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Innovative
Solutions
for Sustainable
Development
and Inclusive
Growth.
V4 countries
and Ukraine
overview
Cover design
Wojciech Ciągło Studio DTP, www.dtp-studio.pl
Typesetting
Wojciech Ciągło Studio DTP, www.dtp-studio.pl
ISBN 978-83-67673-56-3
Publisher
WSB University
Cieplaka 1c
41-300 Dąbrowa Górnicza
Poland
tel. (32) 295 93 59
e-mail: wydawnictwo@wsb.edu.pl
www.wsb.edu.pl
© Copyright WSB University
All rights reserved.
Dąbrowa Górnicza 2025
Table of contents
Introduction ...................................................................... 5
Valentyna Marchenko, Alla Hrechko
Nataliia Kuzminska, Oksana Kavtysh
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence
the formation of greenhouse gas emissions: volumes
and structure onthe example of Ukraine
and the Visegrád countries. Ways to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions as a basis for SDG implementation ............................. 7
Iwona Krzyzewska, Katarzyna Chruzik
Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs
as an example of enhancing social inclusion ........................... 85
Iwona Krzyzewska, Katarzyna Chruzik
Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer Nodes,
Enhancing Social Inclusion ................................................ 103
Collective of authors from University of Zilina
A low carbon growth of Slovakia ......................................... 125
Iwona Krzyzewska, Katarzyna Chruzik
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? ....................... 147
András Márton
The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas
emissions inthe V4 countries– Hungary’s contribution ............ 163
IntroductionIntroduction
The modern world faces challenges related to the necessity of sustainable develop-
ment, improving the quality of life for citizens, and reducing the negative impact
of human activities on the environment. Transport, as one of the key sectors of the
economy, plays a significant role in shaping modern societies. At the same time, it is
a source of numerous challenges, such as greenhouse gas emissions, infrastructure
accessibility for all social groups, and the need to integrate various modes of trans-
port in a way that promotes social inclusion and environmental protection.
This monograph attempts to address the challenges associated with transform-
ing transport into a more sustainable and inclusive system. The chapters included
focus on different aspects of this process, highlighting the importance of integrated
transport hubs, methods for assessing their efficiency, the environmental impact of
transport, and strategies for supporting low-carbon development.
The first chapter, Methodology of Factors That Influence the Formation of Green-
house Gas, examines how improving accessibility in transport hubs can contribute
to reducing social exclusion. Particular emphasis is placed on the needs of people
with reduced mobility and ways to create more inclusive transport infrastructure.
The second chapter, Improving Accessibility in Integrated Transport Hubs as an
Example of Enhancing Social Inclusion, presents an innovative approach to evalu-
ating the efficiency of integrated transport hubs. This method identifies key factors
influencing accessibility and transport integration, supporting decision-making
processes in spatial planning.
The third chapter, Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer Nodes,
Enhancing Social Inclusion, addresses the issue of greenhouse gas emissions asso-
ciated with transport. It includes a detailed analysis of the factors influencing these
emissions, which can serve as a foundation for developing more effective emission
reduction strategies in the transport sector.
The fourth chapter, A Low Carbon Growth of Slovakia, showcases Slovakia as
a country striving to achieve the goals of low-carbon economic growth. It discusses
political, social, and technological initiatives that support the sustainable develop-
ment of the country.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
6
The fifth chapter, Sustainable Transport, offers a broad perspective on sustain-
able transport, emphasizing the need to combine local and global efforts to achieve
shared environmental and social goals.
This monograph is addressed to researchers, engineers, policymakers, and anyone
interested in sustainable transport development and its impact on society and the
environment. The content aims not only to deepen knowledge but also to inspire
innovative actions in this field.
Valentyna Marchenko1
Alla Hrechko2
Nataliia Kuzminska3
Oksana Kavtysh4
Assessment methodology Assessment methodology
of factors thatinfluence the formation of factors thatinfluence the formation
of greenhouse gas emissions: volumes of greenhouse gas emissions: volumes
and structure onthe example of Ukraine and structure onthe example of Ukraine
and the Visegrád countries. and the Visegrád countries.
Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
as a basis for SDG implementationas a basis for SDG implementation
In the face of increasing threats posed by global warming, understanding the mech-
anisms shaping greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has become a critical issue in en-
vironmental sciences. These emissions significantly impact climate change, public
health, and biodiversity. Consequently, developing effective methods for assessing
the factors inf luencing the volume and structure of GHG emissions is essential for
better forecasting their effects and implementing appropriate mitigation measures.
The aim of this chapter is to present an innovative methodology for evaluating
the determinants of greenhouse gas emissions. This methodology considers various
1 Valentyna Marchenko, Prof., National Technical University of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
2 Alla Hrechko, Prof., National Technical University of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
3 Nataliia Kuzminska, Assoc. Prof., National Technical University of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
4 Oksana Kavtysh, National Academy of Arts of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine; Coordinator of the project, UN
Global Compact Network Ukraine
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
8
aspects, such as emission sources, industrial sector characteristics, environmental
policies, and changes in consumer behavior. In particular, we will focus on identify-
ing the key determinants that have the greatest impact on the quantity and structure
of GHG emissions.
The first part of this work discusses the theoretical foundations of greenhouse gas
emissions and their environmental impact. We will then present the research meth-
ods employed, which include both quantitative and qualitative analyses. In the final
section, we will outline the research findings and their implications for environmen-
tal policy and emission reduction strategies.
Understanding the factors influencing GHG emissions is crucial not only for sci-
entists and policymakers but also for society as a whole. The developed methodology
aims to provide tools for better analyzing and understanding this complex issue, ul-
timately contributing to more effective decision-making in climate protection.
Aims and objectives of the research
The aim of the research is to develop a methodology for identifying local factors
that have the greatest impact on the dynamics of greenhouse gas emission changes
and to assess the behavior of these changes in the context of implementing policies
to combat global warming.
To achieve this goal, the following objectives were identified:
– to assess global trends in greenhouse gas emissions;
– to assess greenhouse gas emissions in Ukraine and the Visegrad countries;
– to research the impact of the war on the environment;
– assess local greenhouse gas emission indexes and identify the type of sustain-
ability of their behavior;
– to conduct an integrated assessment of greenhouse-forming factors;
– summarize the priority directions for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Materials and methods of research
The assessment of factors inf luencing greenhouse gas emissions is based on a con-
ceptual view of emissions as a combined (aggregate) result of the interrelated impact
of economic, social, and environmental factors. In fact, the volumes and structure
of greenhouse gas emissions are influenced by both the use of greenhouse gas sourc-
es and factors of economic and social development. On the other hand, environ-
mental changes in the country lead to economic changes in the economy, influence
social factors in general and the possibility of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in
particular. Therefore, the potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions is a dy-
namic result of the multifactorial impact of factors of different types. For this pur-
pose, a representative database of statistics was selected, which included a number
of traits (characteristics) for assessing economic, environmental and social factors
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
that influence greenhouse gas emissions. The number of characteristics in the as-
sessment was 95. The whole group of factors was divided into 3 local components
according to their relevance to the object of assessment: Economic, social and
environmental.
Table 1. Components of an integrated assessment
Local components Identification of the component
Economic
component
An assessment of the impact of the country’s economic potential
on greenhouse gas emissions
Social
component
An assessment of the impact of demographic and social welfare
factors on greenhouse gas emissions
Environmental
component
An assessment of the level of use of natural processes
that produce greenhouse gasses
To evaluate each of the local components is being proposed a system of char-
acteristics that shows the main trends in the factors influencing greenhouse gas
emissions, and at the same time allows us to analyze the reasons and results of the
carbonate condition. Composite index of integrated assessment allows to deter-
mine the level of sustainability and identify the direction of the country’s decar-
bonization policy.
The group of indicators for the assessment is developed in accordance with the
environmental assessment scheme proposed by the European Environment Agency:
The Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response framework, which is based on the as-
sessment of the main components of the greenhouse cycle. The greenhouse cycle is
assessed by analyzing the input characteristics that produce greenhouse gas emis-
sions to the results of their impact on the environment and the population.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
10
Figure 1. Steps in assessing the integral index of greenhouse-forming factors
Adapting this framework for greenhouse cycle assessment, the following groups
and corresponding indicators for their quantification were selected in the context of
this research:
– As for drivers, these are socio-economic factors and activities that serve as
sources of greenhouse gas emissions (drivers).
– As for pressure, these are greenhouse gas emissions from all statistically con-
firmed sources of pollution (Pressure).
– As for state, these refer to environmental changes resulting from the inf luence
of greenhouse gasses or the impact of greenhouse gasses on the environment
(State).
– In terms of impact, this refers to the effects of environmental changes on public
health and the ecosystems that support human life (Impact).
– As for response, these are decarbonization actions and their effects on climate
change (Response).
In the scheme adapted for the greenhouse cycle assessment, factor Drivers is at-
tributed to the economic component, factors Pressure and State to the environmen-
tal component, and factor Impact to the social component.
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
The methodology for assessing the economic, social and environmental impact
on greenhouse gas emissions was based on the following sequence of actions within
each component:
1. to identify internal factors, processes, and technologies that produce green-
house gas emissions in economic sectors and by households;
2. to create a group of indicators for their evaluation;
3. to apply stochastic factor analysis to select the most coherent factors of influ-
ence on greenhouse gas emissions;
4. to apply the normalization method for each component and perform additive
convolution of the normalized values of the main influence factors;
5. to assess the level of resilience of the dynamics of each component based on
the calculated coefficient of variation;
6. to identify the direction of behavior of each of the components based on the
trend of their changes from;
7. to Convolve the components into a composite index for assessing the GHG
potential, using quaternionic analysis for visualization;
8. to check the relevance of the proposed model (based on the correlation of the
composite index and GHG);
9. to assess the potential for greenhouse gas emissions reduction in the Visegrád
countries;
10. to estimate the proximity of the status and potential for GHG reduction of all
partner countries to the level recommended for the EU.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
12
Figure 2. Methodology of integral assessment of the potential
for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
The use of the Main Component Analysis method allowed us to identify from the
selected group of factors only those that showed close correlations.
To implement the methodology of the research, a group of input components was se-
lected for each of the local groups. The components were selected from those that corre-
sponded to the following criteria: 1) described the dynamics of changes in resources, the
use of which is related to greenhouse gas emissions; 2) had group-related characteristics;
3) were officially confirmed; 4) showed close correlations in the local group.
Assessment of global trends in greenhouse gas emissions
Global warming is one of the most acute environmental problems of humanity, which
is caused by an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Among them are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4) and
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
fluorocarbons (CFCs). They have a key negative role in enhancing the greenhouse
effect and lead to an increase in the average global temperature. According to the
National Centre for Atmospheric Science from 1850 to 2022 Global temperatures
have increased by over 1.2°C. In the last 143 years of monitoring, the period since
2010 has been the warmest. And the last nine years (from 2014 to 2022) have been
the nine warmest years over the whole research period [1]. Temperature changes in
Ukraine for the same period of time are slightly different from the global trends, but
the overall tendency for increasing temperatures is similar to global trends [2].
76% of global greenhouse gas emissions are related to the use of fossil fuels espe-
cially for energy production and transportation. In 2022, global CO2 emissions from
fossil fuels and industry totaled 37.12 gigatons, which was one of the highest levels in
human history [3]. Nitrous oxide also has a significant impact on the global warming
effect. In 2018, global NO2 emissions were approximately 35 million tons, and by
2023, this figure decreased slightly to 33 million tons. Such changes are explained
by economic factors and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has led
to a temporary decrease in industrial activity in many countries [4]. Methane (CH4)
is also significant in terms of its impact, its emissions have a stable growth trend and
by 2022 its level in the world amounted to 10.49 billion tons of CO2 equivalent [4].
At the same time, research shows that over a 100-year period, one ton of methane
causes 28 times the warming effect than one ton of CO2. Therefore, even though its
volume in total greenhouse gas emissions by weight is relatively small, methane is
responsible for about a quarter of the radiative forcing since 1750 [5, 6].
CFCs, once widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol propel-
lants, are potent greenhouse gasses and contributors to ozone layer depletion. At
the high point of their use in production in the late 1980s, global CFCs emissions
reached approximately 1.1 million tons per year, which led to significant damage
to the ozone layer. As of 2023, as a result of the successful implementation of in-
ternational agreements and the introduction of alternative technologies that do
not contain fluorocarbons, global CFCs emissions are estimated to decrease by
10to 20thousand tons per year.
At the same time, the overall trend in greenhouse gas emissions is extremely con-
cerning. NOAA noted that carbon dioxide emissions in 2023 rose to the third-high-
est level in the 65 years of the organization’s records. Consequently, the level of green-
house gas emissions in 2023 reached a historical maximum and tended to increase
at a record pace. The impact of methane on global temperature rise was about 30%,
while carbon dioxide had nearly twice the effect [7].
Summarizing global trends in greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 3), we can note
that if they continue at the current rate until the end of the 21st century, the tem-
perature could rise by 2.5–4.5°C [8]. This would have catastrophic consequences for
the planet and would not align with the goals set by the Paris Agreement [9] and the
commitments made by countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to pre-
vent such temperature increases.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
14
Figure 3. Greenhouse gas emissions (including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide
from all sources), 1850-2022 [4]
* Greenhouse gas emis sions include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous ox ide from all sources,
including land-use change
This is also emphasized in the latest IPCC report (2023). It presents scenarios of
future climate change as a result of greenhouse gas emissions, considering current
trends for several generations. Research indicates that accelerating global warming
will significantly deepen negative trends and create new risks for the human envi-
ronment, human health and life (like a snowball effect). With the intensification of
these processes, the level of their manageability and conditional “reversibility” of the
consequences will decrease.
Therefore, the results for much research shows a clear correlation between the
level of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming, which confirms the global
goal of reducing these emissions as a critical step to reduce the growth of climate
change. At the same time, the issue of impact on climate change, taking responsibil-
ity for the consequences, and implementing the necessary changes in the process of
complying with the commitments to minimize greenhouse gas emissions remains
a relevant and debatable issue for a lot of countries.
Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in Ukraine
and the Visegrad countries
In this research, we focus on European countries, in particular, the Visegrad Four
and Ukraine, through the prism of global trends. From this point of view, it is im-
portant to note that Ukraine remains one of the countries that cumulatively gener-
ate about 80% of greenhouse gas emissions and one of the European countries that
demonstrated relative stability of such emissions until the last 4 years (from 2020).
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Carbon dioxide emissions are the largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
This is a global trend. Accordingly, Ukraine is not an exception in the structure of its
region (Europe).The producers of these emissions are comparable both at the global
and European levels and at the local level (households and enterprises of all eco-
nomic activities). Nevertheless, the majority of carbon dioxide emissions into the
atmosphere are generated by the economic activities of thermal power plants and
processing industry enterprises.
Figure 4. Carbon dioxide– Total– all NACE activities, Tonne (2016-2023) [10]
In 2020, Ukraine produced an average of 7% of the total CO2 emissions of
European countries. Despite the tendency to reduce CO2 emissions in Ukraine, their
level is still higher than in some European countries.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
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Figure 5. Share of CO2 Emissions in the Total Volume 2020 (variation 2016–2020) [11]
A comprehensive comparison of CO2 emissions in Ukraine and European coun-
tries reveals different characteristics of their quantitative emissions: Ukraine’s CO2
emissions are characterized by significant asymmetry, unlike European emissions,
which are symmetrical.
The fluctuation of CO2 emissions in European countries and Ukraine from 2012
to 2020 reflects deviations in emissions relative to their average levels in each of these
countries, including Ukraine.
At the same time, according to the analysis, Ukraine and Poland are countries
with low volatility in carbon dioxide emissions. If we make a comparison in terms of
the long-term period, a number of European countries, including the Visegrad Four,
demonstrate a decrease in CO2 emissions per $1 of GDP.
The second most important greenhouse gas is methane. It causes significant cli-
mate change, and its ability to retain heat in the atmosphere is stronger than that of
carbon dioxide. The overall picture of methane emissions from all types of activities
in Europe is shown in Figure 6.
According to the results of the research, we can call Ukraine a «leader» among
European countries in terms of CH4 emissions. In fact, it holds the top position in
the total methane emissions of the EU and Ukraine.
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 6. Methane– Total– all NACE activities, Tonne, 2016-2023 [10]
Figure 7. Share of methane emissions into atmospheric air
in the total emissions of Europe and Ukraine [11]
The sources of CH4 emissions in Ukraine are almost identical to European and
global sources of methane air pollution: the energy sector, coal, oil and gas indus-
tries, etc. This is confirmed by the IEA data [12]. The main contributors to methane
production in Ukraine are gas supply companies (40%), mining and quarrying in-
dustries (28%), and livestock farming (12%). Additionally, the analysis revealed that
CH4 emissions in both Ukraine and EU countries over a 10-year period cannot be
characterized as steadily declining. In some countries, these emissions have contin-
ued to increase.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
18
Figure 8. Trends in the amount of CH4 emissions in the EU and Ukraine
(according to Eurostat and the Ukrainian National Statistics Committee) [11]
It is important to note that neither the world nor the EU countries stand aside
from the issue of reducing methane emissions. Thus, at COP 2024, the European
Commission announced the Methane Emissions Reduction Partnership Roadmap,
which outlines a scheme of cooperation between importers and exporters to accel-
erate the reduction of methane emissions. And the GMP (Global Methane Pledge)
participants generally called on the entire international community to continue and
accelerate their efforts to reduce methane emissions as soon as possible [13].
The share of nitrogen oxide emissions in 2016-2023 is significant in the total emis-
sions of European countries, as well as other pollutants.
It is characterized by negative growth dynamics. So, agriculture is the largest
source of nitrous oxide emissions in Ukraine, accounting for 87.7% in 2020 and
87.9% of total nitrous oxide emissions in 2021. Emissions in this sector come from
agricultural soils and manure management activities. In addition, grain produc-
tion was found to be the most correlated with nitrous oxide emissions. Nearly 19%
of agricultural sector emissions are caused by fermentation of animals. In addition,
according to the data, the volume of nitrogen fertilizers in Ukraine has increased
8.5times over the past 20 years, which, in turn, increases nitrous oxide emissions.
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 9. Nitrous oxide– Total– all NACE activities, Tonne, 2016-2023 [10]
Figure 10. Share of N2O Emissions in the Total Volume 2020 (variation 2016– 2020) [11]
We would also like to emphasize the emissions of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexaf luoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
The emissions of these gasses are relatively small compared to the carbon dioxide,
but they can remain in the atmosphere for hundreds of years, “locking” warmth in-
side the atmosphere. In particular, hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants are considered
to be several thousand times worse than carbon dioxide.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
20
The research included a cluster analysis for the three main greenhouse gas emis-
sions. Its results showed that, in general, for nitrous oxide, methane and CO2, all se-
lected European countries were divided into 2 clusters. In this case, if we discuss the
countries of the Visegrad Group, only Poland was included in the 2nd cluster, while
the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia were included in the first cluster. Nitrous
oxide: we can observe that 25 countries make up the first cluster, and 7– the second.
Figure 11. Cluster analysis for Nitrous oxide
21
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Methane: The Netherlands joined the second cluster, while Romania moved
to cluster 1.
Figure 12. Cluster analysis for methane
Carbon dioxide: the situation is similar to the one presented in the calculations
for the methane cluster. Therefore, we can identify similarities between the countries
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
22
included in the clusters. The countries that form both clusters are dissimilar in
a number of characteristics (economic, social, and environmental). At the same time,
the fact that the countries of the Visegrad Group are divided into two clusters is im-
portant in this research.
Figure 13. Cluster analysis for Carbon dioxide
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
After considering the volume of greenhouse gas emissions for Ukraine and the
EU countries, it should be noted that the main greenhouse gas emitters are eco-
nomic activity entities. Since this research is focused on the Visegrad countries and
Ukraine, further analysis will be conducted with a focus on the following countries:
Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Ukraine. The areas producing the
largest greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Europe typically include specific indus-
tries, sectors, and regions with high energy consumption, industrial activity, or reli-
ance on fossil fuels. One of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions is still the
production of electricity based on fossil fuels. Among the Visegrad countries, Poland
and the Czech Republic is a country where coal-fired power plants are still a signif-
icant part of the energy balance. The dynamics of Gross electricity production is
illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 14. The dynamics of Gross electricity production
in the EU and Visegrad countries
Passenger cars, freight trucks, and delivery vehicles are major contributors GHG
due to reliance on diesel and gasoline. The transport sector is a significant contrib-
utor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Europe, accounting for approximately
23% of the EU’s total emissions in 2022. In 2022, EU-wide transportation-related
GHG emissions rose by 7% from the previous year, reaching 1.04 million tonnes of
CO₂ equivalent. Road transport is the predominant source within this sector, re-
sponsible for 73.2% of transport-related GHG emissions in 2022. Today, the road
transport share in total freight transportation for the Visegrad countries remains
quite significant, as can be seen from the figure.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
24
Figure 15. Modal split of air, sea and inland freight transport
in the EU and Visegrad countries, Percentage
The heavy industry (steel, cement, chemical production, and other energy-inten-
sive industries are significant emitters) and the construction sector are also signif-
icant emitters of greenhouse gas emissions. According to [14] in 2022, the energy
supply sector accounted for just over 26% of the EU’s total GHG emissions, while
the manufacturing and construction sectors combined contributed approximately
20%. According to official data [15] after two successive increases, including an in-
crease of 8.5% in 2021 compared with 2020 and a 0.4% increase in 2022 compared
with 2021, the EU’s production of manufactured goods recorded a decrease of 1.2%
in 2023 compared with 2022. In nominal terms, the EU’s value of sold production
in 2023 amounted to €5 992 billion. Relatively high increases were recorded for the
production of motor vehicles and for other transport equipment. On the other side of
the spectrum the extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas decreased by 17.9%,
the mining of coal and lignite by 15.9% [16]. It is important to note that, for example,
Poland produced approximately 7.8 million tons of steel in 2022, maintaining its po-
sition as a significant producer within the EU. The Czech Republic’s steel production
was around 4.6 million tonnes in 2022, reflecting its robust industrial base. Slovakia
contributed about 4.5 million tonnes to the EU’s steel output in 2022. Hungary’s steel
production was approximately 1.5 million tonnes in 2022.
Regarding the construction industry, the total turnover of the EU construction
industry reached approximately €2.1 trillion, with specialized construction activi-
ties accounting for the largest share [17], this sector also shows an increasing trend
in the EU in general. In the Visegrad countries, this sector was growing before the
COVID-19 pandemic, which caused a slowdown in the growth rate of this industry.
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
However, starting from 2021-2022, the industry showed signs of recovery, with grad-
ual increases in construction activities. Continued growth was observed, supported
by government investments and infrastructure projects. Based on the dynamics of
production growth in general in the EU and Visegrad countries and, in particular, in
the industries that directly or indirectly have the greatest impact on greenhouse gas
emissions (Figure 16), it is worth noting that the problem of reducing greenhouse gas
emissions requires a comprehensive approach that accumulates the efforts of both
governments and producers.
Figure 16. Production in industry (Mining and quarrying; manufacturing;
electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply), Index
Another significant producer of greenhouse gas emissions is the agricultural sec-
tor. In 2023, the EU’s agricultural industry generated a GVA of €223.9 billion, con-
tributing 1.3% to the EU’s GDP [18]. The EU’s harvested production of grain maize
and corn-cob-mix rebounded to 61.0 million tonnes in 2023, a 15.2% increase from
2022 [19]. Poland is the largest agricultural producer among the Visegrad countries.
Hungary ranks second in agricultural production among the Visegrad countries
[20]. Czech Republic and Slovakia have significant agricultural sectors, with diverse
crop and livestock production. In this regard, as shown in Figure 17, this area also
requires the implementation of a balanced, economically reasonable policy aimed at
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
26
Figure 17. Economic accounts for agriculture– values at current prices, Million euro
When analyzing the economic factors that contribute to the growth of greenhouse
gas emissions, it is also important to pay attention to waste management. In 2022,
the EU generated approximately 2,292 million tonnes of waste, with construction
and demolition activities accounting for 37.1% of this total [21]. The EU has made
significant strides in recycling municipal waste, achieving a recycling rate of 49.6%
in 2021, up from 46% in 2017 [22]. In 2022, the EU treated 99.6 million tonnes of haz-
ardous waste. As for the Visegrad countries, as of 2022, recycling rates approximate-
ly: Czechia– 40% of municipal waste, Hungary– 35%, Poland– 30%, Slovakia– 45%.
Landfill Usage: Czechia– 20% of municipal waste, Hungary– 25%, Poland– 30%,
Slovakia– 15%.
27
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 18. Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness
and waste management operations, Tonne
As for the main activities that are the largest GHG emitters in Ukraine, they are
similar to those identified for the EU and Visegrad countries. The largest amount of
carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere as a result of the economic activity of
thermal power stations and processing industry enterprises (Figure 19).
Figure 19. Structure of CO2 Emissions by Sectors
into the Atmospheric Air in Ukraine 2020 [23]
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
28
Regarding Ukraine’s CO2 emissions management policy, it is important to note
that conclusions about its direction can be found in two retrospective periods: long-
term and short-term. Thus, in the long-term retrospective of 1990-2020, the CO2
emissions management policy shows indicators of sustainability with minor devi-
ations from previous values. Thus, strategically, Ukraine is on track to reduce CO2
emissions and reduce its share of the greenhouse effect [23].
Figure 20. Structure of sources of methane emissions
into atmospheric air in Ukraine, % (Greenhouse gases: Nitrogen, Methane) [23]
Sources of methane emissions in Ukraine are almost identical to global sources
of air pollution. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), coal-related
activities are responsible for the largest part of methane emissions in the energy sec-
tor in 2021, which was around 40% of all gas emissions, with coal-related activities
at 42million tonnes, and the oil industry slightly less, at 41 million tonnes. Natural
gas processing and transmission activities are in third place in total emissions, with
39million tonnes [24].
However, despite the fact that in Ukraine the sources of greenhouse gas emis-
sions are identical to the EU countries, it is necessary to note that the problem of
waste management and environmental pollution is more challenging than in the EU
countries and significantly complicates the military operations on the territory of
Ukraine. That is why an assessment of their impact on the environmental situation
both inside and outside the country will be possible only after the war is ended.
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
The impact of the war in Ukraine on the environment
When comparing Ukraine with European countries, particularly those in the Visegrad
group, it is important to note that Ukraine is engaged in full-scale military operations.
This significantly complicates the assessment and comparison of the economic, social,
and environmental factors that contribute to pollutant production, especially in the de-
velopment of a methodology for eva luating the integrated potential for their reduction. In
general, according to the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources
of Ukraine, as of the end of May 2024, at least 180 million tons of CO2 emissions were
recorded as a result of military operations in Ukraine [25]. The objective need to increase
the volume of ammunition, military equipment, and materials for the construction of
defense facilities is characterized by high energy intensity, which leads to an increase
in greenhouse gas emissions. In particular, the EU plans to increase the production of
ammunition from 1 to 1.7 million per year by the end of 2024, and to 2.5 million by
the end of 2025 [26]. In addition, the closure of airspace in Ukraine and the increase in
road traffic in the EU have an impact on the growth of pollutant emissions; a signifi-
cant number of temporarily displaced persons from Ukraine, which amounted to about
4.3million people as of the beginning of 2024, causes an increase in household waste in
the EU. Rebuilding the destroyed civilian and critical infrastructure of Ukraine will lead
to an increase in the production of construction materials in Europe, which is extremely
carbon-intensive [27]. Therefore, greenhouse gasses generated by the war in Ukraine will
have an impact on global warming and may significantly slow down the achievement of
global climate change goals. However, it is currently impossible to provide an accurate
assessment of the impact of the war in Ukraine on greenhouse gas emissions and, as a re-
sult, on climate change in Europe and the world as a whole, because the phase of active
military operations is ongoing.
Although, according to Eurostat and other analytical data, EU countries as a whole
continue to take steps toward implementing their commitments to decarbonization and
reducing greenhouse gas emissions (which amounted to 3.4 billion tons in 2023, reflect-
ing a 5.1% decrease from 2022), the progress in achieving environmental sustainable
development goals and reducing greenhouse gas emissions varies significantly among
European countries and Ukraine. This issue is widespread and requires a collaborative
approach to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change, which are already evident
both nationally and globally. Therefore, in order to unify the data for Ukraine and the
Visegrad countries, this research used data up to 2021 when developing a methodology
for assessing the economic, social and environmental impact on greenhouse gas emis-
sions. However, it is necessary to note that in the process of further research on the im-
pact of greenhouse gas emissions on climate change in the global context, it is impos-
sible to neglect the factor of the war’s influence, as its environmental consequences are
not limited to the administrative borders of Ukraine. That’s why the climate change is
a pressing global problem that requires action at the local, national, and international
levels, in particular in the context of sustainable development.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
30
Assessment of local greenhouse gas emission indexes
and identification the sustainability types of their behavior
Ukraine
The assessment of greenhouse gas emissions potential is based on a conceptual view
of emissions as a composite (aggregate) result of the interrelated impact of economic,
social, and environmental factors. To implement the methodology of the research,
a group of input components was selected for each of the local groups. The compo-
nents were selected from those that corresponded to the following criteria: 1) de-
scribed the dynamics of changes in resources, the use of which is related to green-
house gas emissions; 2) were officially confirmed; 3) showed close correlations in the
local group.
