignif-
icant (r = -0.013). This shows that the total change in house-
hold expenditure does not significantly influence food security.
Expenditure on staple foods was positively correlated with
food security in both regions, with higher values in urban
(r = 0.155) than rural (r = 0.089), and overall r = 0.126. This
shows that spending on staple foods (such as basic food-
stuffs, vegetables, and protein) is critical to food security, es-
pecially in urban areas.
Since COVID-19, income has shown a positive correlation
with food security in rural areas (r = 0.177), but only a mini-
mal correlation in urban areas (r = 0.037). The correlation of
income with food security is r = 0.086, indicating that although
some households in rural areas have experienced increased
revenue, the effect on food security is relatively small.
Social assistance receipts negatively correlated in rural
(r = -0.100) and urban (r = -0.141) areas. An overall corre-
lation of r = -0.149 indicates that households receiving social
assistance tend to have lower food security, which may be re-
lated to more vulnerable economic conditions.
Maternal concerns related to home food provision have a
significant negative correlation in rural areas (r = -0.293) and
overall (r = -0.196). This suggests that the increasing concern
of mothers is linked to a decrease in household food security,
particularly in rural areas. Accidental weight loss in urban ar-
eas has a significant negative correlation with food security
(r = -0.175), indicating that mothers who experience weight
loss tend to be in households with lower food security.
Similarly, as concerns about food availability at home rise,
households’ food cesurity is lower.
DISCUSSION
Changes in expenditure on food have not changed signif-
icantly in either region. This indicates that changes in food
consumption levels tend to be stable. Although the condi-
tion in Paser Regency is more stable, it is 10% adrift com-
pared to Balikpapan City. Meanwhile, the increase experi-
enced by respondents in Paser Regency was 35.3%, and
Balikpapan City was 37.3%. Based on of the correlation test
results, expenditure on food consumption in rural areas is
significant (r value = 0.414) compared to urban areas. In
general, expenditure on food consumption is positively cor-
related (r value = 0.230). This condition can occur due to
limited mobility and increasing health problems, necessitat-
ing increased spending on food and health supplies to en-
sure safety and health15,16.
The economic uncertainty during the pandemic also led to a
shift in consumption patterns, with a greater emphasis on
home-cooked meals than prepared foods17. According to
Saragih & Saragih (2020) research shows several factors are in-
terrelated. For instance, changes in eating habits correlate with
age, food diversity correlates with the type of work, breakfast
habits correlate with the type of work, and consumption diver-
sity correlates with changes in eating habits. Conversely, there
are no correlations between consumption diversity and con-
cerns about food shortages, breakfast habits and concerns
about food shortages, herbal drink habits and meal frequency,
and types of herbs and weight gain. The results of another
study by Bautista et al. (2024), the consumption of dietary sup-
plements during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico shows that
more than half of consumers receive recommendations from
health experts. Most of respondents considered that dietary
supplements contributed to the prevention of COVID-19.
Income during the COVID-19 pandemic was relatively sta-
ble in Paser Regency, which experienced a decrease of
38.7% compared to 54% in Balikpapan City. This is in line
with the results of the study Varma et al. (2023), which
stated that informal workers, who constitute 81% of urban
labor in places like India, faced job losses and food access is-
sues during lockdowns.
Urban areas are more affected by several the business sec-
tor conditions in urban areas, including tourism, hospitality, and
transportation, which are directly affected by the COVID-19
pandemic21,22, restrictions on mobility and community activi-
ties that reduce economic activities in urban areas23,24, and
higher unemployment and layoffs in urban areas24. Based on
the results of research conducted by Carrillo-Álvarez et al.
(2024) The city of Catalonia, Spain, stated that urban areas
experienced a 52.1% prevalence of severe food insecurity
among food aid recipients, exacerbated by the pandemic.
Based on the results of the study by Ajibade et al. (2024), key
factors influencing food spending included household income,
size, and the age of the household head, with income being
the most significant determinant.
However, receiving assistance from the government is an
interesting concern based on the findings of this study.