As a result of the calculation of the factors, the input traits were selected as follow-
ing: for the economic group: 76 traits, for the environmental group– 38, and for the
social group– 15.
Table 2. Identification of local component factors
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Economic development Gross value added at basic prices, mln.UAH
GDP per capita, U.S. Dollars per capita
Electric apacity of goods and services production, kW
Energy intensity of GDP, ktoe / thsd. international dollars
Usage of natural gas per 1 UAH of gross value added, thousand m3 per
UAH 1
Transportation of goods by road transport, thousand tons, kt
Transport, warehousing, postal and courier activities, mln. UAH
Manufacturing, mln. UAH
Mining and quarrying, mln. UAH
Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply, mln. UAH
Waste genera tion, thsd.t
Volume of incinerated waste, thsd.t
Total amount of waste accumulated during operation in specially desig-
nated places and facilities, thsd.t
Use of fossil fuel Use of natural gas, billion m3
31
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Factor Indicator
Environmental component
Intensity of fertilizer
usage and greenhouse
gas emissions
Use of nitrogen fertilizers, 1000 т N
Use of nitrogen fertilizers per uni t of agricultural land, kg N per 1 hectare
Total use of organic fer tilizers, 1000 t
Use of organic fertilizers per unit of agricultural land, kg per 1 hectare
Share of area treated with organic fer tilizers in total agricultural land, %
Use of fertilizers per unit of planted area, kg per 1 hectare
Use of inorganic fertilizers under maize, kg per 1 hectare
Use of inorganic fertilizers under industrial crops, kg per 1 hectare
Use of inorganic fertilizers under forage crops, kg per 1 hectare
Emissions intensity N2O, tonnes / 1 million UAH of production
Emissions intensity CO2, tonnes / 1 million UAH of production
CO2 emissions per unit of gross value added, tonnes / t CO2/UA H
CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, tonnes / mln.UAH
Use of nitrogen fertilizers, 1000 т N
Aggregated Contribu-
tors to Climate Change
Total Greenhouse gass emissions, Mt CO2-eq.
Emissions per capita, tonnes / per capita
Social component
Conditions of population
life and volumes of con-
sumption of greenhouse
cycle products
Differentiation of population income, once
Income per capita, UAH
Population growth, person
GDP per capita, U.S. Dollars
Population distribution by age of 15-64 years, person
Vegetable consumption per capita, kg/year
Consumption of milk and dairy products per capita, kg/year
Quality of drinking water Safety and quality of drinking water by radiation indicators, % of
non-standard samples
Safety and qualit y of drinking water by organoleptic, physicochemical,
sanitar y and toxicological indicators, % of non-standard samples
The factor analysis (Method Principal component analysis (Varimax Rotation,
scores– Method Bartlett)) allowed us to identify the indicators that had the most
significant impact on the determined factors.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
32
As a result of the use of factor analysis, the size of the input sample was significant-
ly reduced and the main factors in each component were singled out. To normalize
the input traits within each component, the minimax method was used, whereby the
selection of traits within each component was divided according to the criterion of
their direct (destimulator) or reverse (stimulator) influence on the volume of green-
house gas emissions. In general, the factor method made it possible to reduce the size
of the input sample of traits of each of the components.
Based on the analysis of the composite index of economic component, the follow-
ing conclusions were made:
1) in the structure of the economic component, use of natural gas has a significant
impact on greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 21).
Figure 21. Dynamics of the composite local index of economic factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Ukraine
2) among the factor groups of the ecological component, the group of CO2 emis-
sions from road transport and the group of generalized producers of climate change
exert the highest influence. The share of the Intensity of fertilizer use and green-
house gas emissions group is significantly inferior to the volume of greenhouse gas
emissions (Figure 22).
33
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 22. Dynamics of the composite local index of environmental factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Ukraine
3) In the group of social factors inf luencing greenhouse gas emissions, there is
a tendency to reduce the impact of the population on the environmental load
(Figure23).
Figure 23. Dynamics of the composite local index of social factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Ukraine
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
34
Among the factor groups, the group of drinking water quality has a significant
impact on greenhouse gas emissions, as deterioration of drinking water quality leads
to an increase in its stagnation and evaporation in summer, which leads to an in-
crease in vapor in the atmosphere.
The use of mathematical statistics methods to research the behavior of local indi-
ces allows us to identify the type of resistance and the direction of factors in terms of
their impact on greenhouse gas emissions.
The type of resistance can be characterized as: resistant, nonresistant, and con-
ditionally resistant. And the type of behavior, in particular, as: Aimed at a slight in-
crease in emissions, Uneven dynamics, aimed at reducing emissions by the popula-
tion etc.
Table 3. Assessing the type of behavior of local components
Local
component
Coefficient of variation
of the component Type of resistance Type of behavior
Economic 0,35 non-resistant Aimed at a slight increase
inemissions
Social 0,33 non-resistant Uneven dynamics
Environmental 0,23 moderately
resistant
Aimed at reducing emissions
by the population
Based on the results of the analysis, it will also be possible to present correlation of
the composite index with greenhouse gas emissions.
As part of the research, it is suggested to implement and approve the methodology
for assessing greenhouse gas emissions potential and to assess local greenhouse gas
emission indices, determine the types of sustainability of their behavior, and con-
duct an integrated assessment of greenhouse-forming factors for the Visegrad coun-
tries. At the same time, because of the difficulties of using a similar statistical base
compared to Ukrainian statistics (especially in terms of social indicators), the assess-
ment will be carried out by economic and environmental components, based on the
maximum similarity of the selected indicators.
35
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Poland
The factor analysis (Method Principal component analysis (Varimax Rotation,
scores– Method Bartlett) allowed us to identify the indicators that had the most
significant impact on the determined factors. Based on the analysis of the composite
index of economic component, the following conclusions were made: 1) in the struc-
ture of the economic component, waste management and environmental impact ac-
tivities have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 24). 2) the level
of economic development also has a significant impact on the growth of greenhouse
gas emissions. Environmental factors that are of significant importance for Poland
include the intensity of mineral fertilizer consumption, forest cover, aggregated con-
tributors to climate change and related economic losses.
Table 4. Identification of local component factors (Poland)
Factor (% of Variance) Indicator
Economic component
Waste Management
and Environmental
Impact Activities
(54,1%)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Kilograms per capita)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Tonne)
Annual detailed enterprise statistics for Mining and quarrying industry
(Production value– million euro)
Modal split of inland freight transport (Roads/Percentage)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Waste generated /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Thousand tonnes /
Kilograms per capita)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste man-
agement operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– landfill and other )
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– incineration (D10))
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
36
Factor (% of Variance) Indicator
Economic component
Economic development
(20,2%)
Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Current
prices, million euro)
Real GDP per capita (Chain linked volumes (2010), euro per capita)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Chain
linked volumes (2010), million euro)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– incinera-
tion (D10) and recovery– energy recovery (R1) / Kilograms per capita)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– transport sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– commercial and public services– energy use /
Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of oil and petroleum products
(Gross inland deliveries– calculated / Thousand tonnes)
Road freight transpor t by type of goods and type of transport (t, tkm)
(Total transported goods / Thousand tonnes)
Supply, transformation
and consumption of
electricity and Imports
of natural gas (12,7%)
Final energy consumption by product (Thousand tonnes of oil equiva-
lent)
Final energy consumption by sector (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
Imports of natural gas by partner country (Million cubic metres)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Available for final
consumption / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– industry sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– households– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Other economic factor
(5,9%)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– landfill
and other (D1-D7, D12) / Kilograms per capit)
Expor ts of natural gas by partner country (Million cubic metres)
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Factor (% of Variance) Indicator
Environmental component
Intensity of fertilizer
consumption, green-
house gas emissions
and forestation
(50,4%)
Total nitrogen emissions, tonnes
Nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha (Gross nutrient balance per hectare UAA )
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Grams per euro, current prices
Forest area, % of land area
Fertilizer consumption, kilograms per hectare of arable land
Consumption of Phosphorus, Tonne
Carbon intensity of GDP, kg CO2e per 2021 PPP $ of GDP
Air emissions (Carbon diox ide) by resident units (production activities
and households), Tonne
Aggregated contribu-
tors to climate change
and related economic
lo ss es (27, 1%)
Utilised agricultural area excluding kitchen gardens (Fully converted
to organic farming), hectare
Contribution to the international 100bn USD commitment on climate
related expending [sdg_13_50], Million euro
Consumption of Nitrogen, Tonne
Climate related economic losses– values at constant 2022 prices
[sdg_13_40], Current prices, million euro
Net greenhouse gas
emissions (10,2%)
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Total (excluding memo items, including interna-
tional aviation), Index, 1990=100
Other environmental
impact (7,9%)
Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars, Grams per
kilometre
Total environmental taxes, Percentage of gross domestic product (GDP)
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
38
Figure 24. Dynamics of the composite local index of economic factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Poland
The indicators included in the Waste Management and Environmental Impact
Activities factor, the leading place is occupied by the indicators of waste manage-
ment. In recent years, Poland has seen a decrease in the amount of waste generated
per capita due to the progressive adoption of more efficient management practices
and an increase in recycling rates. It’s reflecting the country’s efforts to align with
European Union (EU) directives and move towards a circular economy. In addition,
it is also worth noting that from 2021 and further in 2022 and 2023, there is a gradual
increase in recycling and a decrease in landfilling of various categories of waste [28],
which may be an indication of the growing effectiveness of waste management policy
in Poland. Despite the improvements, landfilling remains the predominant waste
management method in Poland, and the waste recycling infrastructure requires in-
vestments in modern sorting facilities, increased recycling capacity, construction
of composting facilities and other measures that will further reduce reliance on
landfills and generate energy as a by-product. Other significant indicators affecting
the growth of greenhouse gas emissions are the activities of the mining and quar-
rying industry and the modal split of inland freight transport. From 2018 to 2022,
there was an increase in the cost of production in the mining industry, which may
be related to an increase in production volumes and higher prices for raw materials.
A decrease in the share of road transport (in 2022 and 2023 compared to 2021) in
the overall structure of transportation may be the result of emission reduction pol-
icies and may contribute to the improvement of the environmental situation in the
39
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
country. Therefore, given the trend of changes in the economic component, as well
as the fact that the factors Waste Management and Environmental Impact Activities
(54.1%) and Economic development (20.2%) have the greatest impact on it, with
a total percentage of variation of almost 75% (Figure 24), it is important to note that
a targeted impact on these factors by the state, business, and society can lead to a re-
duction in greenhouse gas emissions in Poland.
Figure 25– Dynamics of the composite local index of environmental factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Poland
In fact, according to the research, forest area is a significant factor in the structure
of the environmental component. It is included either in the factor of the greatest or
high impact.
If we analyze the European countries, the dynamics of the forest area indicator for
2016-2022 is generally increasing, but with low intensity:
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
40
Figure 26. Forest area (% of land area) of EU, 2016-2022 [29]
Figure 27. Forest area (% of land area), 2022 [29]
41
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
We can also talk about the significant impact of inorganic fertilizers on green-
house gas emissions. According to the research [30] EU countries are active-
ly implementing smart agriculture policies that gradually reduce fertilizer use
while increasing yields. In general, as part of the circular economy programs,
a number of provisions and regulations are adopted at the EU level, as well as
policies aimed at minimizing the negative impact of fertilizers on the environ-
ment. EU countries are actively encouraging farmers to learn precision agri-
culture and promote organic farming and the use of organic fertilizers where
possible. According to government officials and researchers, this will gradually
reduce their carbon footprint. EIP-AGRI supports the development and imple-
mentation of operational programs. These include: Development of the produc-
tion process of biological fertilisers (Italy); Technological, organisational, and
marketing innovations in the field of fertilisation (Poland); Improving nitro-
gen efficiency (Germany); Integration of cover crops into field crop rotation
(Slovenia); Operational group (OG) in smart agriculture in citrus irrigation and
fertilisation (Spain) [31].
Climate related economic losses was also identified as a significant indicator
for Poland. As noted in the methodological explanations to the indicator, the
indicator measures economic losses from weather and climate-related events. In
addition to annual figures, the indicator presents smoothed time series based on
30-year averages. In addition to annual indicators, we present a smoothed time
series based on 30-year averages. In accordance with the normal climate period
defined by the World Meteorological Organization, these 30-year averages re-
flect trends, excluding significant climate variability over shorter time intervals
caused by natural factors [32]. At the same time, the issue of such losses is rele-
vant for the EU countries in general. For example, according to [33], in general,
extreme weather and climate events have lead to significant economic losses of
assets. According to experts, these losses are estimated at €738 billion for the
period 1980-2023, of which about 22% are losses between 2021 and 2023.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
42
Figure 28. Economic losses and fatalities caused by weather
and climate related extreme events (1980-2023) per capita, euro
As we can see from the figure, Poland is not the country with the highest eco-
nomic losses and fatalities caused by weather and climate-related extreme events per
capita. They are lower than in a number of the countries analyzed. At the same time,
Slovenia is characterized by the highest indicator [34].
In absolute terms, the largest economic losses in the analyzed period were record-
ed in Italy, Germany, and France.
Figure 29. Economic losses and fatalities caused by weather and climate
related extreme events (1980-2023) per sq.km, euro, euro [35]
According to the figure, Slovenia, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and
Switzerland have the highest economic losses and fatalities caused by weather and
climate-related extreme events (1980-2023) per sq. km. Poland also ranks high in
terms of fatalities:
43
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 30. Fatalities caused by weather
and climate related extreme events (1980-2023) [35]
The EU has developed an Adaptation Strategy to support actions to minimize eco-
nomic losses and fatalities, including at the national level.
Hungary
The country is a signatory to international climate agreements. For example, in 2019,
the country passed a law on building with a new climate paradigm in mind. Among
other things, it emphasizes green spaces. The National Energy Strategy until 2030
was also adopted, and the Hungarian National Bank launched its green strategy [36].
For Hungary, Table 5 summarizes the economic and environmental factors that have
an impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Based on the analysis of the com-
posite index of economic component, the following conclusions were made: 1) in
the structure of the economic component, Economic development and waste man-
agement have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 31); 2) the
growth of greenhouse gas emissions is also significantly influenced by Energy and
gas consumption.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
44
Table 5. Identification of local component factors (Hungary)
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Economic development
and waste manage-
ment (54,9 %)
Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income)
(Current prices, million euro)
Real GDP per capita (Chain linked volumes (2010), euro per capita)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income)
(Chain linked volumes (2010), million euro)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Kilograms per capita)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Tonne)
Municipal waste by waste management operations
(Waste generated / Kilograms per capi ta)
Municipal waste by waste management operations
(Thousand tonnes / Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– incinera-
tion (D10) and recovery– energy recovery (R1) / Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– landfill
and other (D1-D7, D12) / Kilograms per capit)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity
(Available for final consumption / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity
(Final consumption– industry sector– energy use / Giga watt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity
(Final consumption– transport sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– households– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Treatment of waste-by-waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne)
Energy and gas con-
sumption (16,8%)
Final energy consumption by product
(Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
Final energy consumption by sector (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
Supply, transformation and consumption of gas (Inland consumption–
calculated / Terajoule (gross calorific value– GCV)
45
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Road transport and
related activities
(13,4%)
Modal split of inland freight transport (Roads/Percentage)
Supply, transformation and consumption of oil and petroleum products
(Gross inland deliveries– calculated / Thousand tonnes)
Road freight transpor t by type of goods and type of transport (t, tkm)
(Total transported goods / Thousand tonnes)
Energy Resources and
Consumption (7,0%)
Imports of natural gas by partner country (Million cubic metres)
Annual detailed enterprise statistics for Mining and quarrying industry
(Production value– million euro)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– commercial and public services– energy use /
Gigawatt-hour)
Treatment of waste
(3,5%)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– landfill and other )
Treatment of waste-by-waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– incineration (D10))
Environmental component
Net greenhouse gas
emissions, forestation,
organic farming and
taxes (56,3%)
Total nitrogen emissions, tonnes
Nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha (Gross nutrient balance per hectare UAA )
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Total (excluding memo items, including interna-
tional aviation), Index, 1990=100
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Grams per euro, current prices
Utilised agricultural area excluding kitchen gardens (Fully converted
to organic farming), hectare
Forest area, % of land area
Carbon intensity of GDP, kg CO2e per 2021 PPP $ of GDP
Total environmental taxes, Percentage of gross domestic product (GDP)
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
46
Factor Indicator
Environmental component
Fertilizer consump-
tion, contribution of
residents to emissions
and economic losses
(20,5%)
Fertilizer consumption, kilograms per hectare of arable land
Consumption of Phosphorus, Tonne
Consumption of Nitrogen, Tonne
Air emissions (Carbon diox ide) by resident units (production activities
and households), Tonne
Climate related economic losses– values at constant 2022 prices
[sdg_13_40], Current prices, million euro
Other environmental
impact (12,4%)
Contribution to the international 100bn USD commitment on climate
related expending [sdg_13_50], Million euro
Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars, Grams per
kilometre
Figure 31. Dynamics of the composite local index of economic factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Hungary
Among the indicators that formed the Economic development and waste manage-
ment factor, the leading place is occupied by Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram
of oil equivalent), indicators GDP and Management of waste. Between 2000 and 2023,
Hungary achieved a 44% reduction in the energy intensity of its economy, indicating
significant improvements in energy efficiency [37]. Hungary’s substantial reduction
47
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
in energy intensity and improvements in energy efficiency across various sectors re-
flect a positive trajectory toward more efficient energy use, this is confirmed by the
growing dynamics of the indicator Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil
equivalent) (Figure 32).
Figure 32. Energy productivity, Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent
As for the generalized indicators of Hungary’s economic development, which also
formed the basis for the formation of the factor that has the greatest impact on green-
house gas emissions, Hungary’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has experienced
notable fluctuations in recent years, reflecting various economic challenges and re-
covery efforts. For example, in 2022, the economy expanded by 4.6%, but in 2023
GDP contracted by 0.9%, marking the first economic downturn in three years [39].
At the same time, the largest share in the GDP structure is occupied by the follow-
ing sectors: services sector– 64.8%, industry– 31.3%, agriculture represents 3.9% of
theGDP.
Hungary’s waste management system has undergone significant changes in recent
years, aiming to align with European Union (EU) directives and promote sustain-
able practices. In 2020, Hungary reported a recycling rate of around 35% for mu-
nicipal waste [39]. However, despite Hungary’s progress in waste management, the
country still disposes of a significant amount of waste in landfills (Figure 33).
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
48
Figure 33. Treatment of waste-by-waste category
Figure 34 shows Final energy consumption by sector for EU countries. In gener-
al, between 2000 and 2022, energy efficiency measures resulted in significant en-
ergy savings, estimated at 240 million tonnes of oil equivalent, equating to 27% of
FEC. Electricity consumption decreased by 3% in 2022 and by 3.5% in 2023, totaling
2,405TWh, slightly below the 2005-2019 average of 2,500 TWh [40].
Therefore, considering the trend of changes in the economic component, as well
as the fact that the greatest influence on it is caused by the factors Economic devel-
opment and waste management (54.1%) and Energy and gas consumption (16.8%),
which cumulative % of Variance is nearly 71% (Figure 31), it is important to note that
conscious active actions on the part of the government and business in these compo-
nents can lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in Hungary.
49
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 34. Final energy consumption by sector for EU countries,
Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent
The analysis revealed that the most important environmental factor is the one that
includes total nitrogen emissions, nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha, greenhouse gases
in CO2 equivalent, fully converted to organic farming, forest area, carbon intensity
of GDP and total environmental taxes.
Figure 35. Dynamics of the composite local index of environmental factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Hungary
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
50
In particular, we will focus on environmental taxes. The experience of European
countries, including Hungary, is interesting for Ukraine, as the environmental tax-
ation policy in a number of European countries can be defined as “best (effective)
practice”. At the same time, the “polluter pays” principle is clearly evident. The over-
all dynamics of total environmental taxes in Hungary corresponds to the average
level of most European countries:
Figure 36. Total environmental taxes, % of GDP (2016-2022) [41]
At the same time, in July 2023, Hungary made changes to the Environmental Tax
Law and new rules concerning activities, in particular, in the field of waste manage-
ment (the so-called extended producer responsibility scheme) will come into force
[42]. At the same time, as noted in [43], the green tax legislation of this country gen-
erally provides several possible options that can provide significant tax savings, but
often businesses do not review their logistics from the perspective of this tax, so in
some cases they pay more green taxes than necessary.
Organic farming is also an important component in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and has a significant impact on social indicators of society. In Hungary, it
has been growing significantly in recent years. At the same time, the opportunities
(in particular, subsidies and market access) provided by EU membership are the ba-
sis for further development of organic farming in the country [44].
51
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 37. Fully converted to organic farming– utilised agricultural area
excluding kitchen gardens, Hungary (2016-2022) [45]
In that context, we should agree that food production with low negative impact
on the environment, specifically organic farming, allows us to build a sustainable
food system in Europe. For example, in 2021, the European Commission approved
an action plan to support organic farming. According to this plan, at least 25% of ag-
ricultural land should be covered by organic production, and the growth of aquacul-
ture should be increased gradually. Indicator targets under the “Farm to Fork Plan
and Strategy” are to be achieved by 2030. Member states should identify appropriate
scientifically based national targets for organic agriculture [46].
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
52
Czechia
Table 6 summarizes the economic and environmental factors that influence the re-
duction of greenhouse gas emissions in the Czech Republic. Based on the analysis of
the composite index of economic component, the following conclusions were made:
1) in the structure of the economic component, Economic development and waste
management have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 34).
2) Resource and waste management also has a significant impact on the growth of
greenhouse gas emissions.
Table 6. Identification of local component factors (Czechia)
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Economic development
and waste manage-
ment (42,9%)
Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent)
Final energy consumption by sector (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Current
prices, million euro)
Real GDP per capita (Chain linked volumes (2010), euro per capita)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Chain
linked volumes (2010), million euro)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Waste generated /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Thousand tonnes /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– landfill
and other (D1-D7, D12) / Kilograms per capita)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– industry sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– transport sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of oil and petroleum products
(Gross inland deliveries– calculated / Thousand tonnes)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste man-
agement operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne)
53
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Resource and waste
management (31,1%)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Kilograms per capita)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Tonne)
Annual detailed enterprise statistics for Mining and quarrying industry
(Production value– million euro)
Modal split of inland freight transport (Roads/Percentage)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– incinera-
tion (D10) and recovery– energy recovery (R1) / Kilograms per capita)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– commercial and public services– energy use /
Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– households– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– landfill and other )
Energy and transporta-
tion economic activity
(14,8%)
Final energy consumption by product (Thousand tonnes of oil equiva-
lent)
Imports of natural gas by partner country (Million cubic metres)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Available for final
consumption / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of gas (Inland consumption–
calculated / Terajoule (gross calorific value– GCV)
Road freight transpor t by type of goods and type of transport (t, tkm)
(Total transported goods / Thousand tonnes)
Other economic factor
(5,7%)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– incineration (D10))
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54
Factor Indicator
Environmental component
Greenhouse gas emis-
sions intensity, ferti-
lizer consumption and
contributors to climate
changes (59,5%)
Nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha (Gross nutrient balance per hectare UAA )
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Grams per euro, current prices
Utilised agricultural area excluding kitchen gardens (Fully converted
to organic farming), hectare
Forest area, % of land area
Fertilizer consumption, kilograms per hectare of arable land
Contribution to the international 100bn USD commitment on climate
related expending [sdg_13_50], Million euro
Consumption of Nitrogen, Tonne
Carbon intensity of GDP, kg CO2e per 2021 PPP $ of GDP
Total environmental taxes, Percentage of gross domestic product (GDP)
Net greenhouse gas
emissions, phosphorus
fertilizer consumption
and emissions from
new cars (17,9%)
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Total (excluding memo items, including interna-
tional aviation), Index, 1990=100
Consumption of Phosphorus, Tonne
Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars, Grams per
kilometre
Carbon dioxide emissions
by residents (10,3%)
Air emissions (Carbon diox ide) by resident units (production activities
and households), Tonne
Other environmental
impact (8,6%)
Total nitrogen emissions, tonnes
Climate related economic losses– values at constant 2022 prices
[sdg_13_40], Current prices, million euro
55
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 38. Dynamics of the composite local index of economic factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Czechia
Among the indicators included in Economic development and waste management,
the leading place is occupied by indicators: Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram
of oil equivalent) та Final energy consumption by sector (Thousand tonnes of oil
equivalent), GDP and Management of waste. In 2022, the EU’s energy productivi-
ty was approximately €8.0 per kilogram of oil equivalent. n 2022, Czechia’s energy
productivity was around €5.5 per kilogram of oil equivalent [47]. Czechia’s energy
productivity is below the EU average, indicating potential for improvement in energy
efficiency and economic output per energy unit, as you can see in the figure.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
56
Figure 39. Energy productivity for EU countries
In 2021, Czechia’s FEC reached 25 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe), an in-
crease of 1 Mtoe compared to 2000. Analyzing the change in energy consumption by
individual sectors, it is important to highlight that: industry decreased by 22%; ser-
vices decreased by 18%; households increased energy consumption by 15%, but en-
ergy consumption in transport increased by 64%. [48]. The substantial rise in energy
consumption within the transport sector, in particular, suggests a need for targeted
energy efficiency measures and the promotion of sustainable transport solutions.
As for the generalized indicators of economic development of the Czech Republic,
which also formed the base for the determination of the factor that has the greatest
impact on greenhouse gas emissions, the following are in 2023, Czechia’s GDP was
approximately $330.86 billion USD, accounting for about 0.31% of the global econo-
my [49]. In 2023, the GDP per capita was estimated at $29,000 USD, indicating a rel-
atively high standard of living [50].
Another factor with a high impact on greenhouse gas emissions is Resource and
waste management (31,1%). In terms of the waste management indicator, the Czech
Republic is showing progressive dynamics, as evidenced by the fact that between 2017
and 2021, the volume of recycled waste in the Czech Republic grew from over 14 million
metric tons to more than 17 million metric tons. In 2020, Czechia generated approx-
imately 5.8 million tonnes of municipal waste, equating to 543 kg per capita, slightly
above the estimated EU average of 505 kg per capita. In the same year, 47.7% of munic-
ipal waste was landfilled, while 12.6% underwent incineration, primarily with energy
recovery [11]. The general dynamics of household waste recycling and waste disposal in
the EU and Visegrad countries is shown in the figure 40, 41, 42 below.
57
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 40. Municipal waste by waste management operations, Thousand tonnes
Figure 41. Municipal waste by waste management operations
(Disposal– incineration [D10] and recovery– energy recovery [R1]), Thousand tonnes
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
58
Figure 42. Municipal waste by waste management operations
(Disposal– landfill and other), Thousand tonnes
Therefore, given the trend of changes in the economic component, as well as the
fact that it is most influenced by the following factors Economic development and
waste management (42,9%) and Resource and waste management (31,1%), with a cu-
mulative % of Variance of almost 74% (Figure 34), it is important to note that the
country needs to increase the share of renewables in the energy mix by accelerat-
ing investments in wind, solar, and biomass energy sources, Promote electric vehi-
cle (EV) adoption, incentives for carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies in
heavy industries and power generation, Encourage sustainable farming practices
that reduce methane emissions etc.
As the analysis shows, the Czech Republic is mostly in line with the gener-
al trends described above in terms of the indicators of the greatest impact. That is
why we will focus on certain indicators and policies that allow us to identify the state
of the environment and general steps taken by the Czech Republic to prevent cli-
mate change. The Czech Republic has developed and is currently implementing the
State Environmental Policy of the Czech Republic 2030 with a 2050 perspective. Its
principles are based on both the EU’s overall strategic focus on decarbonization and
reducing its carbon footprint, and also take into account national specifics [51]. In
general, the Czech Republic is showing a trend of stable economic growth, despite
the COVID-19 pandemic, when almost all EU countries slowed down their econom-
ic development.
The environmental situation in Europe, which has not spared the Czech Republic,
is forcing the government and civil society to respond to climate change more active-
ly than ever. According to [52], the Czech Republic periodically faces droughts, but
in the period from 2015 to 2021, the country experienced the most severe drought
caused by a lack of precipitation and high temperatures in its recorded history. In
59
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
addition, high temperatures have reduced the ability of water to dissolve oxygen. The
growth of toxic cyanobacteria is accelerating, which, combined with the negative ef-
fects of economic activity, leads to pollution of both surface and groundwater. This
entails complex economic, social and further environmental consequences.
Figure 43. Dynamics of the composite local index of environmental factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Czechia
Of the indicators included in the Net Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Phosphate
Fertilizer Consumption and Emissions from New Cars component (17.9%), we
would like to highlight the Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars
(Grams per kilometer).
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
60
Figure 44. Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars,
Grams per kilometre [53]
Since 2020, this indicator has begun to decline in the Czech Republic after a sig-
nificant increase in 2017-2019, while in 2023 the Czech Republic ranked second in
terms of Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars (136.3 Grams per
kilometer) after Slovakia (137.6 Grams per kilometer). Poland, for example, ranks
3rd in this indicator. Hungary also had a high value of Average CO2 emissions per
km from new passenger cars.
At the same time, realizing the complexity of the problem of emissions caused by
road transport, as cars and vans produce about 15% of CO2 emissions in the EU, the
parliament supported the Commission’s proposal for “0” CO2 emissions for these
types of transport by 2035. Interim targets were set for 2030: 55% for cars and 50% for
vans [54]. Accordingly, all new cars that will be introduced to the EU market starting
in 2025 must have CO2 emissions of “0”. However, these rules do not apply to exist-
ing cars.
Slovakia
Table 7 summarizes the economic and environmental factors that have an impact
on reducing greenhouse gas emissions in Slovakia. Based on the analysis of the
composite index of economic components, the following conclusions were made:
1) Economic, energy and environmental development (57.6%) have a significant
impact on greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 45). 2) Energy resources consumption
(17.4%) also has a significant impact on the growth of greenhouse gas emissions.
61
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Table 7. Identification of local component factors (Slovakia)
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Economic, energy and
environmental develop-
ment (57,6%)
Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Current
prices, million euro)
GDP and main components (output, expenditure and income) (Chain
linked volumes (2010), million euro)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Kilograms per capita)
Management of waste excluding major mineral waste, by waste manage-
ment operations (Tonne)
Annual detailed enterprise statistics for Mining and quarrying industry
(Production value– million euro)
Modal split of inland freight transport (Roads/Percentage)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Waste generated /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Waste generated /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Thousand tonnes /
Kilograms per capita)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– landfill
and other (D1-D7, D12) / Kilograms per capita)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– industry sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– households– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste man-
agement operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne)
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– landfill and other )
Treatment of waste by waste category, hazardousness and waste
management operations (Hazardous and non-hazardous– total / Tonne /
Disposal– incineration (D10))
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62
Factor Indicator
Economic component
Energy resources
consumption (17,4%)
Final energy consumption by product (Thousand tonnes of oil equiva-
lent)
Final energy consumption by sector (Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Available for final
consumption / Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– other sectors– commercial and public services– energy use /
Gigawatt-hour)
Supply, transformation and consumption of gas (Inland consumption–
calculated / Terajoule (gross calorific value– GCV)
Supply, transformation and consumption of oil and petroleum products
(Gross inland deliveries– calculated / Thousand tonnes)
Economic productivity
and energy efficiency
of the transportation
sector (8,9%)
Real GDP per capita (Chain linked volumes (2010), euro per capita)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– transport sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Energy use by trans-
port sector (7,5%)
Supply, transformation and consumption of electricity (Final consump-
tion– transport sector– energy use / Gigawatt-hour)
Other economic factors
(4,4%)
Imports of natural gas by partner country (Million cubic metres)
Municipal waste by waste management operations (Disposal– incinera-
tion (D10) and recovery– energy recovery (R1) / Kilograms per capita)
Environmental component
Intensity of green-
house gas emissions
and organic farming
(44,9%)
Total nitrogen emissions, tonnes
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Total (excluding memo items, including interna-
tional aviation), Index, 1990=100
Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent), Grams per euro, current prices
Utilised agricultural area excluding kitchen gardens (Fully converted
to organic farming), hectare
Carbon intensity of GDP, kg CO2e per 2021 PPP $ of GDP
63
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Factor Indicator
Environmental component
Nitrogen consumption,
forestation and emis-
sions from new cars
(21,4%)
Nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha (Gross nutrient balance per hectare UAA )
Forest area, % of land area
Average CO2 emissions per km from new passenger cars, Grams per
kilometre
Mineral fertilizer con-
sumption and environ-
mental taxes (19,0%)
Fertilizer consumption, kilograms per hectare of arable land
Consumption of Phosphorus, Tonne
Consumption of Nitrogen, Tonne
Total environmental taxes, Percentage of gross domestic product (GDP)
Other environmental
impact (7,4%)
Contribution to the international 100bn USD commitment on climate
related expending [sdg_13_50], Million euro
Air emissions (Carbon diox ide) by resident units (production activities
and households), Tonne
Climate related economic losses– values at constant 2022 prices
[sdg_13_40], Current prices, million euro
Figure 45. Dynamics of the composite local index of economic factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Slovakia
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
64
Among the indicators included in Economic, energy and environmental de-
velopment, as in almost all Visegrad countries except Poland, the leading place is
occupied by Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent), GDP and
Waste management (especially Municipal waste). Between 2000 and 2018, Slovakia’s
energy productivity increased by a factor of 2.083, indicating significant improve-
ments in energy efficiency. This growth rate surpasses the EU average increase of
1.345during the same period [55]. In 2021, Slovakia’s energy productivity was re-
ported at €6.13per kgoe, placing it among the mid-range performers within the EU.
As for the overall indicators of economic development in Slovakia, which also
formed the basis for the determination of the factor that has the greatest impact on
greenhouse gas emissions, Slovakia’s GDP in 2022 was approximately $115.47 billion
USD. GDP per capita in 2022 was $18,733 USD, reflecting an increase from the previ-
ous year. [56]. In 2023, Slovakia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was approximately
$132.79 billion USD, representing about 0.13% of the global economy [57]. In general,
sustainable GDP growth may indicate an increase in the standard of living and qual-
ity of life in the country and the possibility of further focusing on decarbonization
policies and the introduction of energy and resource-saving technologies.
In 2022, Slovakia generated approximately 2.6 million tonnes of municipal waste,
equating to 478 kilograms per capita. Despite efforts to reduce landfilling, it remains
a significant method of waste disposal in Slovakia. Slovakia has been striving to im-
prove its recycling rates, with ongoing initiatives aimed at enhancing waste sepa-
ration and recycling infrastructure. However, specific data for 2022 is not readily
available [58].
Another factor with a high impact on greenhouse gas emissions is Energy resourc-
es consumption (17.4%). With regard to this factor, the main indicator of which is
Final energy consumption, between 2021 and 2022, Slovakia experienced a decrease
in total final energy consumption, notably within the industrial and residential sec-
tors. The industrial sector consumed about 36.8 TWh, accounting for 32% of the
total final energy consumption, with a 6.34% decrease from the previous year. The
transport sector used approximately 30.9 TWh, representing 27% of the total, and
experienced a 1.55% increase compared to the previous year [59]. The overall dy-
namics of the EU and Visegrad countries in terms of Final energy consumption by
sector is shown below Figure 43.
65
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 46. Final energy consumption by sectors,
Thousand tonnes of oil equivalent
For Slovakia, the most important environmental factor was total nitrogen emis-
sions, Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2 equivalent,
HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent, NF3 in
CO2 equivalent), Greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O in CO2 equivalent, CH4 in CO2
equivalent, HFC in CO2 equivalent, PFC in CO2 equivalent, SF6 in CO2 equivalent,
NF3in CO2 equivalent, Grams per euro, current prices), Utilised agricultural area
excluding kitchen gardens (Fully converted to organic farming) та Carbon intensity
of GDP. The second most important factor was the following Nitrogen in kg of nu-
trient per ha, Forest area in % of land area and Average CO2 emissions per km from
new passenger cars. And as shown above, for example, by the indicator Average CO2
emissions per km from new passenger cars this country was ranked 1st in 2023.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
66
Figure 47. Dynamics of the composite local index of environmental factors
of impact on GHG emissions in Slovakia
If we analyze the indicator Nitrogen in kg of nutrient per ha, we can see that in
Slovakia this indicator is gradually increasing, but is at the average level for European
countries.
Figure 48. Nitrogen, kg of nutrient per ha
(Gross nutrient balance per hectare UAA), 2016-2021 [60]
At the same time, Nitrogen is the dominant fertilizer in the structure of inorganic
fertilizers. This trend was also characteristic of previous time periods. The country is an
exporter of mineral or chemical fertilizers with nitrogen. In 2021, according to WITS
data, it sold 1836190 kg of Mineral or chemical fertilizers with nitrogen in the world [61].
The main countries to which supplies were made are shown in the figure below.
67
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 49. Slovak Republic Mineral or chemical fertilizers with nitrogen,
exports by country in 2021 [61]
In general, the Slovak Republic has developed and implemented the “Strategy of
the environmental policy of the Slovak Republic until 2030” to minimize green-
house gas emissions and their negative impact on the environment and human life
[62]. According to it, the country is developing a roadmap for solving the problems
of more environmentally friendly and sustainable agriculture, waste management,
conservation and restoration of flora and fauna, expansion of green spaces, etc.
Atthe same time, it is planned to further improve the environmental taxation sys-
tem and to continue using the EU ETS as a key pillar for cost-effective reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions in industry, energy and air transport, along with other
instruments and mechanisms. Currently, the ETS covers about 50% of total annual
greenhouse gas emissions [62].
Integral assessment of greenhouse-forming factors
A comprehensive assessment of the joint impact of the behavior of all local index-
es on greenhouse gas emissions is proposed to conduct on the basis of the suggest-
ed methodology for calculating the integral index of greenhouse-forming factors.
Calculating an integral index is necessary because of the need to combine three local
indexes that have different quantitative data, different dynamics of their changes in
a particular time period of assessment, and different weights of influence on total
greenhouse gas emissions.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
68
The integral index of greenhouse-forming factors was calculated as a geometric
average weighted value according to formula 1.
1
2
3
3
1
, (1)
where ІІ - Integral Index, ЕсС - Economic Component, EnC - Environmental Component,
SC - Social Component, - weighting factors.
Weighting factors were calculated based on the Coefficient of variation of the
component. The practical significance of the proposed methodology lies in its ability to
identify the direction of the combined behavior of all local influencing factors on greenhouse
gas volumes (Ukraine - Figure 47, Poland - Figure 48, Hungary - Figure 49, Czechia - Figure
50, Slovakia - Figure 51).
, (1)
where ІІ – Integral Index, ЕсС – Economic Component, EnC – Environmental
Component, SC– Social Component,αi – weighting factors.
Weighting factors were calculated based on the Coefficient of variation of the
component. The practical significance of the proposed methodology lies in its ability
to identify the direction of the combined behavior of all local influencing factors
on greenhouse gas volumes (Ukraine – Figure 47, Poland– Figure 48, Hungary–
Figure49, Czechia– Figure 50, Slovakia– Figure 51).
Figure 50. Dynamics of the integral index and local components
of greenhouse-forming factors (integral index on the auxiliary scale), Ukraine
69
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Figure 51. Dynamics of the integral index and local components
of greenhouse-forming factors (integral index on the auxiliary scale), Polska
Figure 52. Dynamics of the integral index and local components
of greenhouse-forming factors (integral index on the auxiliary scale), Hungary
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
70
Figure 53. Dynamics of the integral index and local components
of greenhouse-forming factors (integral index on the auxiliary scale), Czechia
Figure 54. Dynamics of the integral index and local components
of greenhouse-forming factors (integral index on the auxiliary scale), Slovakia
71
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
The calculation of the integral index for assessing greenhouse-forming factors
shows an increase in the negative factor impact on greenhouse gas emissions in
Ukraine in 2016-2021, in the Visegrad countries in 2016-2023. This conclusion indi-
cates the need to intensify decisions directed at decarbonizing the economic activi-
ties of business entities and households.
The correlation analysis of local components and the integral index allowed us
to identify a complex of factors that have the greatest impact on the dynamics the
integral index of greenhouse-forming factors (Table 8).
Table 8. Correlation analysis of the influence the local components on the integral index
Local
components
The correlation coefficient of local components with the integral index
Ukraine Polska Hungary Czechia Slovakia
Economic
component (EcC) 0,995 0,688 0,779 0,803 0,980
Environmental
component (EnC) 0,762 0,846 0,971 0,970 0,212
Social
component (SC) 0,833 ————
According to the correlation analysis, the dynamics of the integral index demon-
strates a close statistical connection with the combination of indicators of economic,
social and environmental components for Ukraine, of economic and environmental
components for Visegrad countries.
Moreover, the greatest influence on the formation of the trend of the integral be-
havior of the greenhouse-forming factors index (except in Slovakia) is exerted by
economic factors, which demonstrate the greatest variability in a certain time period.
Therefore, in order to achieve the goals of sustainable development, Ukraine’s ef-
forts should be focused on decarbonization in the energy, metallurgy, and transpor-
tation sectors. Unfortunately, the Paris Agreement did not drive significant changes
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
72
Ways to Reduce Ghgs in the Context of Implementing
a Global Decarbonization Policy
The steady increase in air temperature and the set of negative manifestations
of global warming prompted the adoption of the “Paris Agreement” in 2015. The
Paris Climate Agreement is an international agreement within the United Nations
(UN) Framework Convention on Climate Change framework to regulate measures
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from 2020. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris
Agreement provides that all states, regardless of their level of economic development,
undertake obligations to reduce harmful emissions into the atmosphere.
However, it has not become a driver of large-scale global changes to reduce green-
house gas emissions. Because of this, in 2019, the European Union (EU) approved
a new large-scale European Green Deal program to transform the economy by 2050.
It provides for a complete abandonment of the use of fossil fuels and the displace-
ment of industries that create harmful emissions from the economy. Subsequently,
the EU expanded its initiative to include 127 countries and launched the Climate
Neutrality program. On July 14, 2021, the European Commission (EC) developed
a package of proposals called Fit for 55, which aims to combat climate change and
make Europe the world’s first climate-neutral continent by reducing carbon dioxide
emissions in the EU by at least 55% compared to 1990 and reaching net zero by 2050.
In July 2021, the Government of Ukraine approved Ukraine’s Updated Nationally
Determined Contribution (NDC2) to the Paris Agreement. The document sets a goal
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 35% compared to 1990 by 2030.
The analysis of the possibilities for implementing the declared goals is determined
by the structure of greenhouse gas emission sources and a set of measures to change
it. In each country of the world, the structure of CO2 emissions is determined by the
structure of its economy, however, on a global scale, the main pollutants are the ener-
gy and metallurgy sectors. Thus, in Ukraine in 2020, 43% of the total CO2 emissions
are associated with electricity, gas, steam, and conditioned air supply, and 34%– the
processing industry (metallurgy).
So, according to the structure of greenhouse gas emission sources, the largest pro-
ducer in the world and Ukraine is energy, especially in the field of fossil fuel ex-
traction and the sources of electricity generation that burn fossil fuels and wood.
Thus, in Ukraine in the pre-war period, 36% of electricity was generated at thermal
power plants and heat power plants (Table 9).
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Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Table 9. Electricity supply in Ukraine for 2017-2020 [63]
Types of Generating Enterprises
Electricity supply, million kWh
2017 2018 2019 2020
Total 144883 148324 141213 137197
including
thermal power plants 41113 43773 40910 36300
combined heat and power plants 10595 10922 10738 12837
nuclear power plants 80295 79383 77948 71249
hydropower plants110370 11826 7712 7415
other power plants 2510 2420 3906 9396
of which
wind power plants 1602 1182 1760 3271
solar power plants 758 1103 1883 5684
Accordingly, minor changes in the implementation of decarbonization measures
should begin with a change in the structure of types of electricity generation. Taking
into account the structure of electricity production in Ukraine, reducing the share
of thermal generation is a reliably determined direction for reducing CO2 emissions
and other harmful gases into the atmosphere.
“Emissions of thermal power plants for the production of 1 MWh (on brown coal)
are 0.898 t of carbon dioxide (excluding other harmful emissions into the atmo-
sphere and greenhouse gases). That is, if we assume that the thermal power plant
produces 753.5 MWh per year, then carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere
will be 676.643 t. Over 25 years– 16,916.075 t» [64]. Taking into account the total vol-
ume of electricity generated at thermal power plants and CHPs, Ukraine’s potential
is 49,137 million kWh *0.898 t/1000= 44 million t CO2.
In the world, the implementation of long-term intentions to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions occurs through collective agreement and/or unilateral actions with-
in the framework of program measures of a country or group of countries. But to-
day the world is faced with the undesirable possibility of influencing changes in the
structure of greenhouse gas generation sources and through forced external influ-
ences in the form of war, natural disasters, etc. Thus, during the targeted aggressive
destruction of Ukraine’s energy infrastructure by Russia, 42 power units or 9 GW of
TPP and HPP generation were lost (as of June 2024). Old thermal power plants oper-
ated on fossil coal and gas with 24-25% efficiency.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
74
Unfortunately, the hostilities caused significant damage to solar electricity gener-
ation, which has gained considerable development since 2011. In 2019, Ukraine en-
tered the TOP 10 countries in the world in terms of the pace of development of green
energy, and in 2020– in the TOP 5 European countries in terms of solar energy de-
velopment. During the hostilities, Ukraine lost about 40% of solar generation since
industrial solar power plants are concentrated in the southern and southeastern re-
gions, which suffer the most from enemy shelling.
In addition to the industrial production of solar generation, its generation by pri-
vate households is actively developing in Ukraine, which is aimed at meeting their
own needs and selling surplus generation to the country’s energy system.
Despite all the problems that Ukraine has faced, the country is faced with a choice
of a way to restore the economy’s energy supply based on compliance with its climate
commitments and the implementation of a global energy transition policy.
The experience of European countries is an example of the successful use of green
energy to transition to a state of climate neutrality. Regarding the possibilities of its
implementation in Ukraine, it is worth taking into account three fundamental fac-
tors: a significant territory, the geographical features of the area, the needs of the
economy, and the population.
The lack of sufficient solar intensity in the autumn-winter-spring period reduces
the efficiency of solar generation, and the insufficient volume of nuclear and hydro-
electric generation requires the need for partial restoration of generation based on
the use of modern gas-piston power plants with an efficiency of 45% and closed-type
gas turbines – 60%. Gas consumption in such TPPs is 2.5 times less than gas con-
sumption in old units, and therefore, CO2 emissions will decrease by approximately
2.5 times compared to their emissions in the pre-war period.
Regarding the reduction of coal use as a source of influence on global climate
change, in 2023, Ukraine confirmed its intention to close all state-owned coal-fired
power plants by 2035. When burning 1 ton of coal, 0.102 t of CO2 is released. 1 m3of
natural gas (methane), when burned, produces about 2 kg of carbon dioxide [64].
The transition to the generation of energy products from alternative energy sourc-
es allows you to inf luence the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, but it cannot
be considered the only source of meeting the economy’s needs for electricity and gas.
Metallurgy is one of the industries with significant CO2 emissions. According
to the World Steel Association, in 2022, 1.91 tons of CO2 were emitted per ton of raw
steel. The steel industry is responsible for 7 to 9% of global CO2 emissions [65].
In Ukraine, CO2 emissions from industrial activities in 2021 amounted to 38%
of the total emissions in the country. Until 2016, Ukraine was among the ten largest
producers of metallurgical products, however, since 2018, there has been a significant
decrease in steel smelting volumes due to a decrease in domestic demand for metal-
lurgical products. In the global context, the largest metallurgical producer is China.
On average, about 2 billion tons of steel are produced worldwide. Part of Ukraine’s
share in the global steel production volume was 1.2%. The excess of steel production
75
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
volumes over its domestic demand led to the need to export more than 80% of the
smelted steel, which provided about 3.3% of world exports in the pre-war period [66].
Carbon emissions in the steel industry depend on the steelmaking process. The
processes are based on the use of blast furnace (BF-BOF), scrap-based electric arc
furnace (EAF), and direct reduced iron (DRI) steelmaking based on EAF, which pro-
duce different amounts of CO2 emissions.
Table 10. CO2 emissions from crude steel production in the world [65]
Production method Share in world
production, %
CO2 emissions,
t/t
Steel production based on blast furnace oxygen 71,1 2,33
Direct reduced iron (DRI) steel production based on EAF
28,6
1,37
Steel production based on scrap in electric arc furnace (EAF) 0,68
In outdated traditional (blast) steelmaking plants, CO2 is the result of burning
coke and coal. In the production of open-hearth steel, the number of harmful sub-
stances emitted into the atmosphere is 40% higher, and greenhouse gases are twice
as much compared to electric steelmaking and converter steelmaking methods.
When using direct reduction reactors, the energy resource of the technological pro-
cess is natural gas. To reduce CO2 emissions when using gas, modern technologies
use green hydrogen and electrification at each stage of the entire production flow.
DRI-EAF technology, when steel is produced in electric furnaces from direct reduc-
tion iron products, which is obtained using hydrogen, reduces carbon dioxide emis-
sions by up to 90%. In this case, hydrogen should be generated by electrolysis using
water and electricity from renewable sources. In the case of an increase in demand
for electricity produced at thermal power plants, there may be an increase in CO2
emissions in the power industry while reducing their emissions in metallurgy. The
economy will redistribute CO2 emission sources [67].
The world leader in the deployment of environmentally friendly hydrogen solu-
tions for the green steel value chain, as well as the hydrogen value chain, is Hygenco
Green Energies Private Limited.
Hydrogen is considered an alternative energy source for large industrial enter-
prises and urban areas due to its ability to accumulate and store energy for a long
time. In addition, hydrogen is considered an alternative to coal and gas for electricity
generation at CHP and TPP. Thanks to the use of hydrogen, it is possible to reduce
the need for fossil fuels and, on this basis, reduce CO2 emissions from fuel combus-
tion at power plants.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
76
In addition, hydrogen is used as an auxiliary fuel for power plants during peak
load periods.
India is a country that is testing the possibilities of using hydrogen in metallur-
gical production. Jindal Stainless, in collaboration with Hygenco Green Energies
Private Limited, has created an automated steel production based on the supply of
green hydrogen using special solar energy and a storage tank. As a result, the reduc-
tion in CO2 emissions will amount to approximately 54,000 tons of CO2 emissions
over 20 years [68].
In Europe, hopes for the introduction of carbon-free production in steel produc-
tion are associated with the implementation in 2025 by the Swedish startup com-
pany H2 Green Steel of environmentally friendly steel production by replacing
coal with green hydrogen, which runs on electricity without the use of fossil fuels.
Decarbonization of steel production provides “clean” metals for automotive, me-
chanical engineering, construction, household appliance production, etc.
The integrated process will reduce energy consumption by 70 percent and replace
natural gas, which is usually used in the traditional process.
Summarizing the above, it should be noted that the world is moving towards
the search for technological solutions aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
However, such a path requires time and capital investments and can affect the re-
duction of CO2 concentration in the long term and only if the scale of its use is grad-
ually expanded. After all, the lack of geographical boundaries for the localization of
greenhouse gases and collective coherence in the implementation of the intentions of
decarbonization of production can level the impact of point changes on global pro-
cesses. When declaring a reduction in emissions in a separate company, the existing
dynamics of emission reduction in a separate country and the global impact on the
change in the trend of increasing air temperature will not be observed. This fact is
confirmed by the increasing air temperature trends in all countries of the world.
Today, various instruments have been developed around the world aimed at stim-
ulating the decarbonization of production. The most common of them are:
– market instruments, which are based on the CO2 emissions trading system;
– tax instruments in the form of environmental taxes, CO2 emissions taxes, taxes
on imports of goods with a carbon footprint;
– regulation and subsidies as environmental standards, subsidies for technolog-
ical changes;
– financial instruments– creation of modernization funds, innovation funds, re-
strictions on lending to traditional industries with significant CO2 emissions.
In addition to technological solutions, a way to influence greenhouse gas emissions
is emission limits (quotas) and emissions trading. The European Emissions Trading
System (EU ETS) is based on the European Union Emissions Trading Directive
2003/87/EC and has been operating on the “cap-and-trade” principle since 2005.
The EU ETS includes more than 11,000 installations, which generate more than half
of European CO2 emissions. The EU ETS covers four sectors: energy (thermal power
77
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
plants with a capacity of more than 20 MW, oil refineries, and coke ovens); production
and processing of ferrous metals; extractive industry (including cement, brick, glass,
and ceramics); pulp and paper industry [69]. According to the “cap and trade” model, all
enterprises covered by the scheme are given a total number of allowances that they must
trade with each other to determine the value of their carbon emissions. This means that
carbon emitters must then make a choice between buying enough allowances to cover
the carbon emissions produced by their activities or reducing their carbon emissions
if they cannot afford to not get enough allowances. They buy carbon emission permits.
One permit means that the holder can emit 1 tonne of CO2 [70].
Revenues generated from the sale of CO2 emission permits under the EU ETS
provide Member States with revenue that can be used for projects to reduce carbon
emissions and introduce renewable energy sources [69]. Companies not included in
the EU ETS pay a carbon tax.
Environmental taxes are a tool for influencing the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions. The CO2 tax is established by countries in order to create economic in-
centives to reduce carbon emissions, to create sources of investment in the develop-
ment of decarbonization processes, in particular, in the direction of transition to the
introduction of alternative energy sources, and to compensate for part of the cost of
green energy.
The main goal of introducing a CO2 tax is to encourage the abandonment of the
use of fossil fuels and the transition to renewable energy sources. This tax increases
the prices of gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil, and natural gas due to the CO2 content.
In Ukraine, the CO2 tax was introduced in 2011 and is part of the environmental tax.
For a long time, the tax rate was very low at €0.013 per ton of CO2 emissions, which
did not stimulate entrepreneurs to introduce energy-efficient measures and switch
to renewable energy sources. Since January 1, 2019, the tax rate has increased 24times
to €0.32 per ton of CO2 emissions. Today, the tax rate has increased to €0.68/t (as of
January 2025) for enterprises emitting more than 500 tons of carbon per year. However,
all funds were directed to the general fund of the state budget without targeted use.
Since 2024, the State Fund for Decarbonization and Energy Efficient Transfor-
mation has been established in Ukraine, the task of which is to form a source of re-
forming the structure of industries that use fossil fuels. The main direction of the
fund’s activity is financing projects related to the implementation of decarboniza-
tion projects and increasing the efficiency of energy production.
Regarding the CO2 emission tax, it is worth noting that today in European coun-
tries, different rates are applied (Figure 1), and various instruments of support for
tax subjects are used: from reducing income tax rates (Sweden, Finland), reducing
the rate of social contributions (Denmark, Great Britain), providing free quotas for
export-oriented enterprises (EU).
A study of the relationship between CO2 emission tax rates and trends in such
emissions allowed us to conclude that greenhouse gas emissions have significantly
decreased in countries with high tax rates.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
78
In Ukraine, in 2020, 29% of greenhouse gas emissions were taxed, in 2022– 71%,
which is dictated by the deployment of hostilities in the area where environmental
taxpayers are located.
A comparative analysis of CO2 tax rates in Ukraine and Europe casts doubt on
the broad possibilities of generating the necessary amounts of CO2 tax funds in the
Decarbonization Fund.
The unequivocal conclusion is that in the conditions of the need to join the
European decarbonization policy, Ukraine will face the need to increase the CO2 tax
rate. To do this, a methodological basis must be formed for forming a tax base based
on an assessment of the amount of CO2 emissions and a tariff per unit of emissions.
The need for tax reform in the approach to CO2 emissions is also due to the expan-
sion of decarbonization measures not only for the EU ecosystem but also for the in-
direct impact on the decarbonization process of its trading partners. Since 2026, the
EU has been implementing a mechanism for regulating carbon emissions at the bor-
der with the European Union, the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).
The basis of such a mechanism is a tax on imports of goods with a carbon footprint.
The objects of taxation are electricity, iron, steel, aluminum, cement, and fertilizers.
The need to implement such a CBAM mechanism is due both to the intentions
to solve global problems of humanity by influencing the economic interests of the
participants in their formation and to the intentions to prevent the relocation of
European production to countries with low rates of environmental taxes or the cost
of purchasing emission quotas. The reasons for such processes are the increase in
environmental tax rates for fossil fuel extraction enterprises in the EU and the inten-
tion to reduce the number of free quotas for producers of products produced using
fossil fuels.