Receiving aid from the government in cash or staple food in
rural areas reached 61.3% compared to urban areas at
51.3%. This shows that rural areas are more vulnerable to
food than urban areas, with the variable of receiving social as-
sistance from the government. At the same time, the overall
correlation results show that this variable is negatively corre-
lated significantly (r-value = -0.149). This can be interpreted
that the more social assistance obtained, the more food inse-
curity can suddenly occur. The link between income levels in
a region and the prevalence of COVID-19 is stronger in rural
areas, indicating a greater need for assistance27.
The variable of maternal weight loss experience during the
COVID-19 pandemic in urban areas was negatively correlated
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FACTORS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVID-19’S IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN RURAL AND URBAN REGIONS
(r-value = -0.175). This can happen to households in urban ar-
eas that experience food insecurity. Overall, this variable also
provides a negative correlation to household food security in
rural and urban areas (r-value = -0.132). Following the results
of research conducted by Vicheet et al. (2024), food security
is not significantly correlated with changes in the weight of
working women in Malaysia in the 18 – 49 age range.
Of the respondents, 69.3% of mothers in Paser Regency
and 71.3% in Balikpapan City stated they were not worried
about food availability at home. The results of the correlation
analysis related to this independent variable with food secu-
rity show that concerns about food availability in rural areas
are more significant for food availability at home compared to
urban areas. However, overall maternal concerns about food
availability are significant (r-value = -0.196), although both
are negatively correlated. This means that this concern only
occurs in households experiencing food insecurity. These vari-
ables reflect the heightened economic uncertainty and shifts
in consumer behavior during the pandemic, as evidenced by
increased expenditure on home-cooked meals and reduced
spending on prepared foods in Indonesia17.
The results showed that the most influential variable on
household food security in rural areas was the change in food
consumption and income distribution during the COVID-19
pandemic. Meanwhile, there is no positive correlation be-
tween independent variables and household food security in
urban areas. This suggests a broader impact on household fi-
nancial decisions and food choices29,30. These findings under-
score the complex interplay between economic factors and
food consumption behaviors during the pandemic, highlight-
ing the need for targeted government interventions to sup-
port vulnerable populations17,31.
STUDY LIMITATIONS
The study involved 300 households from diverse rural and
urban settings, utilizing extensive questionnaires and in-depth
interviews to gather a comprehensive dataset. Meticulous pro-
cessing and validation were required to ensure the reliability of
findings, particularly when addressing the socioeconomic fac-
tors affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The research in-
cluded 16 independent variables related to household food se-
curity, demanding complex statistical analyses to identify
significant patterns. The time-consuming nature of these anal-
yses and the need to cross-validate findings against existing
literature extended the research timeline. The evolving so-
cioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 necessitated consideration
of longitudinal effects, including the sustained influence of
government assistance and shifts in household expenditure
patterns, requiring careful contextual interpretation.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion of this study shows that the COVID-19 pan-
demic significantly impacts household spending, especially
on food consumption, in urban and rural areas. Rural house-
holds are more vulnerable to declining incomes and are more
dependent on social assistance than urban households.
There was a significant positive correlation between in-
creased spending on food and food security in rural areas.
Still, social assistance showed a negative correlation, indicat-
ing that households receiving assistance tended to have
lower food security.
The results of this study suggest the importance of more
targeted government intervention to support vulnerable
households, especially in rural areas that are more dependent
on social assistance. The government needs to strengthen
food assistance programs by improving sustainable food ac-
cess. In addition, diversifying sources of income in rural areas
through job training programs or support for small businesses
can help improve food security. Nutrition and household fi-
nancial management education can also help people adapt to
economic changes during a crisis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the Neys-van Hoogstraten Foundation
(NHF) and IPB University for providing significant funding
for this research through the “Research Grant Proposal
Inter-University Collaboration Program in Food and Nutrition
Security.”
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FACTORS AND COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COVID-19’S IMPACT ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN RURAL AND URBAN REGIONS