The lack of reform of industries that emit CO2, in the context of the introduction
of the border carbon adjustment mechanism, will lead to the loss of European mar-
kets due to the increase in the price of goods, the filling of European decarbonization
funds, and the reduction of the utilization of metallurgical capacities in Ukraine and
non-EU countries.
Regarding the participation of the banking system in shaping trends in car-
bon-free production, the EU has developed a package of regulatory documents on
sustainable financing of the economy (Regulation (EU) 2020/852, Commission
Recommendation (EU) 2023/1425, Sustainable Europe Investment Plan. European
Green Deal Investment Plan, 2020, Sustainable finance package [73]. Indeed, in the
current global focus on activating zero-emissions policies, the risk of non-repayment
of loans by a borrower who emits greenhouse gases is increasing for banks. It be-
comes logical that the fact that under conditions of increased control over green-
house gas emissions, products of enterprises produced using fossil fuels will not be in
demand on the markets.
79
Assessment methodology of factors thatinfluence…
Conclusions
This study underscores the complexity and multifaceted nature of greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, emphasizing the interconnected influence of economic, environ-
mental, and social factors on their formation and dynamics. The integral methodol-
ogy developed and applied within the research provides a robust framework for eval-
uating these influences, particularly within the context of Ukraine and the Visegrad
countries. Economic activities, especially in energy, metallurgy, and transportation,
are the most significant contributors to GHG emissions. The economic component
exhibited the highest variability, indicating a need for targeted decarbonization
strategies in these sectors. Emissions from road transport and agriculture emerged
as primary environmental contributors. The intensity of fertilizer usage and GHG
emissions highlighted the critical role of sustainable agricultural practices in reduc-
ing emissions. Social dynamics, including population behaviors and consumption
patterns, significantly impact GHG emissions. Improving public awareness and pro-
moting sustainable practices are essential for reducing the environmental burden.
The calculated integral index revealed a rising negative impact of local factors on
GHG emissions from 2016 to 2021, indicating the urgent need for comprehensive
decarbonization policies.
The research also highlighted the unique challenges posed by the ongoing war in
Ukraine, which has intensified GHG emissions through increased military activities,
infrastructure destruction, and reconstruction needs. This situation underscores the
global interconnectedness of environmental impacts and the necessity for collabora-
tive international efforts to address climate challenges.
To align with sustainable development goals, future policies must focus on decar-
bonizing key economic activities, adopting advanced clean technologies, and foster-
ing resilience within social and environmental systems. The proposed methodology
offers valuable insights for policymakers, enabling more effective strategies to miti-
gate climate change and achieve long-term sustainability.
Based on the generalization of scientific research and publications, practical ac-
tions on the implementation of the decarbonization policy, the following directions
for achieving net zero CO2 emissions in the long term can be summarized:
– reducing the demand for electricity produced based on the use of fossil fuels by
implementing a full-scale energy conservation policy;
– reducing the share of energy in the structure of industrial production through
the use of energy-efficient processes and actions;
– increasing the production of electricity produced from renewable energy
sources;
– increasing the share of hydrogen in electricity production;
– reducing the area of landfills based on an increase in the share of sorted waste;
– technological changes in automotive production by stimulating the use of elec-
tric vehicles;
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
80
– increasing carbon tax rates with the simultaneous development of mechanisms
for financial support for taxpayers;
– equalizing carbon tax rates to a level that will make it impossible to transfer
production to countries with low tax rates;
– creating a system of objective statistics on carbon emissions by unifying meth-
ods and means of monitoring and reporting on carbon emissions;
– developing the practice of incentives and financial support for intentions to de-
carbonize production in the form of investment incentives and “green” lending.
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Iwona Krzyzewska1
Katarzyna Chruzik2
Improving accessibility in integrated Improving accessibility in integrated
transport hubs as an example transport hubs as an example
of enhancing social inclusionof enhancing social inclusion
Theoretical introduction
The journey from the starting point to the destination usually consists of multiple
interconnected stages, such as: the segment from home to the curb, followed by the
segment from the curb to the vehicle; traveling within the vehicle; transferring to an-
other vehicle; the segment from the vehicle to the curb, then from the curb to the
building; and finally, entering the destination. The lack of accessibility at any of
these stages makes completing the journey impossible. Therefore, it becomes essen-
tial to assess accessibility and continuously improve it for each stage of the journey.
In this context, accessibility is defined with consideration for individuals with
specific needs. In most countries, approximately 12 to 16% of residents identify as
individuals with specific needs. These individuals may constitute 20 to 25% of public
transport passengers [1, 2]. Thus, accessibility, which ensures that public transport
and integrated transport hubs are usable by all users, is a critical aspect. Continuous
improvement of accessibility will allow real-time identification of barriers and facili-
ties present within the area of integrated transport hubs.
1 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, ikrzyzewska@wsb.edu.pl
2 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, kchruzik@wsb.edu.pl
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86
Analysis of Literature Sources on Available Solutions
Improving Accessibility
Enhancing accessibility also aims to improve personal safety within integrated
transport hubs (ITH), which is addressed on both national and international levels
through the development of standards and norms. Similarly, the economic consid-
erations of accessibility (and its improvement) should be managed through national
legislation. Thus, improving accessibility will impact all aspects of sustainable trans-
port development: economic, environmental, and social.
Increasing social inclusion relates to human rights equality and the elimination
of discrimination based on the degree or type of disability. The costs associated with
improving accessibility, such as applying universal design principles during the
planning of new ITH or modernizing existing ones, can be justified by the enhance-
ments in safety and accessibility for all passengers. The development of public trans-
port and the growth in the number of passengers will lead to reduced transport costs
and a positive environmental impact (lower greenhouse gas emissions by reducing
the number of private vehicles on the roads).
Accessibility is often substituted by mobility in various literature sources and
legal regulations. Mobility refers to an individual’s ability (person, user, passen-
ger) to move and encompasses two aspects. The first aspect is the efficiency of the
transport system, inf luenced by the user’s location, time of day, and travel direction.
The second aspect involves the user’s specific characteristics and their preferences
regarding travel modes (private car, bus, train, airplane, walking). Accessibility de-
fines the user’s ability to utilize the transport system [3].
Accessibility, along with universal design principles, considers the user experience
of the transport system, all connections (including substitutes for specific trans-
port modes and types of travel), and transport costs. Accessibility-based planning
(ofcities, neighborhoods, integrated transport hubs, and transport infrastructure el-
ements) includes multimodal solutions that facilitate cycling and walking.
Survey results indicate that people typically spend 60–90 minutes daily and
15–20% of their household budget on transport. Most simple services (e.g., shopping
or commuting to school/kindergarten) can take around 5–10 minutes, and if these
services are sufficiently accessible, the majority of respondents may choose walking.
Transport systems that force users to exceed these time and cost thresholds are per-
ceived as burdensome [3].
Factors Influencing Accessibility Improvement [3]:
•Demand for Access and Mobility: Conducting research to better understand
people’s needs, preferences, and capabilities regarding accessibility and mo-
bility. Using social marketing strategies to develop better options that ad-
dress these needs and encourage users to choose more efficient and equitable
options.
87
Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
•Basic Access and Mobility: Prioritizing transport improvements and actions
that facilitate access to goods, services, and activities deemed essential for so-
ciety.
•Mobility: Enhancing traffic speed and capacity, for example, through road up-
grades and expansion.
•Transport Options: Improving the convenience, comfort, safety, reliability,
affordability, and speed of transport options, including walking, cycling, driv-
ing, ridesharing, taxis, car-sharing, and public transport.
•User Information: Enhancing the quantity and quality of user information
about travel options and locations, including signs, maps, brochures, websites,
and phone services. Particular focus can be given to providing accessible in-
formation on alternative transport modes and efficient locations.
•Integration: Improving connections between different transport modes and
destinations, such as more integrated information, fare systems, walkability,
luggage transfers, and parking facilities for cars and bicycles.
•Affordability: Improving the affordability of transport modes (walking, cy-
cling, ridesharing, public transport, taxis, and telecommuting) and affordable
housing in accessible locations.
•Mobility Substitutes: Enhancing the quantity and quality of telecommunica-
tions and delivery services that replace physical travel.
•Land Use Factors: Improving land use accessibility by increasing density
and diversity. Creating urban villages that are walkable, bikeable, and tran-
sit-friendly, with adequate housing, workplaces, and services.
•Transport Network Connectivity: Improving road and pathway connections
to enable more direct travel between destinations, including specific shortcuts
for non-motorized travel where appropriate.
•Road Design and Management: Upgrading roads to improve traffic flow
(e.g.,by reducing driveway cuts), favoring vehicles with higher passenger ca-
pacity, and improving conditions for pedestrians and cyclists.
•Prioritization: Using mobility and parking management strategies to priori-
tize higher-value trips and resource-efficient vehicles, as well as encouraging
more accessible land use planning.
•Payment Systems Improvement: Enhancing methods for charging road and
parking fees to reduce transaction costs and increase the feasibility of implement-
ing pricing reforms to improve the overall efficiency of the transport system.
•Inaccessibility: To achieve community goals such as environmental protec-
tion, mobility and accessibility may need to be limited in some cases.
Planning Aligned with Accessibility Improvements
Terms such as “smart growth,” “location-efficient development,” “multimodal plan-
ning,” “urban villages,” and more recently, “15-minute neighborhoods” are used
to describe planning that promotes compact, mixed-use, multimodal, and walkable
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urban areas. In these areas, frequently used services are easily accessible without
lengthy commutes, enabling residents to function without the need for private vehi-
cles. Research suggests that many residents would prefer shorter or fewer commutes,
rely more on alternative transportation modes, and choose more accessible loca-
tions– provided these options are convenient, comfortable, safe, and affordable [3].
Accessibility Improvements for Users with Specific Needs [4]:
• Upgrading roads and sidewalks.
• Safe pedestrian crossings.
• Dedicated bicycle paths.
• Traffic calming measures.
• Safety education.
• Law enforcement.
• Incentive programs.
• Bicycle parking facilities.
User Groups, Identified Issues, and Proposed Improvements [3]:
1. Urban Commuters
a. Issues: Traffic congestion and parking difficulties.
b. Improvements: Expanding roads and parking facilities, improving alter-
native transport modes (e.g., grade-separated public transport), and intro-
ducing congestion charges.
2. Low-Income Commuters
a. Issues: High fuel and parking costs, unreliable vehicles.
b. Improvements: Enhancing affordable transport options (walking, cycling,
ridesharing, public transport) and increasing the affordability of housing
in accessible locations.
3. Non-Drivers
a. Issues: Inadequate alternative transport and poor connectivity (e.g., diffi-
culty bringing bicycles onto buses).
b. Improvements: Enhancing walking and cycling conditions, ridesharing
services, public transport, user information, and connections between
transport modes.
4. C hildren/ Yout h
a. Issues: Poor conditions for walking and cycling, insufficient public trans-
port services.
b. Improvements: Improving pedestrian and cycling infrastructure (espe-
cially safety), enhancing public transport, and providing appropriate user
information.
5. Visitors and Modal Transfers
a. Issues: Inconvenient user information.
b. Improvements: Improving the quality of user information.
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
6. Perception of Alternative Modes
a. Issues: Stigma (walking, cycling, and public transport are perceived as in-
ferior).
b. Improvements: Marketing campaigns to elevate the status of alternative
transport modes.
7. Disabled Individuals
a. Issues: Inadequate pedestrian facilities, inappropriate vehicles (cars, public
transport, and taxis), insufficient user information.
b. Improvements: Enhancing pedestrian and vehicle facilities to accommo-
date disabilities and improving user information.
8. Physically Disabled Individuals
a. Additional Issues: Financial limitations.
b. Improvements: Reduced transport and taxi fees, targeted discounts for
low-income disabled individuals, and specialized phone and internet ser-
vices.
9. Carriers/Delivery Services
a. Issues: Traffic delays, inconvenient parking (especially in urban deliveries),
high fuel costs.
b. Improvements: Congestion charges to prioritize higher-value trips on con-
gested roads, better delivery vehicle parking options, and development of
more fuel-efficient transport services (e.g., rail transport).
Enhancing Accessibility: A Comprehensive Approach
Improving accessibility requires a more comprehensive analysis as no single method
can assess all accessibility factors. Diverse methodologies are needed to reflect various
impacts, scales, and perspectives. A better understanding of user situations, prefer-
ences, and characteristics is essential. Individuals with specific needs, when planning
a journey, must consider all barriers and facilities at every stage. Addressing a single
barrier is insufficient as accessibility remains limited, and travel for people with spe-
cific needs becomes impossible. Only by making all stages of a journey accessible can
individuals with specific needs fully benefit from mobility without obstacles [5].
Accessibility Indicators
In the literature, indicator-based methods are used to measure accessibility.
Calculating accessibility indicators requires collecting and verifying data from
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and conducting audits. Audits, though
time-consuming, provide highly detailed information. These results can be uti-
lized for monitoring accessibility and informing decisions about changes in the
infrastructure.
Infrastructure Audits
According to [2], an infrastructure audit should focus on four elements: sidewalks,
pedestrian crossings, bicycle paths, and public transport stops. The audit involves
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recording data in the studied area to establish a database of infrastructure attributes.
Accessibility-related data and attributes are recorded to evaluate accessibility levels.
Questions and checklists should be based on legal regulations and policies of the rel-
evant region or country. Complex indicators are calculated as the sum of their sub-
categories, with each indicator assigned specific weights.
After completing the checklist, the percentage of verified attributes for each infra-
structure type is calculated by dividing the number of checked indicators by the total
number of indicators for the respective type. Audits address accessibility aspects for
diverse user groups, but in the Barrier-Free Transfers project, they specifically focus
on individuals with specific needs as defined in a previously developed catalog.
Example Indicators for Specific Infrastructure Elements
Sidewalks:
•Indicators: Five basic and two composite indicators (11 questions total):
– Sidewalk width.
– Minimum available pedestrian width.
– Minimum available pedestrian height.
– Parking markings along the sidewalk.
– Properly parked vehicles.
•Composite Indicators:
– Accessible parking for disabled individuals (width, availability, curb access,
etc.).
– Accessibility for disabled individuals (tactile surfaces, even surfaces without
cracks or gaps, etc.).
Pedestrian Crossings:
•Indicators: One basic and four composite indicators (11 questions total):
– Accessibility of pedestrian crossings.
•Composite Indicators:
– Minimum pedestrian width and ramp accessibility.
– Safe crossing conditions (damage-free, obstacle-free).
– Properly marked crossings (signage, reflective markers, flashing lights).
– Accessibility for disabled individuals (audible signals, buttons, traffic lights).
Bicycle Paths:
•Indicators: Five basic and one composite indicator (8 questions total):
– Desired path width and separation from motor vehicle lanes.
– Parking regulations compliance.
– Uninterrupted movement along the path.
– Use of materials that support all active transport modes without vibrations.
– Availability of proper signage and markings.
Public Transport Stops:
•Indicators: Five basic and one composite indicator:
– Accessibility of curbs, tactile warning strips, shelters, and seating.
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
–Composite Indicator: Other facilities (e.g., stop identifiers, schedules,
real-time information, audio features).
Flexible Audit Tool
The developed audit is highly adaptable and can be conducted by various organiza-
tions to evaluate accessibility for different user groups and infrastructure types. The
checklist can be used to create a comprehensive database of infrastructure attributes
for local governments. These data can then be leveraged to enhance accessibility.
Survey Form for Accessibility Assessment
A survey form was also used in [2] to identify parameters enabling mobility within
an integrated transport hub and estimate the time required to reach specific destina-
tions using various modes of transport.
Survey Structure:
1. Part One:
a. Questions on the most frequently used travel modes.
b. Vehicle ownership (yes/no).
c. Travel time by car (<5, 5-10, 10-15, 20-30, 30-45, >45 minutes).
d. Satisfaction with travel (Likert scale: 1–5, with 5 indicating high satisfaction).
2. Pa rt Two:
a. Questions on public transport usage frequency (daily, 3–5 times a week,
weekly, monthly, rarely, never).
b. Satisfaction with public transport (Likert scale: 1–5).
c. Acceptable walking time to the nearest stop (<3, 3–5, 5–10, 10–15, 15–20,
20–30, >30 minutes).
d. Acceptable travel time by public transport to six destinations (seven time
ranges: <10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, 40–50, 50–60, >60 minutes).
This methodology allows for the identification of critical factors influencing ac-
cessibility and helps shape future infrastructure and policy improvements.
Detailed Survey Structure
The survey consisted of multiple sections targeting different user groups to assess
their mobility patterns, preferences, and challenges. Below is a detailed breakdown
of the survey structure:
Section 3: Cyclists
This section focused on cyclists and included the following:
•Key Questions:
– Ownership of a bicycle.
– Frequency of bicycle use.
– Average travel time by bicycle.
– Acceptable travel time to six different destinations.
– Time cohorts: <5 min, 5–10 min, 10–15 min, 15–20 min, 20–30 min, >30 min.
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•Final Question:
– Respondents rated the importance of eight issues (e.g., road safety, in-
frastructure quality) that may arise during cycling using a Likert scale
(1–5,where 5 = very important).
Section 4: Pedestrians
This section mirrored the structure of the cyclist section, with a focus on
pedestrians.
•Key Questions:
– Similar to the cyclist section, but acceptable travel times were categorized
as: <3 min, 3–5 min, 5–10 min, 10–15 min, 15–20 min, 20–30 min, >30 min.
•Final Question:
– Respondents evaluated eight potential issues they might encounter while
walking in integrated transport hubs, using the same Likert scale.
Section 5: Individuals with Specific Needs
Respondents who identified as having specific needs (from screening questions)
were directed to this section, which comprised four subsections:
Subsection 1: General Travel Information
• Questions about:
– Most frequently used mode of travel.
– Availability of a driver’s license (yes/no).
– Availability of a vehicle for daily use (yes/no).
– Whether they commonly use roads with low traffic volumes on foot or in
a wheelchair (yes/no).
Subsection 2: Public Transport
• Questions about:
– Frequency of public transport use (daily, 3–5 times/week, 1–2 times/week,
3–5 times/month, rarely, never).
– Preferred modes of transport (bus, metro, tram, suburban train).
– Travel purposes (work/education, errands/shopping/leisure, medical visits,
unexpected travel).
– Problems encountered when using public transport.
– Acceptable travel time to seven destinations using public transport.
– Time cohorts: <3 min, 3–5 min, 5–10 min, 10–15 min, 15–20 min,
20–30min,>30 min.
Subsection 3: Disabilities
• If respondents reported mobility issues, they were asked to:
– Rate satisfaction (Likert scale: 1–5) with wheelchair accessibility across
eight areas (e.g., parking, public transport stops, boarding buses, navigat-
ing st reets).
• If respondents reported visual impairments, they were asked to:
– Rate satisfaction with auditory aids (e.g., crossing streets, navigating public
transport stops, sidewalks, and streets).
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Subsection 4: Local Travel Needs
• Respondents rated the importance of 10 issues they face during travel in their
neighborhood (Likert scale: 1–5).
• This section highlighted the importance of the first stage of journeys, particu-
larly in suburban or rural areas.
Final Section: Shared Assessment of Infrastructure Improvement
In this concluding section, all respondents were asked to:
• Evaluate the importance (Likert scale: 1–5) of improving:
– Pedestrian crossings.
– Sidewalks.
– Public transport stops.
– Bicycle paths in their neighborhood.
• Provide socio-demographic information, such as:
– Country of origin, gender, age, education level, and employment status.
Significance of the Survey
The survey offers a comprehensive view of the preferences, challenges, and needs of
different user groups, especially individuals with specific needs. This data can help
policymakers and urban planners enhance infrastructure, accessibility, and inclu-
sivity in transport systems, particularly within integrated transport hubs.
The Infrastructure Accessibility Index (IAI) measures the extent to which a spe-
cific type of infrastructure is suitable for various types of users in completing their
journeys to a destination. It depends on the condition and design of the infrastructure,
as well as on user priorities regarding the improvement of each type of infrastructure.
An audit is conducted for each side of a road segment (i.e., left and right) and for
each type of infrastructure kkk. The indices IlkI_{lk}Ilk and IrkI_{rk}Irk are calcu-
lated for the left (lll) and right (rrr) sides of road segment iii, respectively. The aver-
age of these two values is estimated as the infrastructure accessibility index for road
segment iii, road jjj, and infrastructure type kkk (e.g., sidewalk, pedestrian crossing,
bicycle path, or public transport stop): Iik,jI_{ik,j}Iik,j.
The road segment accessibility index (Ii,jI_{i,j}Ii,j ) takes into account all
available types of infrastructure for segment iii (i=1…ni = 1…ni=1…n) of road jjj
(j=1…mj=1…mj=1…m) and is estimated based on Equation (1).
Where kkk represents:
– Sidewalk (1),
– Pedestrian crossing (2),
– Bicycle path (3),
– Public transport stops (4).
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Where wk w_ k wk is the weight assigned to each type of infrastructure, ref lecting
user priorities for improving each type of infrastructure (i.e., sidewalks, pedestrian
crossings, bicycle paths, and public transport stops). The relative weights for pri-
oritizing infrastructure types are calculated by considering respondents’ answers
based on their respective rankings. The estimated weights, derived as the sum of
the rankings, are assigned to each type of infrastructure. The most important type
of infrastructure is given a value of 1, and the least important is given a value of nnn,
according to Equation (2):
Infrastructure Accessibility Index (IAI)
The Infrastructure Accessibility Index (IAI) measures how well a particular type
of infrastructure accommodates various user types in completing their journeys
to a destination. It depends on the condition and design of the infrastructure and the
users’ priorities for improving each type.
•kkk refers to sidewalks (1), pedestrian crossings (2), bicycle paths (3), and pub-
lic transport stops (4).
•rkr_ k rk represents the rank of the kkk-th type of infrastructure.
•wkw_kwk denotes the weight for each infrastructure type, reflecting the prior-
ities users assign to improving it.
The weights are calculated based on respondents’ survey answers and rankings.
The most critical infrastructure type is assigned a value of 1, while the least import-
ant is assigned a value of nnn, as shown in Equation (2).
The average value of Ii,jI_{i,j}Ii,j for all road segments provides the IAI for each
road jjj, and the average of all IAIjIAI_jIAIj gives the Infrastructure Accessibility
Index for the studied area.
The IAI values range from 0 to 100, with the following intervals:
•0: No accessibility.
•1–25: Poor accessibility.
•26–50: Moderate accessibility.
•51–75: Satisfactory accessibility.
•76–100: Excellent accessibility.
Opportunity Accessibility Index (OAI)
The Opportunity Accessibility Index (OAI) complements the IAI by accounting for
users’ ability to reach destinations (opportunities). It relies on spatial planning to ad-
dress user needs appropriately.
Seven destinations were considered:
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
• Green spaces, recreational areas, educational buildings, healthcare facilities,
public utility buildings, commercial establishments, and public transport
stops.
Four user types were analyzed:
• Pedestrians, individuals with specific needs, cyclists, and public transport
users.
The OAI calculation incorporates the maximum acceptable travel time for each
user type to reach the seven destinations. The process involves three steps:
1. Estimating acceptable travel times for each user type based on survey results.
2. Creating isochrones using QGIS with the ORS Tools plugin, which allows
time- or distance-based isochrone generation for various modes of transport
(e.g., driving, cycling, walking) while considering travel speed.
3. Generating isochrone curves around each destination to illustrate reachable
areas within the acceptable travel time. These curves create unified areas dis-
played on thematic maps, indicating the potential coverage of the studied area.
OAI values range from 0 to 100:
•0: No destination is reachable by any user within the estimated area.
•>1: At least one destination is reachable by a user within the estimated travel
time.
•100: All desired destinations are reachable by a specific user group within the
estimated travel time.
Sustainability Indicators
Another indicator-based method for evaluating accessibility involves sustainability
indicators, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.2:
“By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport
systems for all, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations,
women, children, persons with disabilities, and older persons.”
Sustainability indicators are developed in a multilevel approach to enable na-
tional agencies and authorities to generate data, report progress, and inform actions
for achieving the goal.
Three levels of metrics:
1. Level 1 Metrics: High-level frameworks for consistent international compari-
sons across four thematic areas.
2. Level 2 Metrics: Support the measurement of the four thematic areas with
a second layer of information.
3. Level 3 Metrics: Include 33 factors for a deeper understanding of patterns
within the four thematic areas.
Four thematic areas:
1. Comfort and Safety– Table A.
2. Service Demand– Table B.
3. Connections to Destinations– Table C.
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4. Support and Incentives– Table D.
Tables with detailed indicators for each thematic area (Tables 1–4) have been de-
veloped to guide the evaluation process.
Table 1.
Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A1. OVERALL EXPERIENCE
A1.1. Walking– overall
satisfaction X
A1.2. Public Transport (PT)–
overall satisfaction X
A2. SAFETY
A2.1. Providing safe inter-
sections X
A2.2. Feeling of safety from
injuries caused by motor-
ized traffic or cycling
X
A2.3. Number of injuries X
A2.4. Number of fatalities X
A3. PERSONAL SAFE TY
A3.1. Feeling of personal
safety while walking X
A3.2. Level of human
activity X
A3.3. Women’s perception
of safety X
A3.4. Availability of lighting X
A4. PEDESTRIAN INFRA-
STRUCTURE
A4.1. Provision of walking
space X
A4.2. Quality of pavement
materials X
A4.3. Level of pedestrian
surface maintenance X
A4.4. Cleanliness of pedes-
trian environment X
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A4.5. Adequacy of path
drainage X
A5. PUBLIC TR ANSPORT
INFRASTRUCTURE
A5.1. Accessibility of sta-
tions and stops for people
with reduced mobility
X
A5.2. Accessibility of
vehicles for people with
reduced physical mobility
X
A5.3. % of stations with
step-free access from
street to platform
X
A6. OPERATIONAL EFFI-
CIENCY
A6.1. Average service
reliability X
A6.2. Number of annual
trips by transport mode X
A6.3. Vehicle kilometers
traveled X
A6.4. Passenger kilometers
traveled X
A6.5. Number of stops X
A6.6. Total line length X
A6.7. Number of vehicles in
the fleet X
A6.8. Average waiting time
at stops (in minutes) X
A6.9. Average operational
speed of public transport X
A6.10. Average serv ice
frequency X
A6.11. Revenue and opera-
tional costs X
A7. VEHICLE QUALITY
A7.1. Average age of
vehicles X
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Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
A8. IMPACT OF MOTORIZED
TRAFFIC ON PEDESTRIAN
MOBILITY
A8.1. Feeling of appropriate
traffic speeds X
A8.2. Noise perception X
A8.3. Perception of air
quality X
A8.4. Perception of parking
impact X
Table 2.
Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
B1. DAILY JOURNEYS
B1.1 Total number of dai-
ly walking and public
transport journeys
B1.2 Share of walking
and public transport
journeys (%)
B1.3 Total time spent
walking during daily
journeys (minutes)
B1.4 Total time spent
using public transport
during daily journeys
(minutes)
B1.4 Age (0-15; 16-30;
31-60; 60+)
B1.5 Gender (F; M;
Other)
B1.6 Ability (able-bod-
ied; disabled; assisted)
B1.7 Travel frequency
(daily, often,
occasionally)
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
Table 3.
Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
C1 ACCESS TO PUBLIC
TRANSPORT STOPS
C1.1 Population living
within <500 meters
of a public transport
stop (%)
C1.2 Distance traveled
to reach the nearest
public transport stop
(minutes)
C1.3 Motorized trans-
port accessibility (Y, N)
C2 ACCESS TO JOBS AND
SERVICES
C2.1 Number of jobs
and urban services
accessible
within 60 minutes by
public transport (%)
Table 4.
Indicator Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
D1 INFORMATION
D1.1 Ease of wayfinding
(R-Y-G)
D1.2 Satisfaction with
maps, timetables, and
travel information
(R-Y-G)
D2 ACCESSIBILITY–
AMENITIES
D2.1 Pedestrian-oriented
provisions such as trash
bins, lighting, seating, and
signage (R-Y-G)
D3 AFFORDABILITY D3.1 Average income
spent on transport (%)
D4 INCENTIVES
D4.1 Number of passen-
gers with concession/
subscription tickets (trips
made with concessionary/
subscription tickets as %
of total network trips)
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100
These indicators are calculated based on survey data and the establishment of per-
centage-based guidelines.
Development of a Custom Accessibility Improvement Procedure
Based on the analysis of literature sources, research on integrated transport hubs,
and outputs from earlier project stages, the content of an accessibility improvement
procedure was developed.
Purpose of the procedure:
The procedure aims to monitor, report, and evaluate the accessibility management
system of integrated transport hubs using an indicator-based method. It also aims
to implement actions for continuous improvement and enhancement of accessibility,
considering the needs of individuals with specific needs.
Intended audience:
The procedure is intended for managers of integrated transport hubs and their
infrastructure elements, all participants (users) of these hubs, and individuals with
specific needs.
Criteria of the procedure:
Legal standards, best practices, and the requirements of customers and other par-
ticipants in the transport system.
Elements of the Accessibility Improvement Process for Integrated Transport
Hubs
1. Audits:
a. Results from audits, reports, records, and notes from research and inter-
views with staff, users of the integrated transport hubs (ITHs), and support
personnel on-site.
2. Preventive and corrective actions:
a. Following identified nonconformities or audit findings, proposals for cor-
rective actions must be prepared. Preventive actions should also be imple-
mented to eliminate the root causes of nonconformities.
3. Complaints:
a. In the event of complaints and/or recommendations from users of ITHs
and travelers, the functionality of specific system components should be
verified. Necessary changes should be implemented, or system functional-
ity restored.
4. Monitoring and reporting of accessibility indicators for ITHs:
a. Documentation and actions must be carried out to monitor the accessibility
level of all system elements, including infrastructure, considering individ-
uals with specific needs. Indicator-based methods should be implemented,
and annual reviews of indicator values conducted. If negative results or sig-
nificant deviations from previous assessments arise, actions for improve-
ment and continuous system enhancement should be taken.
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Improving accessibility in integrated transport hubs…
5. Improvement and enhancement program:
a. Actions and records related to improving and enhancing the accessibility
management system of ITHs and their infrastructure components should
be implemented (accounting for multiple managers).
Procedure Framework
The accessibility improvement process should be continuous, with general actions
presented in a recurring cycle (Figure 1). The indicator-based method adopted in the
procedure requires data collection, surveys, and audits. This process is illustrated in
Figure 2.
Figure 1. The Process of Continuous Accessibility Improvement
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102
Figure 2. The Process of Estimating Accessibility Indicators
References
1. S. Ling Suen, C.G.B. Mitchell, Committee on Accessible Transportation and Mobility Accessible
Transportation and Mobility, 2009.
2. Lambros Mitropoulos, Christos Karolemeas, Stefanos Tsigdinos, Avgi Vassi, Efthimios
Bakogiannis, A composite index for assessing accessibility in urban areas: A case study in Central
Athens, Greece, Journal of Transport Geography 108 (2023) 103566.
3. Todd Litman, Evaluating Accessibility for Transport Planning. Measuring People’s Ability
to Reach Desired Services and Activities, 1 June 2023, Victoria Transport Policy Institute.
4. Urban Agenda Indicators Relating To Sustainable Development Goal 11.2 To Invest In More
Accessible, Safe, Efficient, Affordable And Sustainable Infrastructure For Walking And Public
Transpo r t , June 2019.
5. Charles Manby MBE, The Transport Accessibility Gap. The opportunity to improve the accessi-
bility of transport for disabled people, March 2022.
Iwona Krzyzewska1
Katarzyna Chruzik2
Indicator Method for Studying Indicator Method for Studying
Integrated Transfer Nodes, Integrated Transfer Nodes,
Enhancing Social InclusionEnhancing Social Inclusion
1. THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION
The issue of free movement for people with special needs has been increasingly ana-
lyzed and studied in recent years. People with special needs face a lack of or limited
ability to move between cities using various means of public transport. These dif-
ficulties stem from the lack of adaptation of spaces and points that are elements of
integrated interchanges. Integrated nodes should be adapted for people with special
needs and free of barriers within their area. The essence of transfer nodes is based on
integration between cities and metropolises using various means of transport. This
integrated intermodal approach is important not only for travel within city limits
but also for long and short-distance travel. Usually, travel decisions are made by con-
sidering the most convenient means of transport for long distances (train, bus, air-
plane), but the fact is that last-mile connections are becoming increasingly import-
ant, especially in large metropolitan areas. The response to this integrated approach
is to build transfer nodes with the principles of universal design in mind. Universal
design (UD) aims to provide better accessibility and safety for all groups in the com-
munity. Initially, the principles of universal design could be observed in buildings
1 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, ikrzyzewska@wsb.edu.pl
2 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, kchruzik@wsb.edu.pl
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104
and public places. Currently, programs concerning broadly understood accessibility
are based on UD principles in the construction and integration of cities.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Mobility is a crucial issue for the social integration of people with disabilities.
Thanks to mobility and the ability to combine several modes of different transport
branches, people with special needs can cover long distances. Integrated Transfer
Nodes (ITNs), defined in the Act on Public Transport (Act of December 16, 2010, on
Public Transport), are places that integrate various types of public transport. This
act will be cited further in this study. Some legal requirements include accessibility
guidelines and universal design, taking into account the needs of people with special
needs. These requirements encompass the safety of people and property and the pro-
tection of the health of those moving in areas that are elements of ITNs. According
to the Act on Ensuring Accessibility for People with Special Needs (Journal of Laws
of 2019, item 1696), it is necessary to implement minimum requirements for archi-
tectural, digital, and information-communication accessibility. The aim of the act is
to increase the ability of the general public, including people with disabilities, to use
services offered by public entities, thereby enhancing social inclusion.
Social inclusion refers to the process of ensuring that all individuals, regardless
of their social, economic, cultural, or physical differences, fully participate in so-
cial, political, and economic life. It is a significant element of public policy and so-
cial development strategies, aimed at eliminating barriers that exclude certain social
groups. Public transport plays a key role in promoting social inclusion, enabling in-
dividuals to access work, education, healthcare, and other essential services. Efficient
and accessible public transport is the foundation of sustainable city and regional de-
velopment, reducing social exclusion and supporting social mobility. Social inclu-
sion in the context of public transport involves designing and managing transport
systems that are accessible and affordable for all social groups, including people with
disabilities, seniors, low-income individuals, and rural residents. Social inclusion in
public transport is an essential element of sustainable development and the creation
of a just society. Effective transport systems that are accessible to everyone can sig-
nificantly contribute to reducing social and economic exclusion. However, continu-
ous monitoring, policy adaptation, and the involvement of all stakeholders in creat-
ing and maintaining inclusive transport systems are crucial (Allen and Farber,2020;
Boisjoly and El-Geneidy, 2021; Cui et al. 2019).
Due to the lack of a universal method for assessing integrated transfer nodes, the
indicator method present in the literature and used by other authors was adopted
(Czekała et al., 2017; Olszewski et al. 2014). This method is based on eight quantita-
tive indicators, whose main evaluation criteria are: the quality of basic infrastructure,
spatial integration, accessibility for the elderly, disabled, people with young children,
information, readability of the node, safety, and additional equipment. This method
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
can successfully be used to evaluate both existing and functioning transfer nodes
and the assessment of node projects (Czekała et al., 2017; Olszewski et al. 2014).
Integrated transfer nodes play a crucial role in modern transport systems, enabling
seamless transfers between different modes of transport such as buses, trams, trains, or
city bikes. One of the most important aspects of their operation is accessibility for peo-
ple with special needs, including people with disabilities, seniors, parents with young
children, and those with limited mobility. Particular attention is paid to providing in-
frastructure and amenities that allow all passengers to move freely. The accessibility of
integrated transfer nodes is regulated by a series of guidelines and standards that must
be met by designers and infrastructure managers. In the European Union, directives
such as Regulation (EC) No 1371/2007 on rail passengers’ rights and obligations set
minimum accessibility standards (Regulation EC No 1371/2007). In Poland, similar
requirements are included in national building regulations and public transport laws
(Sitarz et al. 2023). A common issue in public transport is the lack of accessibility due
to inadequate design and the absence of appropriate procedures. Time is also a chal-
lenge in implementing accessibility due to rapidly changing legal regulations and tech-
nological innovations that become outdated solutions. Another aspect of the lack of
accessibility is the high cost of reconstructing and adapting public spaces. One reason
for the lack of accessibility is the absence of uniform regulations, standards, and best
practices that serve as a procedural model (Zając 2016; Nielsen 2024).
At the planning and design stages of integrated transfer nodes, arrangements
should be made to achieve continuity between the node zone and the node itself. All
elements of the transfer node (building, transfer points, access routes, and passag-
es) should allow users with special needs to quickly use the available public spaces.
The latest trends in universal design include guidelines for sustainable development
(Lucietti et al. 2016; Nielsen 2023).
Since 2010, Poland has had a definition of an integrated transfer node in the afore-
mentioned Act on Public Transport. To date, many authors of studies and scientific
publications have attempted to more precisely define this facility. According to the
Transport for London (TfL) study, an integrated transfer node is defined as a facility
built for transfers– such as a train or bus station, or a set of tram-bus stops (Transport
for London, 2021). In the “Masterplan for the Poznań Metropolitan Railway” project,
a transfer node is defined as “an area in urban planning where there is direct loca-
tional contact between the road network and public transport with infrastructure
elements used for moving people beyond transport means and waiting for transport
means” (Masterplan for the Poznań Metropolitan Railway, 2015). Olszewski defines
a transfer node as a place where transfers between different lines or means of trans-
port are made (Olszewski et al. 2014).
In each of the given definitions, it is clear that elements of a station or stop
(e.g.,sidewalk, platform) can function as a transfer node. To clarify the definition and
guidelines, Rychlewski (2016) in his work identified additional aspects of a transfer
node that must be ensured:
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106
• the ability to change the means of transport within the same platform (optimal
case),
• minimizing height differences,
• minimizing distances within the node,
• good passenger information,
• comfortable waiting areas,
• services related to the transport function and beyond.
Bul (2017), in his study, indicates additional conditions that a transfer node should
meet, which are:
• the node area must have at least two different public transport lines or one
public transport line connected with a change from individual to collective
transport,
• at least one journey in any relation passing through the node requires a change
of transport means or communication line,
• the distance to be covered between points (passenger exchange positions) in
the node must range from a few to a maximum of 150–300 meters (such large
distances are practiced only in the largest transport stations and often include
engineering solutions that facilitate movement within the node: elevators, es-
calators, moving walkways, etc.),
• there must be a physical connection between passenger exchange positions
within the same node that can be overcome by transport users.
The aim of this study was to present a universal indicator method for studying in-
tegrated transfer nodes to increase social inclusion. The universal indicator method
is based on selected social groups, considering those most often affected by social ex-
clusion in travel planning. It also included an analysis of the accessibility of selected
integrated transfer nodes (ITNs) in the GZM area and an assessment of their elements,
taking into account people with special needs. Five ITNs were selected based on area
and the number of passengers participating in transfers. Due to the large volume of
data and research results, this study presents the calculation of the indicator method
for one of the nodes– the International Bus Station in Katowice, located on ul. Sądowa.
3. METHODOLOGY
Selected Integrated Interchanges in the Metropolis GZM
The study focused on five integrated transfer nodes within the Upper Silesian-
Zagłębie Metropolis, which have been modernized or newly built in recent years.
The selected nodes include:
Katowice Station: The fourth most frequented railway station in Poland, reopened
after its last reconstruction in 2013. Transport Integration: Connects rail, road (bus,
tram), and air transport (direct bus and rail connections). Status: International.
Katowice International Bus Station: An international bus station in Katowice, a new
investment completed in 2019. Transport Integration: Connects road transport (bus,
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
tram within 300 m, personal vehicles), rail (within 300 m), and air transport (direct
bus connection).
Chorzów Market: A transfer center opened in 2015; Transport Integration: Connects
road transport (bus, tram, personal vehicles) with rail transport (300 m to Chorzów
railway station).
Dąbrowa Górnicza Center: The largest transfer center in Dąbrowa Górnicza, mod-
ernized and reopened in 2024. Transport Integration: Connects road transport (bus,
tram) with rail transport (300 m to the railway station).
Gliwice Transfer Center: One of the largest transfer centers in Silesia, featuring
12stands for 40 bus lines, completed in December 2022 after 27 months of con-
struction. Transport Integration: Connects road transport (bus) with rail transport
(150m to the railway station).
Sample Composition
A total of 265 passengers participated in the study, with 250 passengers interviewed
by surveyors and 15 completing the online survey independently. The study aimed
to achieve a sample size of 250 passengers, which was achieved at 106% of the target.
Each transfer node met the minimum sample size requirement of 50 passengers.
Table 1. Sample achieved for each interchange N=265
Integrated Interchanges Number of people Percentage
Chorzów Market 50 18,9%
Gliwice Transfer Center 54 20,4%
Dąbrowa Górnicza Center 56 21,1%
Katowice Station 52 19,6%
Katowice International Bus Station 50 18,9%
Lack of answer 3 1,1%
All 265 100,0%
Research Method
The research component involving passengers, including those with special needs,
was conducted through interviews using a survey questionnaire. The study was car-
ried out using a quantitative method and modern research techniques, and the entire
survey was conducted electronically without the need to print paper questionnaires,
aligning with values of ecology and responsible business practices. The research was
conducted in a manner that utilized broad access to respondents, both through di-
rect contact and online. The questionnaire included closed, semi-open, and open
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108
questions, tailored to the specific characteristics of the respondent group and their
perception, as well as the method of conducting the research. The questionnaire
consisted of 32 questions, including 27 substantive questions and 5 demographic
questions.
The study covered the following topics: initial questions (such as the purpose of
travel, assessment of mobility, and affiliation with the group of people with special
needs), demographic questions (such as gender, age, place of residence), general ques-
tions about the use of public transport (including needs, frequency of use, satisfac-
tion assessment), and specific questions regarding a particular interchange hub (in-
cluding needs, frequency of use, satisfaction assessment).
An indicator method for studying integrated interchange hubs was developed
based on existing methods found in the works of Olszewski et al. 2014, Czekała et al.
2017, Bul et al. 2017, and Transplan materials. Existing indicators in the methodology
were used, a sustainable development indicator (W9) was added, and the W3 indica-
tor concerning the accessibility of people with special needs was modified. Table 2
presents the general characteristics of the modified method.
Table 2. Characteristic of indicators
Indicator Name Characteristic Research
method
W1 State of the node
infrastructure
It is the ratio of the number of all platforms and
passages that meet ZTM** guidelines and whose
width has been adjusted to the traffic intensity,
to the total number of platforms and passages in
the nodes
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
and estimation
method
W2* Internal Integra-
tion (Coherence)
of the nodes
Alternatively applied:
Indicator 2.1– dependent on the flow of transferring
passengers.
Indicator 2.2– dependent on the flow of public
transpor t vehicles through the node.
Indicator 2.3– dependent on the arrangement of
bus stop platforms relative to each other
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
and estimation
method
W3 Accessability
for people with
special needs
An audit form was developed on the basis of the
created catalogues of barriers/facilities and people
with special needs (Tab. 5)
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Indicator Name Characteristic Research
method
W4 Internal logic
ofthe node
(legibility of the
node)
It is the quotient of the average number of posts
visible of each post at level 0 to the number total
number of posts at level 0.
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
W5 State of personal
security at the
interchange
K.5.1– quotient of the number of posts and transi-
tions bet ween them covered by video monitoring
to the total number of posts.
K.5.2– intelligent monitoring (automatic detection
of unusual behaviour, objects). The degree of ‘ intel-
ligence’ of the monitoring system will be assessed.
Where detection of any thing in the video is only
possible by the operator this criterion will receive
a value of 0%.
K.5.3– the quotient of the number of stands and
aisles between them with sufficient lighting to the
total number of stands.
K.5.4– presence of uniformed staff/security/guards.
This criterion recei ves 0% if there is no uniformed
service/security/guard at all.
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
W6 State of road
safety at the
interchange
This is the quotient of the number of street cross-
ings without lanes and traffic lights to the number of
all street crossings inside the interchange.
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
W7 Passenger
information
K.7.1– the quotient of the number of stands with
electronic dynamic stop information boards to the
total number of platforms at the interchange,
K.7.2– ratio of the number of stands with tariff infor-
mation and interchange plans to the total number of
stands in the interchange,
K.7.3– as above. in criterion K.7.2 but for information
in English,
K.7.4– ratio of the sum of the number of guidance
signs (e.g. arrows, signs) on the turns and forks
to the total number of turns and forks in the inter-
change.
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
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110
Indicator Name Characteristic Research
method
W8 Additional func-
tions present in
the node
a. A ticket vending machine for the sale of tickets
and loading of ŚKUP*** cards
b. a kiosk, selling tickets and recharging the APC
cards,
c. Toilet facilities,
d. covered walkways between platforms,
e. bike racks within monitoring range,
f. Parking and Ride facilities
g. Passenger benches
h. Parking
i. Space for a trolley under a shelter
j. voice announcement system
k. electronic timetable
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method
W9 Sustainability W9.1. Environmental indicator (calculation)
a). Carbon footprint (using available applications
and calculators or calculation methods)
b). energy efficiency (number of electric vehicles
and charging/refuelling infrastructure)
W9.2. economic indicator (mixed– audit and survey)
a). congestion (observation, knowledge of bottle-
necks and peak-hour situations)
b). delays (based on survey)
W9.3. Social indicator– Travel comfor t (mixed– audit
and calculation)
a). access to public transport service
b). feeling of safety at the interchange
c). number of fatalities and injuries (data taken from
pre-established centres and institutions)
d). noise at the junction (measurement)
e). environmental pollution (measured or download-
ed from pre-established centres and institutions)
audit / inspec-
tion / calculation
method / survey
method
* In this study, W2.3 was used for the calculation of the indicator
** ZTM– Zarząd Transportu Me tropolitalnego (eng. The Metropolitan Transport Authorit y)
***ŚKUP– Śląska Karta Us ług Publicznych (Silesian Public Serv ices Card)
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
The general calculations for each integrated interchange are summarised in a sep-
arate table later in this publication. Some of the analyses and studies are presented in
detail on a selected interchange– Katowice International Bus Station.
Accessibility study of the ZTM
Table 5 shows the identified barriers and facilities that were investigated during the
audit/visual inspection of the integrated interchange, including aspects of accessi-
bility for people with special needs. A catalogue of barriers and facilities was pre-
viously created for the visual inspection exercise (Sitarz et al. 2023). It is a universal
tool for any type of interchange due to its similar design elements. The parameters
correspond to a two-stage analysis in the form of determining whether a barrier/
facility meets or does not meet (YES/NO) the accessibility criterion and whether it is
suitable for people with special needs by means of a value of 0 when it does not meet
and1 when it meets the criteria.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Questionnaire studies
In the study, 50.6% of participants were women and 48.3% were men (Figure 1). The
sample for passenger age was selected to ensure a minimum of 50 individuals for
each age category, resulting in participants of various ages, with each age group rep-
resenting 19%-20% of the respondents (Figure 2). Additionally, 28.3% of the surveyed
individuals declared themselves to be in the category of people with special needs.
Figure 1. Genders of respondents
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112
Figure 2. Age of respondens
Most of the surveyed passengers use interchange hubs for work purposes, with
28.3% commuting to their jobs. Next, 17.0% use public transport to visit family or
friends, 15.5% for medical appointments, 14.7% for shopping, and 10.2% are stu-
dents traveling to their university. Additionally, 6.8% travel to their family home,
3.4%to the airport, and 2.6% for other purposes such as part-time work, entertain-
ment, gym, walking, visiting a café, or picking up a child from kindergarten.
Figure 3. Reason for travelling
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Tables 3 and 4 compile data from the passenger survey conducted at five integrat-
ed interchange hubs, categorized by passenger age and type of hub.
The highest satisfaction scores among passengers were related to the ease of trans-
fers and the accuracy of timetables, with average ratings of 4.5 and 4.4, respective-
ly. Men reported a higher level of satisfaction (4.2) with the integrated interchange
hubs compared to women (4.0). The highest average satisfaction ratings were given
by individuals aged 20 to 40 (4.2), while the lowest were given by those aged 61 and
older(3.9).
The aspect with the lowest rating was the sense of security among individuals
aged 61 and older, which was 3.5 (compared to an overall average of 3.8). This is un-
doubtedly one of the aspects that should be analyzed in terms of road and personal
safety, and security at the hubs should be improved.
The most satisfied passengers are those who use the hubs for:
• Katowice International Bus Station (average 4.2– 88.0% satisfied passengers,
10.0% rate this hub as average, and only 2.0% dissatisfied)
• Katowice Station (average 4.1– 82.7% are satisfied passengers, 15.4% rate this
hub as average, and 1.9% are dissatisfied)
• Dąbrowa Górnicza Center (average 4.0 – 76.8% are satisfied passengers,
14.3%rate this hub as average, and 8.9% are dissatisfied). Slightly fewer satis-
fied passengers were among those who use the hub:
• Chorzów Market (average 3.9– 80.0% satisfied passengers, 14.0% rate it as av-
erage, and 6.0% dissatisfied)
• and Gliwice Transfer Center (average 3.9 – 68.5% satisfied passengers,
24.1%rate this hub as average, and 7.4% dissatisfied passengers).
Passenger dissatisfaction was mainly caused by the availability and readability of
timetables and the low level of security at the hub.
Table 3. Average passenger ratings, by gender and age
All Female Male 20-30
years old
31-40
years old
41-50
years old
51-60
years old 61+
General satisfaction with
the given hub 4,0 3,9 4,1 4,2 4,1 3,8 4,0 3,9
Ease of moving around
the hub 4,1 4,0 4,2 4,4 4,2 3,9 4,1 3,9
Ease of finding the way 4,0 3,9 4,1 4,2 4,2 3,9 3,9 3,7
Accessability of timetables 4,0 4,0 4,1 4,1 4,2 4,0 4,0 3,6
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All Female Male 20-30
years old
31-40
years old
41-50
years old
51-60
years old 61+
Readability of timetables 4,0 4,0 4,0 4,2 4,2 4,0 4,0 3,7
Up-to-dateness of time-
tables 4,4 4,4 4,5 4,5 4,5 4,4 4,4 4,3
Satisfaction with transfer
options 4,5 4,4 4,6 4,5 4,5 4,3 4,5 4,4
Sense of security 3,8 3,6 4,0 3,8 3,9 3,9 3,7 3,5
Accessibility of the hub
for people with special
needs
4,0
Accessibility of trans-
portation for people with
special needs
4,0
Accessibility of spaces for
people with special needs 4,1
All 4,1 4,0 4,2 4,2 4,2 4,0 4,1 3,9
Table 4. Summary of average ratings according to the 5 integrated interchanges
Chorzów
Market
Transfer
Center
Gliwice
Dąbrowa
Górnicza
Center
Katowice
Station
Katowice
Intern. Bus
Station
General satisfaction with the given
hub 3,9 3,9 4,0 4,1 4,2
Ease of moving around the hub 4,1 4,0 4,0 4,2 4,2
Ease of finding the way 4,1 3,8 3,9 4,1 4,2
Accessability of timetables 3,7 4,1 4,0 4,1 4,1
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Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Chorzów
Market
Transfer
Center
Gliwice
Dąbrowa
Górnicza
Center
Katowice
Station
Katowice
Intern. Bus
Station
Readability of timetables 3,8 4,1 3,9 4,1 4,2
Up-to-dateness of timetables 4,7 4,3 4,2 4,3 4,7
Satisfaction with transfer options 4,7 4,2 4,1 4,6 4,8
Sense of security 3,4 3,6 3,9 3,8 4,2
Accessibility of the hub for people
with special needs 4,0 4,1 4,0 3,9 4,1
Accessibility of transportation for
people with special needs 4,0 4,0 3,9 3,9 4,1
Accessibility of spaces for people
with special needs 4,0 4,2 4,0 4,0 4,1
All 4,0 4,0 4,0 4,1 4,3
Accessibility studies of integrated hubs based on example of Katowice
International Bus Station
During the audit/inspection of the integrated transfer hub– the International Bus
Station in Katowice, located at Sądowa Street, it was found that the biggest acces-
sibility barriers for people with special needs were, among others (Table 5): lack of
voice information, lack of information points, lack of induction loops, and lack of
alternative and augmentative communication options. The most neglected group of
barriers are organizational barriers/facilities. The absence of an assistant or a sign
language interpreter leads to a lack of possibilities for travelers to get assistance or
information. Many integrated transfer hubs in Poland lack universal principles and
rules as well as procedures that would define how to act and proceed when providing
services at integrated hubs for people with special needs. Developing an accessibility
management system and creating a continuous improvement procedure for accessi-
bility at integrated transfer hubs will address the missing facilities and reduce acces-
sibility barriers.
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Table 5. Accessibility studies of Katowice International Bus Station (W3)
Barrier/Facility
Category Barriers/Facilities
The general
parameters
YES/NO, 1/0
Another
Physical barriers/facilities
A. Limited
accessibility
safe pedestrian routes Y, 1
They occur throughout the entire
integrated transfer hub;
they do not occur outside of transfer
hub, and they are not always symmet-
rical.
large [unacceptable]
access distance N, 1
passenger amenities Y, 1 Voice schedule button without Braille,
card access in ticket machine too high
area to properly serve peo-
ple with special needs Y, 0/ 1
Lack of adapta tion of the ticketing area
and lockers;
shelters without covered space for
wheelchair users
FON or natural guiding
elements Y, 1 Sometimes are asymmetrical
parking Y, 1
distance to parking Y, 1
excessive glazing N, 1
unmarked glazing N, 1
contrasting elements N, 1
directional lines Y, 1
crosswalks Y, 1
pictograms Y, 1
revolving automatic doors N, 1
sliding automatic doors Y, 0/ 1 Ticketing area without access through
sliding doors
moving walkways N, 1
B. Difference in
terrain levels
slope of the terrain N, 1
devices and elements
to help overcome the differ-
ence in height (lifts)
Y, 1
Stairs Y, 1
steps or thresholds Y, 1/0 Threshold at the entrances to long-dis-
tance buses, lack of ramps
117
Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Barrier/Facility
Category Barriers/Facilities
The general
parameters
YES/NO, 1/0
Another
Physical barriers/facilities
C. Existence
of physical
obstacles
continui ty of moving route
(collision crossings) N, 1
construction poles within
pedestrian routes N, 1
D. Restricted
clearance
passage width Y, 1
passage height Y, 1
E. Marking of
pedestrian
routes
visual markings Y, 1
audibility of sound signals N, 0 Lack of sound information
overlapping sounds N, 1
F. Condition
of pavements,
corridors
uneven terrain N, 1
non-slip surfaces Y, 1
G. Visibility
lighting Y, 0 /1 Ground floor of the building with limited
lighting
spot blackouts Y, 0/ 1 Ground floor of the building
lines indicating a change/
threat Y, 0 /1 Do not meet construction requirements
H. Associated
facilities
canopies Y, 1
toilets for people with
special needs Y, 1
rest areas Y, 1
wind shelters Y, 1 Shelters without covered space for
wheelchair users
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
118
Barrier/Facility
Category Barriers/Facilities
The general
parameters
YES/NO, 1/0
Another
Information barriers/Facilities
I. General
information
information system N, 0/1 Lack of dedicated information point
information on the need and
method of evacuation Y, 1 In the building
status of reading and inter-
pretation of timetables Y, 0 /1 Without long-distance schedules
status of reading and
interpretation of plans Y, 0/ 1 Present in the building; lack of map
status of reading and
interpretation of maps Y, 0/1 Present in the building; lack of map
status of reading and in-
terpretation of information
points
N, 0 Lack of information points
J. Guidance
system
wayfinding
travel guidance system N, 0/1 Underdeveloped
tactile map Y, 1 Present in the building
K. Visual
information
quality of communication of
visual information– e.g. font Y, 1
amount of advertisements Y, 1 Without shelter
L. Tactile
information
signage for the blind Y, 1 Without shelter
Braille lettering Y, 1
M. Audio
information
audio information Y, 0 /1 Only in ZTM
induction loops N, 0
reverberation N, 1
N. Internet
information
website for people with
special needs Y, 0 /1 Does not meet requirements for blind
individuals, lacks a map
119
Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Barrier/Facility
Category Barriers/Facilities
The general
parameters
YES/NO, 1/0
Another
Organisational barriers/facilities
O. Support
system
trained staff N, 0
assistant or carer to ser ve
people with special needs N, 0
online translation amenities N, 0
sign language interpreter N, 0
space for an assistance
dog N, 0
P. Management
system
procedures, instructions
dedicated to persons with
special needs
N, 0
tools for assessing the
functioning and man-
agement of amenities for
persons with special needs
including audit procedures
N, 0
Q. Poor service
quality
unreliability of service N, 1
availability of service N, 0
Cognitive barriers/facilities
R. Sense of
insecurity multiple alleys N, 1
S. Difficulty in
understanding
multilingual information
comprehension N, 0/1 Visual only
operation of automatic
devices N, 0/1 Not all are adapted
augmentative and alterna-
tive communications [AAC] N, 0
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
120
Calculation of the evaluation method for integrated transfer hubs
using indicators
In Table 6, detailed data from the calculation of indicators and their compilation as
the overall evaluation method for integrated interchanges are presented. Estimation
of indicator values involved converting the scale into percentages, considering the
total sum of all elements, and determining the number of elements meeting the re-
quirements (percentage). For indicator W2 concerning internal integration (com-
pactness) of the hub, calculation method W2.3 was used, which measured the aver-
age distance between platforms within the hub. At the International Bus Station in
Katowice on Sądowa Street, there are two types of vehicles and platforms: long-dis-
tance buses stop at 13 platforms, with one vehicle per platform. Additionally, there
are two platforms for metropolitan and intercity buses of the Metropolitan Transport
Authority. These platforms serve 9 and 12 bus lines respectively, traveling in differ-
ent directions. The analysis considered both long-distance and local transportation
platforms at the hub.
Indicator W3 has been developed in great detail, demonstrating through the ap-
plied audit/inspection form of the hub which analyzed elements of transportation
infrastructure are not accessible to people with special needs. Some elements were
not available or their absence was noted, which may hinder the use of the hub by in-
dividuals with special needs. In some cases, partial accessibility was observed, indi-
cating areas that require improvement and enhancement. The majority (75%) of ele-
ments met accessibility criteria and were marked accordingly in the assessment sheet.
In the studies on indicator W5, it was noted that the analyzed facility lacks law
enforcement presence and CCTV surveillance with special capabilities for detecting
intentional behaviors without an operator present. The results of this analysis cor-
roborate the findings from passenger surveys indicating a justified lack of sense of
security at this hub. Additionally, there are two unlit passages within the structure of
the examined integrated transfer hub, which were flagged and recorded under indi-
cator W6, responsible for road safety.
All bus vehicles operating within the integrated transfer hub have electric drive-
trains, which are emission-free, allowing the first component of indicator W9 to meet
requirements. The average waiting time (delays) for transportation is 10 minutes.
Surveyed passengers also indicated numerous inconveniences at the integrated in-
terchanges location due to frequent traffic jams and congestion, which additionally
hinder timely bus arrivals. Passengers rated their satisfaction with delays at an aver-
age of 3.5 on a 5-point scale, which corresponds to 70% (indicator W9.2). The value
of indicator W9.3 is 86%, reflecting the average satisfaction rating of 4.2 on a 5-point
scale for using the ZWP.
121
Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
Table 6. Indicators method integrated interchanges assessment
based on example of International Bus Station Katowice
Indicator Name Accessibility
Level [%] Justification
W1 State of the node
infrastructure
100 All stands and crossings meet ZTM guidelines
W2 Internal Integration
(Coherence) of the
nodes
85m
10m
With this indicator it is possible to calculate the aver-
age distance between platforms (stands/passages).
In the case of long-distance bus stands it is 10m,
while ZTM bus stands are 85m.
W3 Accessability for
people with special
needs
75 On the basis of Table 5, fulfilling a criterion was as-
sumed for 1 point, not fulfilling a cri terion for 0points,
and partially fulfilling a criterion for 0.5 points. he
total sum of requirements is 65. 48.5 points were
obtained for MDA and conver ted to [%].
W4 Internal logic of the
node (legibility of the
node)
100 All sites meet the visibilit y criterion.
W5 State of personal
security at the inter-
change
State of road safety
at the interchange
Passenger informa-
tion
Additional functions
present in the node
100 Video surveillance is in place throughout the transfer
node and covers all sites.
0 Detection of anything in the video footage is only
possible by the operator.
100 Within the hubs, lighting is available and sufficient for
each stand
0 There is a lack of uniformed staff/security/guards at
the stands.
W6 Sustainability 78 Only two crossings on the whole site are not
equipped with traffic lights (out of nine).
W7 State of the node
infrastructure
Internal Integration
(Coherence) of the
nodes
Accessability for
people with special
needs
Internal logic of the
node (legibility of the
node)
100 At each stand, both long-distance buses and Z TM,
there are electronic dynamic bus stop information
boards.
100 At each ZTM stand, there are stands with fare infor-
mation and plans of the interchange.
100 As above. These are also in English.
100 There are signs of a guidance signage system on the
surface of the entire facility for turns and forks.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
122
Indicator Name Accessibility
Level [%] Justification
W8 State of personal
security at the inter-
change
100 All of the above are present on the integra ted
interchange.
W9 State of road safety
at the interchange
100* Electric buses run on the integrated hub sur face at
ZTM stations, however, there are no charging points
or stations at this location.
*point a) was taken as the highest value due to the
lack of CO2 emissions from the vehicles.
70 The average delay time for public transport vehicle
measures is 10 minutes.
Numerous traffic jams and congestion are present at
the hub site during peak hours.
86 The average rating on a 5-point scale for journey
comfort was 4.2 which, on a percentage scale, is
86%.
5. CONCLUSION
Integrated transfer hubs are now common in Poland and are found throughout the
country. Each of these hubs varies in terms of structure, types of serviced transpor-
tation, diversity of transport modes, and accessibility. Currently, a major challenge
is the lack of unified standards for assessing and evaluating the accessibility of inte-
grated transfer hubs for users with special needs. In the railway industry, standard-
ization is easier due to common guidelines across Europe and globally. However, in
road transport, especially in public mass transit, there are many different facilities
that are incorrectly classified as integrated transfer hubs, such as regular bus stops,
transfer centers, bus stations, or transfer nodes. The diversity in their construction
and functions makes it difficult to create a universal assessment method.
Another challenge is the guidelines for sustainable development, gradually be-
ing implemented across Europe, encompassing three main aspects: economic, en-
vironmental, and social. To meet these expectations, an attempt has been made
to develop a universal indicator-based method for assessing integrated transfer hubs.
This method has been developed based on existing approaches, incorporating de-
tailed data on accessibility for people with disabilities and sustainable development.
Preliminary testing has been conducted at the International Bus Station in Katowice,
located on Sądowa Street.
In the survey results presented, passengers generally expressed high satisfaction
with using the hub (average rating 4.3/5.0). However, they frequently emphasized
in interviews that personal and traffic safety aspects need to be re-evaluated and
123
Indicator Method for Studying Integrated Transfer…
improved. The lowest average ratings (even as low as 3.5/5.0) suggest that this aspect
requires urgent attention. Using an indicator-based method, survey findings were
corroborated, noting that Indicator W5, which assesses personal safety, also showed
low scores (even 0%).
The use of an audit/inspection form developed in previous studies identified gaps
in solutions for people with special needs at the integrated transfer hub. IndicatorW3,
which assesses hub accessibility, similarly showed one of the lower values among all
indicators (75%).
Thanks to the developed and presented method, it is possible to assess the inte-
grated transfer hub across various aspects related to sustainable development and
contemporary requirements. The method is intuitive and straightforward to apply,
and with additional tools, it allows for detailed and precise analysis. Its universal-
ity and flexibility for modification and adaptation are advantages. Each indicator
can be separately applied for individual analyses, enabling a comprehensive over-
view of the hub. It facilitates identifying critical points and areas needing immediate
improvement.
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licznego w aglomeracji poznańskiej. Transport miejski i regionalny 09, 2017.
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Collective of authors
from University of Zilina
A low carbon growth of SlovakiaA low carbon growth of Slovakia
1. Introduction
As happened generally across formerly socialist economies, Slovakia’s transition
to a market economy had a co-benefit of sharply reduced carbon emissions. Slovakia’s
greenhouse gas emissions have fallen significantly in the last few decades. From
74million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent in 1990, Slovakia’s GHG emis-
sions fell by 45 per cent by 2016. Even within Eastern Europe, where the closure of
inefficient highly energy-intensive industrial plants during the transition to a market
economy caused emissions to plummet, this was a strong performance. (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Changes in GHG emissions in Slovakia and four other EU countries, 1990 to 2016,
index Slovakia´s emissions have declined significantly
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
126
Within Slovakia’s declining emissions, its energy sector continues to dominate,
but industry and transport emissions have risen in importance. The country’s emis-
sions continue to be mostly CO2. (Figure 3). The dramatic reduction of emissions
from the energy sector has driven the sectoral trend in Slovakia’s emissions profile.
In contrast, those in other sectors have remained relatively unchanged, driving down
the share of emissions from energy (excluding transport) from two-thirds of total
emissions in 1990 to about half in 2016. Within energy emissions, about 60 per cent
comes from coal-based electricity and heat generation. Industrial processes account
for about one-quarter of today’s emissions. They are generated mainly in the pro-
duction of metal products (about half of industrial emissions) and minerals (about
one-quarter) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Greenhouse gas emissions by sector, 1990 and 2016,
in % of total Industry and transport emissions, have grown in importance
2. Analysis of the current situation
Importantly, Slovakia has made significant progress in delinking economic growth
from emissions of greenhouse gases. From about 60 million metric tons of CO2
equivalent in 1992, Slovakia’s emissions contracted at a slow but steady pace while
output and income rose at a faster pace. At the same time, Slovakia’s manufacturing
sector was expanding to about a third of gross value added by 2010, nearly a 10per
cent increase from 1995. Further, the share of gross value-added of financial in-
termediation and real estate services fell from 20 per cent in 1995 to 15 per cent in
2010.3 These trends would tend to push up GHG emissions, but Slovakia’s emissions
continued steadily downward, demonstrating a delinking of growth from emissions
that, unusual even in Eastern Europe, has continued unabated (Figure 3).
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 127
Figure 3. GDP and greenhouse gas emissions, 1992-2016, in constant LCU and MtCO2e
Slovakia has delinked growth from emissions
For electricity generation, Slovakia depends mostly on nuclear power, far above
EU averages. Slovakia generates 54 percent of its electricity from nuclear power,
24percent from renewables, 15 percent from coal, and six percent from natural gas.
Within renewables, almost 18 percent is hydro, about four percent is biomass and
about two percent is solar. Poland has the most emissions-intensive electricity sector,
with 85 percent coming from coal-fueled power plants. France has the largest share
of nuclear power, generating 76 percent of its electricity, while Austria has the largest
share of renewables in power, with 81 percent. The European Union on average gen-
erates 29 percent of its electricity from renewables, 27 percent from nuclear energy,
and 26 percent from coal (Figure 4)
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
128
Figure 4. Gross electricity generation by source, Slovakia and EU members, 2015,
% of total GWhe Slovakia depends mostly on nuclear power for electricity
GHG abatement targets for the Slovak Republic are part of the EU 2030 pack-
age. Like every member state, Slovakia participates in the ETS. The high emissions
intensity of the Slovakian economy argues that economic adjustment costs for ener-
gy-intensive (or ETS) sectors are likely to be high, but that intensity also may indicate
that the country has a large potential for cost-efficient reduction in emissions (if ad-
equate and well-informed policies and investments are implemented). Then, it fac-
es non-ETS targets. According to the EC’s July 2016 impact assessment,8 Slovakia’s
non-ETS targets are relatively high. Slovakia, despite having one of the best-perform-
ing EU economies since the global financial crisis, is expected to meet and exceed its
13 per cent non-ETS target for 2020 by a large margin. (As of 2017, non-ETS emis-
sions stand 23 percent below 2005). The country’s reduction target for 2030 for non-
ETS, a reduction in GHG emissions by 12 per cent relative to 2005, may present some
challenges.
The focus of the analysis summarized in this report is on the economic impacts
of a low carbon growth path but, given the complexities and uncertainties involved,
without the inclusion of several possible local co-benefits that could reduce overall
costs. Such benefits may reduce the costs of low-carbon policy choices. For example,
green tax reform proposes that higher tax revenues from a carbon tax might be used
to reduce income taxes on labor which then, in turn, can reduce informality, broaden
the tax base, and even boost growth. Further, policies that shift away from fossil fuels
can provide benefits in terms of health, congestion, and road safety. Such benefits,
which would require significant and complex additional modelling to quantify their
impact on Slovakia, are not included in this analysis but, at a conceptual level, will
likely be familiar to policymakers as they choose Slovakia’s policies.
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 129
3. Policy scenarios to meet Slovakia´s climate commitments
The four decarbonization scenarios analyzed for Slovakia have been designed as con-
trasting combinations of energy efficiency and renewable targets, representing the
trade-offs between targets. All scenarios include Slovakia’s participation in the ETS,
while each scenario differs in its targets for renewable energy and energy efficiency.
To illustrate the trade-offs, an ambitious energy efficiency target is combined with a low
renewables target (Decarbonization 1); median targets for renewables and energy ef-
ficiency are also analyzed (Decarbonization 2); a low energy efficiency target and an
ambitious renewables target (Decarbonization 3) and moderate energy efficiency and
very ambitious renewables (mainly in electricity) (Decarbonization 4). By design, each
scenario achieves a similar reduction in GHG emissions (Table 1) and similar total en-
ergy system costs. (See Annex 1 for a non-technical explanation of the policy scenarios).
Table 1 Key Policy Targets and Outcomes by Policy Scenario, Decarbonization scenarios
differ on targets for renewables and energy efficiency
Policy indicators 2015 2020 2030
Reference DCarb1 Dcarb2 DCarb3 DCarb4
Tot al CO2 emissions energy
combustion (% change from
2005)
-27,29 -27,7 5 -27,75 -39,02 -40,80 -40,59 -41,48
ETS sectors, CO2 emissions
from energy (% change from
2005)
-30,78 -34,88 -38,40 -50,58 -53,46 -53,51 -54,99
Non-ETS sector, CO2
emissions from energy (%
change from 2005)
-21,39 -15,71 -9,91 -19,49 -19,42 -18,77 -19,66
Overall, RES share (%) 14,03 14,49 14,34 16,33 18,91 19,83 21,85
RES-H&C share (%) 14,16 13,24 14,04 16,89 20,65 22,07 19,55
RES-E share (%) 19,43 23,38 21,28 22,62 24,81 25,32 36,79
RES-T share (%) 8,26 10,05 10,20 11,49 11,74 11,80 13,12
Primary energy savings (%) 0,00 -20,16 -24,91 -30,32 -28,36 -27, 25 -28,88
Notes: RES-H&C is a renewable energy source for hea ting and cooling. RES-E is renewables for electrici ty
generat ion. RES-T is renewables in transpor t. Primary energ y savings are compared to PRIMES 2007
baseline projections.
Source: E3-Modelling, CPS Technical Report.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
130
Modelling of decarbonization policies for the rest of the EU is pursued more
simply. For the rest of the EU, the same level of detail in the modelling of decarbon-
ization policies as for Slovakia is unavailable (because the CPS model covers Slovakia
only). The cost of policies is imposed through the ETS CO2 price, common for all
EU countries. The difference is that the response to such a carbon tax is modelled
in a less explicit and detailed way than in the CPS model, i.e. using a top-down ap-
proach to the modelling of inter-fuel or capital-energy substitution. Emission reduc-
tions in non-ETS sectors for countries other than Slovakia were imposed, facilitat-
ed in a simplified way in the model by imposing an emission tax for those sectors
(with the rate determined endogenously by the Slovak-CGE model). The assumed
emission reductions versus the reference scenario were based on a comparison of
policy simulations undertaken by the European Commission with the EU Reference
Scenario 2016.
The two models are applied in a coordinated fashion, with the CPS providing
detailed energy outputs to the CGE model. The CPS model is first solved to show
the effects of decarbonization policies on the energy sector. Next, the CGE model
run uses CPS results on energy intensities by sector and energy type (where intensity
is measured either as energy use per unit of sector value added or per unit of GDP),
investments in electricity and heat generation, electricity and heat generation mix,
the average unit cost of electricity and heat generation, investments in energy effi-
ciency, and energy use by fuel, by sector. The Slovak-CGE model also uses the CPS
assumptions regarding the ETS CO2 price, which is uniform across decarbonization
scenarios but significantly higher than in the reference scenario. The CGE simula-
tion shows how output by sector adjusts, but these output changes are not iterated
back to the CPS model (because the results were already similar). Consequently, en-
ergy demand levels are not identical between the CPS and CGE models, although
energy intensities are identical (and the same relates to emissions). In this way, the
CGE simulations show how the economy responds to a shock consisting of changes
in the cost of energy and the choice of energy-related technologies (driven by carbon
prices and other regulations).
4. Main findings
All four decarbonization scenarios involve the construction of a new nuclear gener-
ation capacity for Slovakia, continuing the importance of nuclear energy in the gen-
eration mix. This investment in nuclear displaces investment in CCGT compared
with the reference scenario. The four decarbonization scenarios do differ in the ex-
tent to which renewables enter the generation mix. The importance of renewables in-
creases from Decarbonization 1 to Decarbonization 4. Decarbonization 4 focuses on
achieving the renewables target through the electricity sector and results in greater
penetration of renewables, particularly wind. (Figure 5).
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 131
Figure 5. Newly installed capacity in electricity, by scenario, 2011-2050,
in net MW, Investment in electricity capacity in the policy scenarios diverges
from the reference scenario in magnitude and earlier solar PV
Substantial investments in energy efficiency are also needed by businesses and
households to achieve reductions in energy demand. For industries, such as heavy
manufacturing, this involves focusing on the best available techniques through in-
vestment in heat recovery, processing and new equipment. For the tertiary sector
(e.g.services sector), this mainly involves building renovations (i.e., improved insu-
lation). Households undertake substantial house renovations to achieve the 2030 tar-
gets, while in the post-2030, there is a strong uptake of electric cars and fuel cell cars,
replacing internal combustion engine cars. Notably, the electrification of the trans-
port sector is common across scenarios since they are driven by policies at the EU
level. The ambitious energy efficiency target of Decarbonization 1 compared to the
other scenarios is reflected in the higher level of investment in building renovations
by households and the tertiary sector, as well as higher investments in heat recovery
in the industry (Table 2).
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
132
Table 2. Investments by subsector or type, by scenario, 2015, 2030 and 2050,
in € millions and thousands of vehicles, Renovation, industrial heat recovery
and electrification of transport allow Slovakia to meet its energy efficiency targets
2015 2030 2050
Decarbonization scenario: Decarbonization scenario:
Ref 1 2 3 4 Ref 1 2 3 4
Investment (M€)
Heat recovery –115 954 292 116 85 126 1178 954 947 809
Processing 970 1555 1457 1470 1488 1490 1957 2234 2197 2198 2202
Equipment & Appliances 3429 7811 7865 7855 7856 7850 9811 9704 9698 9697 9702
Building renovation by
households –257 3971 832 582 727 285 3498 1511 996 813
Passenger cars (thousands of vehicles)
Electric cars –37 56 56 56 56 211 1641 1646 1643 1644
Fuel cell cars –0000073 350 347 350 347
ICE plug in cars –69 99 99 99 99 263 371 370 371 370
ICE cars 1754 2409 2357 2357 2357 2357 2561 1211 1211 1209 1212
Note: ICE are internal combustion engine passenger cars. Source: E3-Modelling, CPS Technical Report.
The demand for heat and steam declines in all the policy scenarios, driven by
ever-rising energy efficiency. The demand for distributed heat maintains its po-
sition in share terms. The supply of distributed heat needs to comply with the ris-
ing ETS carbon prices and to deliver in terms of renewable targets. Cogeneration
technology is more efficient than boilers, and thus the policy scenarios project
that the CHP plants for heat production continue to have a significant place in the
heat supply. However, they are changing fuels increasingly towards renewables
and biomass. New clean heat production technologies emerge in the scenarios,
such as electric boilers, high-temperature heat pumps and geothermal energy.
Similarly, in the supply of industrial steam, cogeneration maintains its share but
changes fuel in favour of biomass. Self-production of electricity in industry is less
competitive in the long-term than under current conditions, since electricity gen-
eration, being subject to high ETS prices, transforms using RES and nuclear, put-
ting downward pressure on prices for industrial electricity. Thus, industrial steam
production declines in the long term and shifts strongly towards biomass boilers
(Figure 6).
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 133
Figure 6. Heat and steam generation, levels and shares by generation source
and by fuel, by scenario,2020, 2030, 2050 Biomass use for heat and steam
and new clean heat production technologies expand under all scenarios
Moving to a low-carbon economy can potentially support higher GDP in the long
term but could also lead to lower household consumption.18 Investments in energy
efficiency reduce energy costs and lead to long-term gains in the productivity of the
economy. In the short to medium term, these investments need to be funded. For
industry and the tertiary sectors, these energy efficiency investments are passed on
to consumers of their products in the form of higher prices. For households, they
effectively fund the building renovations on their homes through a reduction in con-
sumption. The cost of electrification in the transport sector is also felt by households,
but this does not lead directly to a reduction in consumption. Rather, households re-
place their ICE (Internal Combustion Engine) vehicles with either an electric vehicle
or a fuel-cell vehicle (Table 2). However, households are also affected by the higher
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
134
prices passed on by businesses to reduce the cost of energy efficiency investments.
Hence, all four scenarios involve a reduction of consumption (of three to six per cent
compared to the reference scenario during 2040-2050). The fall in household con-
sumption is largest in Decarbonization 1 since this scenario includes an ambitious
target for energy efficiency which requires the largest investment. Notably, the size of
the investment needed in electricity generation is dwarfed by the investments need-
ed to improve energy efficiency. Overall, GDP increases above baseline by approx-
imately 0.5 to 1.0 per cent during 2025-2035 and by three to four per cent during
2040-2050 (Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9).
Figure 7. GDP, by policy scenario, 2015-2050, in % change from reference scenario,
GDP impact is positive in the medium-term for Decarb1 and for all policy scenarios
over the long-term
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 135
Figure 8. Private consumption, by policy scenario, 2015-2050,
in % change from reference scenario, Consumption is reduced under all policy scenarios
Decreased demand for fossil fuels reduces Slovakia’s import bill; however, the
terms of trade also deteriorate. The worsened terms of trade imply that– from the
macroeconomic perspective– more factor resources need to be used for export ac-
tivities to trade for a given amount of imported goods. Consequently, imports drop
further, while exports increase. The increase in net exports, related to terms of trade
deterioration, “consumes” the GDP gain, stemming from productivity (energy effi-
ciency) improvement and contributes to the drop in private consumption.
There can be some crowding out of non-energy investment, as Slovakia focuses
on investing in decarbonization. Energy efficiency and power sector investments
are significant– from 0.3 to over 2.0 per cent of GDP across scenarios and years. The
increase in prices as firms recoup the cost of investing in energy efficiency reduces
Slovakia’s competitiveness and impacts the firm’s profitability. In addition, the fall in
household consumption reduces demand, also creating a drag on profitability. The
reduction in profitability discourages foreign investors from investing in the Slovak
economy. Similarly, investment in electricity generation crowds out some non-ener-
gy investments.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
136
Figure 9. Expenditure shares in GDP, by policy scenario, 2015-2050,
in % change from reference scenario, Net export shares are boosted over the long-term,
more than compensating for reduced consumption
Changes in industry outputs are affected by the shift in the structure of aggregate
demand. The drop in consumption lowers the demand for market services (including
both personal services and trade services) and transport services. Market services’
share of value-added is lower by 1.8 to 2.2 percentage points in the decarbonization
scenarios compared to the reference scenario in 2050. Decarbonization does lead
to a reduced importance of some heavy manufactures such as chemicals, rubber and
plastic sector and iron & steel. Iron & steel experiences high extra investment cost,
leading to significant price increases, and petroleum refining faces lower demand
for oil fuels. On the other hand, in some other cases– notably the non-ferrous metals
sector– the energy system cost actually drops as a result of decarbonization poli-
cies, leading to price decreases and output expansion. Moreover, the increased cost
of energy efficiency investment for heavy manufactures is mitigated by lower labor
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 137
costs, related to lower wages, or– more generally– real depreciation that the Slovak
economy experiences as a result of decarbonization policies. Motor vehicle manufac-
turing maintains its importance in the Slovak economy across all four scenarios. The
implicit assumption is that the Slovak motor vehicle manufacturing industry would
shift towards the production of electric vehicles in line with demand. Households
and the transportation sector purchase electric motor vehicles rather than tradition-
al motor vehicles; hence the industry’s share of value added is stable across reference
and policy scenarios. The results for industries supplying investment goods are rath-
er mixed. In the decarbonization scenario which involves substantial investment in
building renovation, the construction sector expands. Construction is boosted by
the renovation of buildings, both by households and businesses. However, in the re-
maining scenarios, the crowding out of private investment outweighs the boost from
the decarbonization-related investment (Table 3).
Table 3. Value added shares in GDP, by sector and policy scenario, 2030 and 2050,
in % change from reference scenario Industry responds to the altered structure of GDP
Change in share of value
added (in percentage
points) by policy scenario
2030 2050
Decarb1 Decarb2 Decarb3 Decarb4 Decarb1 Decarb2 Decarb3 Decarb4
Agriculture 0,01 0,06 0,07 0,03 0,08 0,11 0,11 0,08
Energy -0,06 0,17 0,26 0,61 0,97 1,02 1,04 1,06
Other manufacturing -0,03 -0,04 -0,05 -0,08 0,75 0,78 0,80 0,84
Chemical, rubber, plastic 0,08 0,04 0,02 0,10 -0,24 -0,23 -0,22 -0,23
Non-metallic minerals 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,10 0,11 0,11 0,11
Iron and steel 0,03 0,01 0,00 0,04 -0,18 -0,16 -0,14 -0,15
Non-ferrous metals 0,02 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,15 0,15 0,15 0,14
Motor vehicles -0,07 -0,05 -0,04 -0,11 0,25 0,22 0,22 0,24
Equipment 0,00 0,02 0,04 -0,05 0,17 0,17 0,17 0,17
Construction 0,38 0,08 0,01 0,06 0,62 0,22 0,06 0,01
Transport -0,01 -0,01 -0,01 -0,05 -0,41 -0,39 -0,39 -0,39
Non-market services -0,03 -0,03 -0,03 -0,05 -0,03 -0,02 -0,01 -0,04
Market services -0,33 -0,28 -0,30 -0,52 -2,22 -1,98 -1,90 -1,83
Source: Slovak-CGE model results
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
138
The changes in the industry structure of the economy lead to a reallocation
of labour across industries. As can be expected, sectors that expand (mainly ex-
port-oriented industries and industries supplying investment goods) attract addi-
tional labour, whilst those that contract (mainly industries producing consumption
goods) release labour. However, not all workers who are made redundant from con-
tracting sectors can find work in expanding sectors, leading to an increase in unem-
ployment. Overall, structural change in the economy in response to decarbonization
policies seems to be negative for aggregate labour demand. In the short run (due
to lagged wage adjustment), decreased labour demand translates mostly to lower em-
ployment. In the long run, by comparison, this translates mainly to decreased wages.
The latter effects are substantial and dominate, especially towards the end of the pro-
jection period (Figure 10, Figure 11).
Figure 10. Total employment, by policy scenario, 2015-2050, in % change from reference
scenario, Labor is reallocated towards expanding sectors, but unemployment rises
Source: Slovak-CGE model results.
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 139
Figure 11. Real wages, by policy scenario, 2015-2050, in % change from reference
scenario, Wages fall over the long-term as the labor market adjusts
Source: Slovak-CGE model results.
A LOW CARBON GROWTH PATH: RECOMMENDATIONS
A GROWTH PATH TO 2050 WHILE LOWERING EMISSIONS
The scenarios generated by the CPS and Slovak-CGE models show Slovakia
achieving its mitigation targets rather easily. The large use of hydro resourc-
es and biomass is behind the easy achievement of the renewables target, whereas
gross energy consumption grows very moderately in Slovakia due to the energy
efficiency progress achieved in parallel, manifested by an improvement of the en-
ergy intensity of GDP. Despite the lack of additional policies supporting the use of
renewables, the renewables share follows an ascending trend over time due to the
rising EU ETS carbon prices. The ETS carbon prices affect the power sector, as
well as the energy-intensive industries and constitute the main driver for carbon
emission reduction.
The reference scenario projects energy-related CO2 emissions to decrease.
Energy emissions fall by 1 percent and 11 percent in 2030 and 2050, correspondingly,
compared to the 2015 levels. This is mainly achieved by the CO2 emission reduction
of the ETS sectors, the power sector and the energy-intensive industries. The power
sector, being subject to ETS, decarbonizes significantly mainly due to the commis-
sioning of new nuclear reactors and the moderate development of renewables. Thus,
power sector emissions are 19 percent lower in 2050 compared to 2015 levels. The
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
140
industrial sectors also decarbonize, reducing emissions by 24 per cent in 2050 com-
pared to 2015, due to efficiency improvements and changes in the fuel mix in ener-
gy-intensive industries.
In the reference scenario, non-ETS sectors, by comparison, do not face a car-
bon price, and no energy efficiency and other policies beyond 2020 are assumed.
Nonetheless, the long-lasting effects of energy efficiency policies focusing on 2020,
the eco-design and car standards, and the market-driven energy productivity im-
provements sustain a downward trend in carbon emissions in the non-ETS sectors
over the medium term, mainly until 2035. In the longer term, the absence of addi-
tional policies in the reference scenario and sustained economic growth pace outrun
the technical efficiency progress of new equipment, causing CO2 emissions to trend
up from 2040 onwards in the non-ETS sectors.
Looking across the policy scenarios, all exhibit the same effort towards reduc-
ing CO2 emissions over time. The CO2 emissions in Slovakia decreased by 65 per-
cent in 2050, compared to 2015 levels, whereas in the reference scenario, the emis-
sions decreased by only 11 percent. By 2030, CO2 emissions decrease by 18 percent
compared to 2015. The variation is small across the policy scenarios, by assumption.
A less ambitious RES target combines with a more ambitious efficiency target, and
vice versa in the definitions of the policy scenarios.
The EU ETS price trajectory drives the emissions reduction in the ETS sectors,
which represent the largest part of total CO2 emissions. The introduction of a new
nuclear reactor and the deployment of renewables enable the decarbonization of the
power sector, which plays a significant role in the ETS emission reduction. In the
non-ETS sectors, the main drivers of the emission reduction are the energy efficien-
cy policies, the technology standards and additional policies related to the transport
sector (vehicle standards). The efficiency policies from a national perspective will
have to focus mainly on facilitating the renovation of buildings over the entire pro-
jection period. The promotion of heat pumps and new uses of electricity drive accel-
erated electrification, which is more intense in the long-term due to electrification
of road transport. The increase of the ambition of the policy scenarios regarding re-
newables implies varied penetration of renewables in the power sector and in the
heating sector but do not vary in the transport sector.
The policy scenarios were designed to provide a contrasting mix of targets,
to assess the impacts of setting different ambitions for the renewable and energy
efficiency targets. Setting renewables (RES) and energy efficiency (EE) targets is at
the discretion of national policy. The suggested range for the RES share in 2030 is
16.5 to 22 per cent. The baseline scenario projects 14 percent for the RES share in
2030. The suggested range for the energy efficiency target in 2030 is -30 to -29 per
cent. The reference scenario projects -25 per cent for the energy efficiency target in
2030. From these numbers alone, it would be presumed that Slovakia needs consid-
erable effort to achieve both RES and EE targets in 2030, above the business-as-usual
trends reflected in the reference scenario projection.
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 141
The range of possibilities is larger for the RES target than for the EE tar-
get. For the latter, the most important policy focus must regard the renovation of
buildings, which constitute the most important source of possible energy savings
until 2030. The potential for savings in industry and transport, which are very
significant, can only be deployed in the longer term. For renewables, there ex-
ists a trade-off between developing biomass or variable RES in the power sector.
However, both are needed to develop significantly if the RES-share target is am-
bitious. Achieving energy efficiency targets by 2030 requires significant effort in
the renovation of buildings.
The main outcomes in the scenarios can be summarized:
(i) Decarbonization of electricity generation is achieved through additional in-
vestment in nuclear generation and renewables.
(ii) More stringent efficiency policies drive down final energy demand in all de-
mand sectors, except transport
(iii) The industry and transport sectors are the most significant among the de-
mand sectors in terms of total energy savings, representing 60-80 per cent of
total energy savings across policy scenarios
(iv) For the transport sector, the additional policies introduced across the pol-
icy scenarios are the same; thus, transport demand is similar across policy
scenarios. Emissions standards for cars and vans and efficiency standards
for trucks, along with the electrification of transport and the increased use
of biofuels, enable a significant reduction of energy demand in the transport
sector. However, any decarbonization scenario for Slovakia requires electrifi-
cation of the transport sector in the long term.
(v) In the industrial sector, the reduction in energy demand increases as more
ambitious efficiency policies are implemented, with rising energy efficiency
during 2025-2035. After 2035, the energy savings of industry are not signifi-
cantly different across scenarios, indicating that it is the rising EU ETS price
that is the main driver of investment in more efficient technologies.
(vi) Funding these investments will lead to a reduction in household consump-
tion but create opportunities in industries supplying investment goods such
as construction.
STRATEGIC CONCLUSIONS FOR POLICYMAKERS
The analysis undertaken via modelling of the macroeconomy and the energy
sector as well as other investigations identified possible low carbon growth
paths for Slovakia but also identified issues that merit strategic consideration
by policymakers. These issues are likely to include gaps in data and knowledge,
uncertainties such as the speed of technological change and future global and re-
gional developments, and a variety of tradeoffs related to the costs of mitigation
actions, implementation difficulty, timing, and many others. The energy and
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
142
macroeconomic models should serve as valuable tools for the ongoing assessment
of mitigation options for Slovakia.
The newly adopted EU targets of 32 percent for renewables and 32.5 percent for
energy efficiency in 2030 are higher than assumed in this analysis. After the com-
pletion of this analysis, the European Union finally adopted targets of 32 percent and
32.5 percent for RES and EE respectively. These are higher than the targets assumed
in the Slovakian policy scenarios explored in this study. Most likely, the new EU tar-
gets imply that Slovakia will be obliged to adopt ambitious targets for both RES and
EE, for example, 22 percent for RES and 30 percent for energy efficiency. The find-
ings of the analysis presented here suggest that both biomass and variable renewables
will have to develop, accompanied by the strongest possible policy promoting the
renovation of buildings to the horizon of 2030.
A scenario approach is used to assess alternative settings of targets related
to Slovakia’s national strategy for climate mitigation. The choice of the mix of
targets is not simplistically the result of cost minimization since the best choice
also depends on non-economic criteria. Security of energy supply, implemen-
tation feasibility, political constraints, social acceptance, and economic afford-
ability for more vulnerable economic classes are among the criteria to consider
in addition to system cost minimization. The modelling is able to quantify per-
formance on some of these criteria in addition to costs, such as energy depen-
dence on imports, system reliability, and consumer tariffs. The modelling is able
to include implementation difficulties, social acceptance, and other restrictions
on the cost-potential curves of resources, such as nuclear siting or renewable re-
source availability. A full accounting of performance against multiple criteria
can be handled practically by quantifying alternative policy scenarios (which
contain alternative targets).
The policy scenarios were designed as contrasting and stylized mixes of
targets, to assess the impacts of setting different ambitions for Slovakia’s re-
newable energy (RES) and energy efficiency (EE) targets. Setting renewable
and energy efficiency targets is at the discretion of the national policy. For a na-
tional plan to be acceptable to the EU, low ambition on one target must be com-
pensated by high ambition on the other target. The modelling considers syn-
ergies between the targets, since energy efficiency (e.g., heat pumps) may also
enable higher renewables and vice versa. In addition, high performance in en-
ergy efficiency reduces energy consumption, which reduces the denominator of
the RES shares, facilitating the achievement of higher RES targets. Despite the
complementarities considered in the modelling, the two targets require very dif-
ferent policy frameworks, and in this way, the targets conflict with each other
from a policy implementation perspective. Some of the efficiency-enabling pol-
icies, such as car standards and eco-design regulations, are not at the discretion
of the national government and instead result from Europe-wide decision-mak-
ing. Nevertheless, policies supporting efficiency in buildings, some transport
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 143
policies, and support schemes for RES, heat pumps and other technologies and
fuels, including biomass, are subject to national jurisdiction. The ETS carbon
price is determined at a pan European level, and Slovakia is a price-taker from
this market. National performance in the non-ETS sectors, which is subject
to a national target difference for each EU member, derives from the choice of
targets for energy efficiency and renewable and the ambition of non-CO2 GHG
emissions reduction.
Four policy scenarios are assessed and compared against a reference scenario
(with no new policies). The policy scenarios can be simplified as: (i) a low energy
efficiency and high-RES scenario; (ii) a high target for energy efficiency and low RES
scenario; (iii) a middle case scenario; and, (iv) a scenario with very ambitious RES
(mainly renewables in electricity generation) and less energy efficiency (Table 8).
Table 4. Decarbonization scenarios by renewables and energy efficiency target intensity,
A simplified view of the decarbonization scenarios
Scenario Name Renewables target Energy efficiency target
Decarbonization 1 Basic Ambitious
Decarbonization 2 Median Median
Decarbonization 3 Ambitious Basic
Decarbonization 4 Very ambitious (for electricity) Basic
Source: E3-Modelling, CPS Technical Report
Several policies defined at the EU level are needed to achieve the EU’s 2030 tar-
gets and are assumed as part of the scenarios analyzed here. The main policies are:
(i) ETS: Increase in the ETS carbon prices enabled by the Market Stability
Reserve, assumed to apply without exemptions, except the leakage regu-
lations for industry. It is exogenous in all policy scenarios, taken from the
EUCO scenarios.
(ii) Renewables: Renewables support policies in various sectors expressed by rais-
ing the shadow value of RES in the electric model, in the heating sector and
transport regarding biofuels. The RES value is the shadow value of an im-
plicit minimum contribution of renewables per sector, which influences the
decision-making of agents as a marginal benefit of using renewables (per unit
of energy). The scenarios assume different RES values per sector to represent
different policy priorities of renewables development in the sectors.
(iii) Energy efficiency: Emphasis on policies supporting faster renovation of old
buildings compared to historic trends and deep energy insulations in the
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
144
renovated buildings. The model represents such policies by raising the energy
efficiency value, which stands for the shadow value of a virtual constraint on
energy savings in the heating of buildings, and acts in the model as a margin-
al benefit per unit of energy consumed due to energy savings. The energy ef-
ficiency policies also include strict building codes for new constructions, the
promotion of heat recovery and the best available techniques in the industry,
infrastructure and soft measures enabling higher efficiency in the transport
sector and the EU-wide measures that include car standards and eco-design
regulations.
(iv) Transport policies: The main policy measures are not at the discretion of
national policies, such as the CO2 car standards (70-75 gCO2/km in 2030,
25in2050) and for Vans (120 in 230, 60 in 2050), the efficiency standards
(1.5% increase per year) for trucks. However, infrastructure and other trans-
port policies improving the efficiency of transportation in cities and the lo-
gistics are at the discretion of national policies.
(v) Enabling conditions: The scenarios assume a reduction of uncertainty and
consequently a decrease in received costs for new technologies and efficient
appliances, accompanied by a removal of barriers to investment in house
renovation and other similar actions in various sectors, which influence
decision-making as hidden costs. The removal of barriers also implies a re-
duction of discount rates used in the decision of capital-intensive energy-ef-
ficient equipment and investment. Finally, the scenarios involve new infra-
structure facilitating the charging of electric vehicles, smart systems, grids
facilitating the development of renewables, higher learning rates of new and
advanced technologies (that take place at a pan–European level), and posi-
tive anticipation of the rising ETS prices in the future.
Complementary national policies will also be needed for the policy scenarios.
In addition to the national policies included in the Slovak reference scenario, the pol-
icy scenarios include the following national policies:
(i) Earlier decommissioning of solid-fired utility power plants: Vojany and
Novaky power plants are assumed to decommission in 2025 and 2023
respectively.
(ii) RES support scheme in power generation: Eligible RES technologies are
Solar PV, wind onshore turbines and biomass. The scenarios assume a sup-
port to 50MW in the period 2021-2025, followed by the support of another
500MW based on auctions.
(iii) Further development of nuclear energy is possible based on economic
optimality
(iv) Carbon capture and storage is excluded.
A low carbon growth of Slovakia 145
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Iwona Krzyzewska1
Katarzyna Chruzik2
Sustainable Transport: Sustainable Transport:
Dilemma or Revolution?Dilemma or Revolution?
Theoretical introduction
Sustainable transportation
Environmental pollution effects have been observed for many decades. In response
to these effects, more sustainable and smart cities (smart cities) have been developed.
People are increasingly migrating from rural areas to cities, which positively influ-
ences urban and economic development but also contributes to the growth of trans-
portation. This, in turn, can lead to increased emissions and a higher number of road
accidents. The reasons for the rise in road accidents include a lack of consistent traffic
regulations, poor road infrastructure quality, insufficient financial resources allocated
to transportation development, lack of driving skills among drivers, traffic congestion
(including pedestrian and bicycle traffic), and adverse weather conditions[3,7,14].
Smart cities, aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Susta inable Development, aim to use
information and communication systems alongside other technologies to tackle chal-
lenges faced by urban areas, offering sustainable and efficient solutions. These cities
address citizens’ needs to improve the quality of services provided. One major chal-
lenge for smart and sustainable cities is improving mobility, particularly through the
implementation of smart urban mobility that utilizes communication technologies.
These technologies aim to provide affordable, efficient, attractive, and sustainable
1 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, ikrzyzewska@wsb.edu.pl
2 Department of Transport and Information Technology, WSB University, Cieplaka 1C Street, 41-300
Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland, kchruzik@wsb.edu.pl
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
148
services for residents who are passengers. Key objectives include increased mobility
efficiency, enhanced safety, and reduced pollution and energy consumption.
Smart mobility encompasses various modes of transportation such as public
transport, vehicle sharing, private vehicles, and ride-hailing. Each of these solutions
has been modified to reduce drawbacks and align with sustainable goals. Public
transport faces challenges such as overcrowding during peak hours and frequent
delays. Private vehicles generate significant congestion, reducing road traffic flow.
Limited access to shared or rental vehicles previously hindered connectivity and re-
duced interest among passengers. A revolution in sustainable transportation came
with the introduction of information systems and mobile applications, enabling bet-
ter user coordination and broader reach [1, 7, 8].
Urban areas have been adapted to encourage cycling and walking, aimed at com-
bating the decline in physical activity. To this end, numerous cycling and walking
paths, trails, bike parking areas, and other infrastructure elements have been de-
veloped in many cities. Active and dynamic sustainable transportation methods are
widely discussed in scientific publications, often accompanied by analyses of cyclist
and pedestrian safety.
The development of sustainable urban mobility is promoted in many countries
through campaigns, community meetings, advertisements, promotional activities,
and demonstrations of applications or systems. The most effective form of promot-
ing urban mobility has proven to be local authorities and organizations engaging in
dialogue with city residents [2]. Information systems and mobile applications should
ensure equality among users in terms of age, gender, income, and health [6].
Road transport contributes to 24% of CO2 emissions (2020 IEA study) and gener-
ates noise and air pollution (including chemicals like PAHs, PCBs, particulate mat-
ter, and suspended particles) [8, 9]. Sustainable transportation and development are
based on three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. Related topics include
social exclusion, improved governance, climate change, biofuels, and vehicle sharing.
Social goals of sustainable transportation include ensuring basic accessibility,
meeting safety and health needs, and improving equality, affordability, and trans-
port options. Sustainable social development in transport systems has a profound
impact on societal and economic factors, including employment, health, education
access, and overall well-being [4, 13].
MaaS (Mobility as a Service) is a concept aimed at combining various forms and
types of transportation to meet travel needs. MaaS research is relatively new and con-
tinues to evolve, focusing on platforms that allow users to plan journeys, purchase
integrated tickets, and use convenient payment methods. Recent studies (2019–2021)
indicate that integrating passenger and freight transportation could improve effi-
ciency and sustainability. A variation of this concept, eMaaS, involves using electric
vehicles or electric scooters [8].
Urban transport systems have a significant impact on sustainability. Achieving
sustainable development goals requires substantial changes, including:
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 149
• Implementation of modern emission standards.
• Mandatory use of sensors and regular compliance monitoring.
• A shift in public transport approaches, emphasizing its importance and status.
• Development of environmentally friendly public transport modes, such as
trams.
These measures will make cities more environmentally friendly and convenient
for all residents, solving issues related to motorization, urban congestion, and pro-
moting greener, more sustainable urban areas [11].
An important element of sustainable development is achieving goals through
task implementation and indicator evaluation. There are four groups of Sustainable
Urban Mobility Indicators (SUIMI) [12] (Fig.1):
• Global Environment: greenhouse gas emissions, energy efficiency.
• Quality of Life: access to mobility services, road safety, traffic accidents, noise,
air pollution.
• Economic Success: congestion and delays.
• Mobility System Efficiency: accessibility for individuals with specific needs,
affordability and availability of public transport, satisfaction with public
transport, multimodal integration, opportunities for active mobility.
Figure 1. Sustainable Urban Mobility Indicators
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
150
Carbon Footprint
What exactly is a “carbon footprint”? It seems there is no clear definition of this term,
and ambiguities remain. It refers to a specific amount of greenhouse gas emissions
resulting from human activities, whether through production or consumption. In
most cases, “carbon footprint” is used as a general synonym for carbon dioxide emis-
sions or greenhouse gases expressed in CO2 equivalents [14].
Air pollution caused by transportation is particularly problematic in large metro-
politan areas and other urban centers. The transport sector emits pollutants such as
particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), which interact with other compounds to form harmful smog. Numerous
studies confirm a strong correlation between the presence of air pollutants and the
occurrence of specific diseases and phenomena, such as reduced life expectancy and
high mortality rates. This issue is particularly significant for Poland, which ranks
high among the most polluted countries in the EU.
Progress and Challenges in Reducing Pollution
In recent years, air pollution caused by transportation has decreased due to the
use of less polluting technologies and the implementation of appropriate fuel
quality and emission standards for vehicles. However, it remains concerning
that permissible air pollution concentration standards are still high. All move-
ment of people or goods consumes energy, and the most environmentally harm-
ful energy is derived from burning fossil fuels. Therefore, the least energy-inten-
sive forms of travel, such as walking or cycling, should be prioritized, followed
by public transport. The most harmful modes are individual car and air trav-
el. Road freight transport (trucks) produces the highest CO2 emissions– about
three times greater than shipping and nine times higher than rail transport. Air
transport, due to its high emissions, is rarely used for mass transportation. This
underscores the need to invest in rail infrastructure and develop this mode of
transport [14, 15].
Electric Vehicles and Carbon Emissions
Electric vehicles (EVs) have the greatest potential to reduce emissions, enabling
a threefold reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. For EV adoption to increase, in-
centive systems encouraging their purchase are necessary. In Poland, the “Energy
for the Future” policy, adopted in 2017, supports the development of electromobili-
ty. Besides environmental benefits, economic advantages, reduced travel times, and
increased safety are provided by ecodriving– a smooth and deliberate driving style
that is becoming increasingly popular in Poland. Ecodriving can reduce fuel con-
sumption by 8–25%.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 151
Packaging in Transport
Transport packaging also indirectly impacts the environment. A common issue is
the significant presence of air (up to 25% of total volume) in shipments. Transporting
“unnecessary” air contributes approximately 122 million tons of CO2 emissions an-
nu ally [14].
Global Efforts Toward Carbon Neutrality
In 2019, the global “Net Zero Carbon” environmental program was launched, aim-
ing to reduce carbon footprints across all services provided by participating enter-
prises. Key objectives include:
1. Achieving full carbon neutrality for direct impacts starting in 2020
(GHGProtocol– Scopes 1 and 2).
2. Achieving carbon neutrality for suppliers and customers by 2030
(GHGProtocol– Scope 3).
Electric Vehicles (EVs)
A growing wave of interest in electromobility has been observed, defined as a road
transport system powered by electric energy. Achieving electromobility depends on
solving significant technological challenges and societal shifts. EVs, including bat-
tery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and range-extended
electric vehicles (REEVs), emit less CO2 compared to internal combustion engine
vehicles (ICEVs), particularly when charged using renewable energy. EVs are also ad-
vantageous in terms of energy efficiency, energy security, lower operating costs, re-
duced noise, and decreased local air pollution. However, the overall impact on CO2
emissions depends on the energy grid used for charging.
Considering that 80% of the CO2 emissions increase over the past 45 years origi-
nated from road transport, the global adoption of electromobility is a critical strate-
gy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector.
EV Market Growth
The demand for EVs is rapidly increasing, particularly in China and Europe. The
transport sector accounts for over 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions, making it
a key focus for climate change mitigation. In the EU, only 3.3% of energy consump-
tion in transport is renewable. Therefore, replacing conventional vehicles with EVs is
an essential strategy for sustainable transportation systems.
Barriers to EV Adoption
Despite their benefits, potential EV users express concerns related to:
1. Range Anxiety: Fear of insufficient battery range to reach destinations.
2. Charging Time: Long charging durations compared to the quick refueling of
IC E Vs .
3. High Initial Cost: The relatively high price of EVs.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
152
EV Statistics and Future Outlook
As of 2019, the global EV market included over 10 million vehicles. Key developments:
• EV sales accounted for 50% of the market in Norway, 5% in China, and 2% in
the US.
• In 2019, global EV sales reached 2.17 million, with China leading in absolute
numbers.
• Preliminary data for 2020 indicated a 43% increase in global EV sales despite
the COVID-19 pandemic.
While challenges remain, such as limited charging infrastructure and range anx-
iety, advancing battery technologies and supportive government policies will accel-
erate EV adoption. This transition is essential for reducing emissions and creating
sustainable urban transport systems.
Methodology
The economic study of the repair and maintenance of electric, hybrid, and combus-
tion vehicles was conducted using an online survey method. The survey was carried
out in 200 workshops, authorized service centers, and companies with f leets of elec-
tric vehicles in the largest cities in Poland.
Results
The chart indicates that 75% of services are performed by car service stations,
while only 25% are conducted by authorized services. This suggests that car service
stations dominate the market for vehicle repairs and maintenance, likely due to lower
costs or easier accessibility. Authorized services, despite their smaller market share,
may be preferred for specialized repairs or warranty-related work. This distribution
highlights the importance of understanding customer preferences and competitive
pricing in the automotive service sector.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 153
Figure 2. Type of workshop or service
25%
75%
Company
Authorised service Car service station
Based on the Figure 3, it is evident that the majority of repair companies focus
on servicing combustion engine vehicles, which account for 90% of the vehicles re-
paired. Hybrid and electric vehicles constitute a smaller share– 6% and 4%, respec-
tively. This indicates the dominant position of traditional combustion vehicles in re-
pair services. However, the low proportion of electric and hybrid vehicles highlights
the need to develop expertise and technical facilities for servicing modern technol-
ogies. The conducted survey revealed that combustion engine vehicles still domi-
nate the activities of repair companies, accounting for 90% of all repaired vehicles.
Hybrid and electric vehicles hold a significantly smaller share, which may be due
to their lower market presence or limited servicing capabilities in this area. These re-
sults suggest that repair shops should focus more on developing services targeted at
owners of electric and hybrid vehicles, especially given the growing interest in more
environmentally friendly forms of transportation.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
154
Figure 3. Type of repaired vehicle
90%
6% 4%
What type of vehicle is being repaired at your
company?
Combustion Hybrid Electric
Based on the chart (Figure 4), the most common type of repairs conducted by the
surveyed companies is services and maintenance, representing nearly 100% of their
operations. Mechanical repairs follow, with a significant share close to 70%, indicat-
ing a strong demand for traditional vehicle repair services. Electrical and electronic
repairs are also common, constituting around 60% of the total. On the other hand,
bodywork and painting services are less frequently offered, accounting for about
30%, while other types of repairs make up a marginal share of less than 10%.
This distribution highlights that companies primarily focus on general mainte-
nance and mechanical repairs, reflecting the core needs of vehicle owners. However,
the relatively lower emphasis on bodywork, painting, and other specialized repairs
suggests that such services may be niche or offered by dedicated specialists rather
than general repair shops.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 155
Figure 4. Type of repairs
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
services,
maintenance
electric,
eletronic
mechanical bodywork
and painting
other
Which type of repairs are made at your company?
Based on the Figure 5, 44% of respondents reported battery failures in electric and
hybrid vehicles, while 56% did not experience such issues. This indicates that battery
failures are a significant concern for nearly half of the surveyed population, high-
lighting the need for further investigation into battery durability and reliability in
electric and hybrid vehicles.
The fact that more than half of the respondents did not report battery failures
suggests that advancements in battery technology and maintenance practices might
be effective in preventing issues. However, the relatively high proportion of reported
failures emphasizes the importance of continued focus on improving battery perfor-
mance and addressing potential weaknesses in electric and hybrid vehicle systems.
Figure 5. Battery failures in electric and hybrid vehicles
44
56
Are battery failures in electric and hybrid
vehicles reported? (%)
yes no
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
156
Tab. 1. Types of battery failures in electric and hybrid vehicles
Type of battery failure
in electric and hybrid vehicles Repair
faulty battery cell
exchange for new or reconditioned ones
high-mileage exchange
remote software update
lack of battery capacity
exchange for new
no contact/connection between the battery
and other parts of the vehicle
battery overload
The table 1 outlines common types of battery failures in electric and hybrid vehi-
cles, along with their corresponding repair solutions. Key observations are as follows:
1. Faulty battery cells are addressed through replacements, either with new or
reconditioned batteries. For vehicles with high mileage, exchanges are spe-
cifically recommended, suggesting that wear and tear is a contributing factor
to these issues.
2. Lack of battery capacity often leads to the need for remote software updates,
indicating that such issues may sometimes be addressed through recalibration
or optimization rather than hardware changes.
3. No contact or connection between the battery and other parts of the vehicle
necessitates the replacement of the battery with a new one, implying a hard-
ware failure that cannot be resolved through repairs.
4. Battery overload is similarly resolved by replacing the battery with a new one,
pointing to severe damage that renders the existing battery irreparable.
These findings suggest that battery issues in electric and hybrid vehicles frequent-
ly require either replacement or software intervention. The focus on replacements
highlights the importance of ensuring battery quality and durability during produc-
tion, while the role of software updates indicates the need for advanced diagnostic
and optimization tools to prevent or mitigate failures.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 157
Tab. 2. Inspection/review requirements for electric/hybrid vehicles
What are the inspection/
review requirements for
electric/hybrid vehicles?
Hybrid vehicles Electric vehicles
How often are reviews
carried out? Once a year / depends on needs, repairs
How long does it take to
complete the review? Max 1 day
What does the duration
ofthe review depend on?
Depending on:
–fault/failure
–availabilit y of parts,
–make and model of vehicle
–condition of the vehicle
–location of the service
After what mileage
should the inspection
becarried out?
As recommended by the
manufacturer, usually after
12,000 km
As recommended by the
manufacturer, usually after
2,000–30,000 km
Both hybrid and electric vehicles require inspections at least once a year. However,
the frequency may vary based on needs or necessary repairs, reflecting the flexibili-
ty of maintenance schedules depending on vehicle condition and usage. The review
process for both vehicle types takes a maximum of one day, ensuring minimal down-
time for owners. This indicates an efficient inspection process that prioritizes quick
turnarounds. The duration of inspections depends on several factors, including:
• The type and severity of faults or failures.
• Availability of replacement parts.
• The vehicle’s make, model, and condition.
• The location of the service center.
This highlights the importance of well-equipped service centers and accessible
supply chains to reduce repair times.
For hybrid vehicles, inspections are generally recommended after every 12,000km,
based on manufacturer guidelines. For electric vehicles, the mileage varies signifi-
cantly, with inspections recommended between 2,000 and 30,000 km. This range
may reflect variations in vehicle usage patterns or differences in manufacturers’ de-
signs and specifications.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
158
Overall, the inspection and review process for hybrid and electric vehicles is
structured to ensure regular maintenance, but specific requirements vary depending
on the vehicle type, usage, and manufacturer recommendations. Ensuring the avail-
ability of skilled personnel and parts will be critical to maintaining efficient service
operations.
Figure 6. Average hourly repair prices for individual cars
For authorized services, the maintenance and repair costs for electric vehicles are
the highest compared to other vehicle types, exceeding 70 Euros. Hybrid vehicles fol-
low with slightly lower costs, while combustion vehicles have the lowest costs among
the three categories (Figure 6). In general car service stations, the cost for electric ve-
hicles remains the highest, followed closely by hybrid vehicles. Combustion vehicles
still incur the lowest costs, indicating that traditional vehicle repairs are generally
less expensive in non-authorized service centers. Across all types of services, elec-
tric vehicles consistently show the highest repair and maintenance costs, while com-
bustion vehicles are the most cost-effective. This trend highlights the higher costs
associated with newer technologies and specialized parts required for electric and
hybrid vehicles. The cost of repairs for hybrid vehicles is higher than for combustion
vehicles in all service categories but lower than electric vehicles. This suggests that
hybrid technology, while less complex than electric, still demands more resources
than traditional combustion vehicles.
These results underline the financial implications of owning electric or hybrid ve-
hicles, especially in terms of maintenance and repair costs, which may act as a barrier
to adoption for some consumers. As technology advances and becomes more wide-
spread, these costs are expected to decrease over time.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 159
Figure 7. Average prices for repairing individual vehicle components
The costs for tyre exchange are similar for hybrid and electric vehicles, and both
are higher than for combustion vehicles. This indicates that tyre replacement for
newer vehicle types may involve additional costs, possibly due to differences in ve-
hicle weight or specialized components (Figure 7). Repairs or maintenance costs for
the braking system are slightly higher for electric vehicles, followed by hybrid ve-
hicles, with combustion vehicles having the lowest costs. This trend suggests that
advanced braking technologies, such as regenerative braking in electric and hybrid
vehicles, may lead to higher maintenance expenses. The costs for the steering system
are highest for electric vehicles, followed by hybrid vehicles, while combustion vehi-
cles have the lowest costs. This reflects the increased complexity or additional tech-
nology in steering systems for electric and hybrid vehicles. The suspension system
shows the highest repair and maintenance costs for electric vehicles, followed closely
by hybrid vehicles, with combustion vehicles incurring the lowest costs. This could
be due to the additional weight of batteries in electric and hybrid vehicles, which
places greater stress on suspension components. The costs for maintaining the A/C
system are higher for electric vehicles, slightly lower for hybrid vehicles, and lowest
for combustion vehicles. This suggests that advanced climate control technologies in
electric and hybrid vehicles may be more expensive to maintain.
Overall, electric vehicles have the highest repair and maintenance costs across all
systems analyzed, while combustion vehicles are the most cost-effective to maintain.
This emphasizes the need for cost optimization in maintaining advanced systems in
electric and hybrid vehicles to enhance their affordability and adoption.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
160
Conclusion
Electric vehicles consistently incur the highest costs across various service categories,
including authorized services, general car service stations, and specific system re-
pairs (e.g., braking, suspension, and A/C systems).
Hybrid vehicles rank second in terms of maintenance and repair costs, while com-
bustion vehicles remain the most cost-effective to maintain. The higher costs for
electric and hybrid vehicles can be attributed to advanced technology, specialized
parts, and additional labor associated with these systems.
Both hybrid and electric vehicles require annual inspections, but the mileage inter-
vals vary significantly. Hybrid vehicles typically require inspections after 12,000km,
while electric vehicles have a broader range of 2,000 to 30,000 km, depending on
manufacturer recommendations. The duration of inspections and reviews depends
on several factors, such as fault severity, availability of parts, and service location.
For electric and hybrid vehicles, battery-related issues such as faulty cells, lack of
capacity, or connection problems are common. Repairs often involve replacing bat-
teries or software updates, indicating the need for continued advancements in bat-
tery technology.
Advanced systems like regenerative braking and complex steering mechanisms
contribute to higher maintenance costs for electric and hybrid vehicles compared
to traditional combustion vehicles. Suspension systems in electric vehicles incur the
highest costs among all analyzed systems, likely due to the increased weight from
battery packs. Tyre exchange and A/C system maintenance are also more expensive
for electric and hybrid vehicles, reflecting the higher technical requirements of these
vehicles.
The findings highlight the need for repair shops and service stations to adapt
to the growing market of electric and hybrid vehicles by investing in specialized
tools, training, and diagnostic equipment. Manufacturers should focus on reducing
the costs of spare parts and improving the reliability of key components, particularly
batteries, to make electric and hybrid vehicles more affordable to maintain.
While electric and hybrid vehicles currently face higher maintenance costs, tech-
nological advancements, economies of scale, and improved servicing practices are
expected to reduce these costs over time. Repair shops should prepare for an increas-
ing share of electric and hybrid vehicles in their service portfolios as the global shift
toward sustainable and eco-friendly transportation continues.
In summary, although electric and hybrid vehicles present higher costs and unique
challenges in maintenance and repair, these issues can be mitigated with technologi-
cal improvements and greater expertise within the service industry.
Sustainable Transport: Dilemma or Revolution? 161
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András Márton1
The role of electric cars The role of electric cars
inreducinggreenhouse gas emissions inreducinggreenhouse gas emissions
inthe V4 countries– inthe V4 countries–
Hungary’s contributionHungary’s contribution
Introduction
The aim of the study on transport habits, preferences and incentives is to promote
the uptake of sustainable and environmentally friendly transport, in line with the
EU’s plans for carbon-neutral electrification. In the European Union, including the
V4 countries, the motorisation rate, i.e. the number of cars per thousand inhabitants,
is steadily increasing (Eurostat, 2025). Economic analyses generally consider the in-
crease in motorisation rates as a sign of growing prosperity, but pollutant and green-
house gas emissions are rising accordingly, calling for action at national and interna-
tional level. According to EU statistics, passenger cars are responsible for 14.39% of
greenhouse gas emissions in the EU (EEA, 2025), so there is significant room for im-
provement in this area to achieve environmental sustainability and the EU’s ‘green’
targets.
There is no consensus among media professionals and the public on the environ-
mental benefits of electric cars, with some accepting and others rejecting the mit-
igation potential of the new technology. However, it is important to note that the
literature on environmental sustainability and life-cycle environmental pollution
considers e-cars to be “greener” (more environmentally friendly) than conventional
1 András Márton, PhD, Corvinus University of Budapest
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
164
cars with internal combustion engines. In addition, a growing number of car man-
ufacturers are committing themselves to producing more or only electric cars (e.g.,
Bentley, General Motors, Honda, Jaguar, Mercedes-Benz, Volvo, Volkswagen,2 Ford,
Fiat, Hyundai),3 encouraged by EU environmental measures.
As a result, the spread of electric cars can be identified as an ongoing or even accel-
erating trend (particularly in China and Europe) with significant implications for the
automotive industry, the industries concerned (suppliers, distributors) and other re-
lated industries such as insurance, finance, logistics, road and transport development,
oil refining and trading, electricity generation and grid development. Both top-down
and bottom-up factors play a role in driving this trend, such as environmental targets
and regulations on the public side, evolving electric car technology and wider supply
on the manufacturers’ side, and changing car use preferences on the consumers’ side.
In this research we focus mainly on the corporate and consumer sides.
The aim of the research is twofold: to show (1) the environmental (GHG) signifi-
cance of the electrification of passenger cars in the V4 countries and (2) what moti-
vational factors may push consumers towards the purchase of electric cars (BEV and
PHEV).4
To answer the research questions, a complex research design was developed, and
a fitting methodology was chosen. A literature review and secondary data analysis
were conducted to identify the current market situation and trends, showing the po-
tential in the V4 region. To gain a targeted insight into individual consumer attitudes,
a large sample survey was conducted in Hungary in 2021, and as a third step, focus
group interviews were organised, during which Hungarian consumers further spec-
ified their needs, energy and future energy-related ideas. This shows that the results
on motivating factors reflect the views of Hungarian consumers, but can also be ex-
tended to some extent to the other V4 countries.
Figure 1. Flowchart of the research
1.
Literature
review
+
2. Secondary
data analysis
3.
Consumer
questionnaire
analysis (HUN)
4. Focus group
analysis (HUN)
5.
Comparative
analysis
Source: Author
2 https://www.forbes.com/wheels/news/automaker-ev-plans/, accessed: 15.01.2025.
3 https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-11-10/which-cars-going-all-electric-and-when/100529330, accessed:
15.01.2025.
4 The PHEV category includes passenger cars that can be cha rged from the mains and can cover a distance
of around 20-50 km in pure electric mode, but are also equipped with an internal combustion engine.
165
The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
1. Literature review
Academic publications on transport are diverse, both globally and regionally. The
search has filtered out other areas of electromobility (e-scooters, e-bikes, electric
buses) as well as the wider transport sector– except for passenger cars with internal
combustion engines, which have been compared to e-cars. The technology of e-cars
is evolving rapidly, so that publications from a decade ago can already be considered
partly outdated. In our research, we have tried to use the most recent scientific re-
sults possible, but we have not automatically excluded studies published before 2015.
Among the publications, we gave preference to articles on the uptake, usage patterns,
charging preferences or economic aspects of e-cars, but also included some technol-
ogy-type analyses in the literature collected.
The passenger car market is at a relatively early stage of the electrification process,
with the overall world market share of e-cars currently at around 1.76% (IEA, 2023)
and an average of 0.53% in the V4 region (European Alternative Fuels Observatory,
2025).
Table 1. Transport sector emissions in the EU27 and V4
Sector Name Country Emissions
Emissions
per capita
Emissions per
GDP (1000 EUR)
%
of Transport
%
of Tot al
t CO2
equivalent
t CO2
equivalent
t CO2
equivalent
1.A.3– Transport EU-27 803,284,009 1794.01 61.23 100.00% 25.60%
Czechia 19,390,688 1816.93 97.21 100.00% 16.02%
Hungary 15,075,423 1563.22 107.51 100.00% 28.59%
Poland 69,332,7 14 1863.67 125.92 100.00% 20.10%
Slovakia 7,778,848 1432. 07 86.90 100.00% 26.08%
1.A.3.a– Domestic
Aviation EU-27 13,105,055 29.27 1.00 1.63% 0.42%
Czechia 12,493 1.17 0.06 0.06% 0.01%
Hungary 15,461 1.60 0.11 0.10% 0.03%
Poland 129,380 3.48 0.23 0.19% 0.04%
Slovakia 1,493 0.27 0.02 0.02% 0.01%
1.A.3.b– Road
Transportation EU-27 763,725,753 1705.66 58.21 95.08% 24.34%
Czechia 19,115,902 1791.18 95.84 98.58% 15.79%
Hungary 14,875,898 1542.53 106.09 98.68% 28.21%
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
166
Sector Name Country Emissions
Emissions
per capita
Emissions per
GDP (1000 EUR)
%
of Transport
%
of Tot al
Poland 68,685,087 1846.26 124.75 99.07% 19.92%
Slovakia 7,664,391 1411.00 85.62 98.53% 25.70%
1.A.3.b.i– Cars EU-27 451,486,083 1008.32 34.41 56.21% 14.39%
Czechia 11,189,963 1048.51 56.10 57.7 1% 9.24%
Hungary 8,382,935 869.25 59.78 55.61% 15.90%
Poland 34,944,068 939.30 63.47 50.40% 10.13%
Slovakia 4,579,248 843.03 51.15 58.87% 15.35%
1.A.3.b.ii– Light
duty trucks EU-27 92,236,314 206.00 7.0 3 11.48% 2.94%
Czechia 2,404,596 225.31 12.06 12.40% 1.9 9%
Hungary 2,218,120 230.00 15.82 14.71% 4.21%
Poland 7,741,47 0 208.09 14.06 11.17% 2.24%
Slovakia 860,934 158.50 9.62 11.07% 2.89%
1.A.3.b.iii– Heavy
duty trucks and
buses
EU-27 210,461,760 470.03 16.04 26.20% 6.71%
Czechia 5,418,561 507.72 27.17 27.94% 4.48%
Hungary 4,163,722 431.75 29.69 27.6 2% 7.90%
Poland 25,751,856 692.21 46.77 37.14% 7.47%
Slovakia 2,202,113 405.41 24.60 28.31% 7.38%
1.A.3.b.iv– Motor-
cycles EU-27 9,416,779 21.03 0.72 1.17% 0.30%
Czechia 102,782 9.63 0.52 0.53% 0.08%
Hungary 111,121 11.52 0.79 0.74% 0.21%
Poland 247, 69 3 6.66 0.45 0.36% 0.07%
Slovakia 22,096 4.07 0.25 0.28% 0.07%
1.A.3.c– Railways EU-27 3,477,164 7.77 0.27 0.43% 0.11%
Czechia 230,262 21.58 1.15 1.19% 0.19%
Hungary 119,014 12.34 0.85 0.79% 0.23%
Poland 309,000 8.31 0.56 0.45% 0.09%
Slovakia 91,481 16.84 1.02 1.18% 0.31%
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Sector Name Country Emissions
Emissions
per capita
Emissions per
GDP (1000 EUR)
%
of Transport
%
of Tot al
1.A.3.d– Domestic
Navigation EU-27 17,913,698 40.01 13.65 2.23% 0.57%
Czechia 9, 692 0.9 1 0.49 0.05% 0.01%
Hungary 12,790 1.33 0.91 0.08% 0.02%
Poland 28,901 0.78 0.52 0.04% 0.01%
Slovakia 5,345 0.9 8 0.60 0.07% 0.02%
1.A.3.e– Other
Transportation EU-27 5,062,339 11.31 0.39 0.63% 0.16%
Czechia 22,340 2.09 0.11 0.12% 0.02%
Hungary 52,260 5.42 0.37 0.35% 0.10%
Poland 180,347 4.85 0.33 0.26% 0.05%
Slovakia 16,138 2.97 0.18 0.21% 0.05%
Total net emis-
sions (UNFCCC) EU-27 3,138,341,494 7009.00 239.22
Czechia 121,066,043 11344.00 606.96
Hungary 52,732,464 5468.00 376.07
Poland 344,864,785 9270.00 626.35
Slovakia 29, 826,471 5491.00 333.19
Source: Au thor based on EEA (2025)
The statistical database of the European Energy Agency (EEA) (Table 1) shows
that road transport is indeed the most polluting transport sector, accounting
for 25.60% of total EU GHG emissions, 95.08% of transport sector emissions and
24.34% of total emissions. Within this, the environmental impact of passenger cars
is also prominent: cars are responsible for 56.21% of transport emissions (i.e. more
than light trucks, lorries and buses, motorcycles and other road vehicles combined),
which is also a significant share of total EU GHG emissions (14.39%). Clearly, the
V4 region and the individual countries show similar trends. According to the IEA
(2023) report, in 2022 the world’s total e-cars will have reduced GHG emissions by 80
Mt, which means that transport and passenger car emissions have a significant envi-
ronmental potential and justify the EU’s intensive policy, regulatory and financing
practices to promote and support the uptake of electric cars.
The main environmental benefit of e-cars compared to classic cars is lower GHG
emissions, but the issue is complex in terms of their whole life cycle. There are three
main approaches used in the literature to determine the life-cycle efficiency of e-cars
(Ku kreja, 2018):
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
168
1. the well-to-wheel efficiency (WTW), which consists of the extraction, process-
ing, transport and conversion of the fuel into energy in the engine;
2. product life cycle (technology) efficiency (cradle-to-grave efficiency, or CTG),
which consists of the extraction of raw materials for the vehicle, the manufac-
ture of components, the use of the vehicle and its treatment as waste;
3. complete life cycle efficiency, which is the combination of the previous two.
Albatayneh et al. (2020) investigated the WTW efficiency of e-cars and found that
the type of resource from which the electricity is generated is of crucial importance.
Based on measurement and manufacturer data, they made the following estimates of
efficiency:
Table 2. WTW efficiency of vehicles with different powertrains
Technology Petrol Diesel Natural
gas
Electric (source of electricity)
coal natural gas diesel PV/w ind HMKE
Efficiency 11–27% 25–37% 12–22% 13–27% 13–31% 12–25% 39–67% 42–72 %
Source: Au thor based on Albatayneh et al. (2020)
Messagie’s (2017) research highlights the large variance and inconsistencies in ef-
ficiency estimates reported in the literature, which are sensitive to different input
data: the composition of the energy mix, differences between manufacturer and real
(measured) emissions data, vehicle lifetime (in km), and battery lifetime and tech-
nology (charge cycles, discharge depth, energy density). The energy mix is also a key
factor according to Messagie (2017), but it also draws attention to the mode of use:
in urban and suburban transport, the emissions advantage of electric and plug-in
hybrid cars is considerable, while for use on the motorway this advantage is signifi-
cantly smaller. Taking the EU energy mix in 2015 as a reference, an e-car emits on av-
erage 55% less GHG than a diesel car, which is of course even better in countries with
below EU average GHG emissions per capita (Sweden, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia)
and worse in countries with above average emissions (Iceland, Luxembourg, Czech
Republic, Poland). Messagie (2017) also highlights the negative impact of toxic sub-
stances potentially hazardous to humans, which is higher for two battery technolo-
gies (LFP and NCM)5 and lower or negligible for the others.
Product Life Cycle Efficiency (CTG) was investigated in a study by Kukreja (2018)
using conventional and e-cars of the same category in the Vancouver municipal car
fleet. Although e-car production is significantly (one and a half times) more en-
vironmentally damaging in terms of raw material extraction and somewhat more
5 LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate) and NCM (Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manga nese) are two relatively common
battery technologies.
169
The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
environmentally damaging in some other steps, the 150th study (2018) found that
the production of e-cars is more environmentally damaging than the production of
conventional cars. The results are confirmed by another similar study (Poovana –
Davis, 2018), which came to even more convincing conclusions: e-cars can achieve
GHG emissions up to 2/3 lower over their lifetime.
Based on his research on whole life cycle efficiency, Bieker (2021) highlights that
the ambitious Paris and EU climate targets can only be met by electric and hydro-
gen-cell cars, but even with the current energy mix, and of course with the expan-
sion of renewables, e-cars can do even better. In terms of whole life cycle efficiency,
e-cars are significantly better than gasoline cars in the European and US energy mix,
with GHG emissions 66-69% lower than gasoline cars, but hydrogen cell cars are also
26-40% better (Bieker, 2021).6 The uptake of all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids in
Europe is a step in the right direction, with the former increasing from 2% to 6% and
the latter from 1% to 5% of the EU population in 2019-2020 (Mock et al, However,
passenger cars powered by internal combustion engines will have to be phased out
in any case, as Bieker (2021) concludes that neither biofuels nor e-fuels (e-diesel, syn-
thetic diesel, synthetic petrol) will meet climate targets.
The extent to which the deployment of each technology could reduce GHG emis-
sions compared to internal combustion engines is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Environmental benefits of each technology compared to conventional cars
based on whole life cycle efficiency
Powertrain
Emission reduction compared to internal combustion engines
Current EU energy mix 2030 EU energy mix Fully renewable energy
fully electric 63-69% 71-77% 78-81%
hidrogen cell 21-26% —76-79%
plug-in hybrid 25-31% 34-40% —
hybrid 20% — —
gas 11-19% 11-19% —
biofuel -2% 0% —
e-fuel —2% —
Source: Author based on Bieker (2021)
6 Hydrogen for hydrogen cell vehicles is currently produced from natural gas (methane) and therefore has
less environmental benefit than electric cars.
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170
The literature therefore suggests that the efficiency of e-cars– by any dimension
(WTW, CTG or total)– is significantly higher than that of conventional cars. Their
efficiency can be further improved by further penetration of renewable resources,
development of new battery technologies, production of lighter vehicles and better
waste management (e.g., better harmonisation of EU directives on vehicle and bat-
tery waste) (Messagie, 2017).
Beyond the environmental and technological aspects, electric cars also have wid-
er economic dimensions. The availability and share of renewable resources in the
energy mix has a significant impact on the price of electricity, and therefore there is
a wide variation in the mix and electricity prices across European countries. Norway
is well placed to use renewable resources and is therefore a leader in e-car penetra-
tion (Figenbaum et al., 2015). The study by Figenbaum et al. (2015) identifies four
important steps that could help increase the share of electric cars in other countries:
supportive climate policies, economic subsidies and incentives (e.g., VAT waivers for
e-cars) to increase competitiveness, increasing the share of renewable resources, ef-
fective communication and information. In the latter case, the authors (Figenbaum
et al., 2015), citing several other local studies, find that in Norway it is typically
young, highly educated, high-income consumers and opinion leaders from an aca-
demic community who have/can have a strong influence on other consumers in the
uptake of new technologies.
Geronikolos and Potoglou (2021) review the most commonly used economic in-
centives in Europe, e.g.: direct car purchase subsidies (varying from €1000 to €9000
in each country), registration tax reductions, VAT reductions, customs duty reduc-
tions, car tax waivers. Interviews with stakeholders and experts in Greece highlight-
ed by the authors suggest that, in addition to economic incentives, it would be im-
portant to assess the needs of potential customer groups, tailor subsidies, improve
the charging network, increase coverage and adopt new business models that have
been successfully applied in other countries (Geronikolos– Potoglou, 2021).
The importance of state involvement and subsidies is also highlighted by Joller
and Varblane (2016), but they also suggest a thorough economic and political prepa-
ration for the future phasing out of subsidies. Eco-innovation programmes to pro-
mote the uptake of e-cars need to be implemented in a systematic way to avoid being
stalled by the contradictions of different political regimes, and new business mod-
els– such as promoting or rethinking the rental contract– may also be worth consid-
ering to make the new technology accessible to a wider range of consumers (Joller–
Varblane, 2016).
Looking at the potential of e-mobility from a broader automotive perspective,
Auvinen et al. (2016) highlighted in their study that, in addition to ongoing green
policy measures (CO2 emission restrictions, tightening of conventional car traffic)
and the development of charging infrastructure, the competitiveness of e-cars can
be enhanced through strategic alliances of industry players. Without these, and ac-
cording to scenarios based on previous EU policies (circa 2009), even if the share
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
of e-cars increases to 5% in 2027 and 8% in 2030, e-car penetration will not be able
to exceed a marginal level and climate targets will not be met.
Charging electric cars is a high-profile issue both among consumers and in the lit-
erature. Straka and Buzna (2019) conducted a statistical analysis based on four years
of data collection at more than 1,700 charging stations in the Netherlands, with the
aim of forming typical consumer groups (clusters) along charging habits and times.
The results of the analysis are summarised below (Straka– Buzna, 2019):
– Cluster 1 (21% of the observations) of consumers charging at work: medium
charging/connection rate, low number of charging units, early start and late
end times;
– Cluster 2 (16.5%) is charging in shopping centres: medium charging/connec-
tion rate, high number of charging units, midday start and (late) afternoon end
of charging;
– Cluster 3 (23.5%) covers residential night charging: low charging/connection
rate, low number of charging units, late charging start and (late) morning
charging end;
– Cluster 4 (39%) users of other charging stations: short charging, charging start
around noon and end in the afternoon, high charging/connection rate, low
number of charging units.
The results show that more than half of e-charging does not take place at the more
confined night-time or workplace charging points, which, especially with the pro-
liferation of e-cars, may create problems in terms of predictability and stability of
energy supply. Fernández’s (2021) research in Spain has led to the conclusion that the
electricity grid must be upgraded to meet the additional demand from e-mobility.
The adaptation of e-mobility can be accelerated by manufacturers (with larger bat-
tery cars, competitive pricing), the state (subsidies, installation of fast chargers) and
external actors (technological development, increasing production intensity), but the
most appropriate solution in terms of load distribution on the grid is charging at the
workplace, which eliminates the need for fast charging and thus does not place an
increased burden on the grid (Fernández, 2021).
Differentiated electricity pricing also offers the possibility of better regulation of
e-charging, according to a study by Wangsness et al. (2021). Wangsness et al. (2021)
found that under separate peak and off-peak pricing, both the BAU and the en-
hanced CO2 reduction scenarios result in approximately 33-37% lower aggregate
welfare costs than under uniform pricing. It should be noted that differential pricing
can also work with high reliability and transparency in Norway (the target country
of the research) because since 2019 it is mandatory for all households to be equipped
with a smart meter (Wangsness et al., 2021).
The charging of e-cars is also a much-researched topic from a technological point
of view, as it has a significant impact on battery life and thus on the life cycle effi-
ciency of e-cars. It is well known among e-car users that high-current (fast or rapid)
charging accelerates battery ageing (Gou et al., 2021). In their article, Keil and Jossen
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
172
(2015) explain that in practice, the more extensive use of regenerative (energy-re-
charging) braking helps to keep battery degradation as low as possible (on average
about 10% per 100,000 km), while long charging times are the most damaging for
the battery. From a technological point of view, therefore, long charging at work or at
home at night is not optimal, and the right driving style, i.e. consumer behaviour, is
also important.
Several researchers agree (e.g., Holden et al., 2020; Fernández, 2021) that our
current driving habits and driving style are not sustainable or not well compatible
with certain features of e-cars. According to Holden et al. (2020), sustainable mo-
bility includes an increasing supply of e-cars, public subsidies, increasing consumer
awareness, recognition of the convenience of e-cars, further improvements in e-car
efficiency, and adaptation to specific e-car driving needs (safety, range, charging)
(Holden et al, The development of electromobility alone is therefore not sufficient
to achieve sustainable transport, which requires other factors as well as the devel-
opment of public transport and the reduction of vehicle traffic in cities (Holden
etal.,2020).
In their research, Higueras-Castillo and colleagues (2019) investigated which
factors are more likely to motivate Spanish consumers to adopt (attitude) and pur-
chase (action) e-cars. The results of the research show that the greatest influence is
trust in e-car ownership and technology, followed by the level of subsidies, with en-
vironmental awareness contributing to a much lesser extent and lack of knowledge
negatively influencing attitudes. These results, with the exception of environmental
awareness,7 are in line with Haugneland’s (2012) findings on the main arguments in
favour of e-car ownership according to owners:
– Environmental considerations (38%);
– Economic considerations (29%);
– practical considerations8 (28%);
– other reasons (5%).
Appropriate communication, increasing consumer awareness and the extent
to which consumers feel empowered to achieve environmental sustainability can be
important tools to increase the popularity of e-mobility (see Figenbaum et al., 2015;
Higueras-Castillo et al., 2019).
Active e-car users also have the opportunity to use their vehicle more efficient-
ly or in a more environmentally friendly way, which can be mainly reflected in
the choice of the right route and charging habits. In their research, Kacperski and
Kutzner (2020) highlighted that not only financial incentives (differential pricing),
as described earlier, but also symbolic incentives (e.g., gaming applications, aware-
ness of the environmental impact of consumption, visualisation of energy savings,
7 It should be noted that trust in green technology can also be interpreted as a form of environmental awa-
reness.
8 E.g., free parking, bus lane passes, other e-car discounts.
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
normative information, emotional tools) can help consumers to charge their e-cars
at the optimal time for the electricity system or to choose a better route.
As far as the V4 countries are concerned, a lot of overlap can be seen in the chal-
lenges related to the electrification of passenger cars.
The Czech society is sceptic about the shift to electromobility. According
to Jaderná & Přikrylová’s (2023) study, a European survey indicated that 50% of
Czechs prefer fuel engines, and rather businesses are interested in electric vehicles
to enhance their sustainability image. A majority (60%) of respondents would con-
sider purchasing an electric vehicle only if it had a reasonable price, while 24% prefer
fuel engine vehicles, and only 16% would consider an electric vehicle even at a higher
price than regular cars. MHEVs (mild hybrids) are viewed as the most appealing op-
tion, whereas BEVs rank lowest in attractiveness. Nevertheless, younger generations
show a greater inclination towards purchasing EVs compared to older generations
(Jaderná & Přikrylová, 2023).
In Poland, the reliance on non-renewable energy sources in electricity generation
is a notable constraint for electromobility, too (Łuszczyk et al., 2021). The dominance
of fossil fuels and rigorous climate policies have led to a significant rise in electricity
costs. Consequently, the competitiveness of eco-friendly transportation is dimin-
ishing (Sulich, 2021). The effective realization of a pro-greening program necessi-
tates extensive and costly measures for green energy transition and the establish-
ment of incentives for electric vehicle purchasers. Statistical analyses indicate that
infrastructure development is essential for electromobility (Łuszczyk et al., 2021).
Łuszczyk and colleagues (2021) emphasize the importance of enhancing charging
infrastructure and increasing renewable energy contributions to the energy mix. In
nations with average per capita income, including Poland, the focus should be on
subsidizing electric vehicle purchases (Łuszczyk et al., 2021), because profitability
is a critical factor influencing electric car purchasing decisions in Poland and coun-
tries with similar economic status like the V4 countries.
In a Slovakian research, respondents prioritized possible fuel cost reductions over
the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (Zábojník et al., 2022). However, the most
discerning consumers regarding electric vehicles consist of younger, educated, and
environmentally conscious individuals who primarily engage in urban travel and
charge their vehicles at home (Hackbarth – Madlener, 2013). The adoption of elec-
tromobility in the Slovak Republic is strengthened by four fundamental concep-
tual documents, outlining the present and future restructuring of the vehicle fleet
with specific objectives: (1) Action Plan for the Development of Electromobility in
the Slovak Republic (2019), (2) Strategy for the Development of Electromobility in
the Slovak Republic and its Impact on the National Economy of the Slovak Republic
(2015) and related transposition documents, (3) National Policy for Deploying
Infrastructure for Alternative Fuels in the Slovak Republic (2016), and (4) National
Policy Framework for the Development of the Alternative Fuel Market (2016). This
means Slovakia is committed to accelerate the transition of passenger transportation
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
174
using a top-down approach, even though the share of BEVs and PHEVs is still below
EU average (see Table 4).
2. Analysis of secondary data, with a focus on Hungary
According to the Eurostat time series, the motorisation rate of the population in both
European and V4 countries has been steadily increasing over the last 10 years, al-
though the average for the Visegrad countries (53%) is slightly lower than the EU av-
erage (57%). Hungary has the lowest motorisation rate of all the countries surveyed
(43.5%).
Figure 2. Motorization rate in the EU27 and the V4 countries
10
570
597
435
601
487
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Passanger cars per thousand inhabitants
European Union - 27 countries
(from 2020)
Czechia
Hungary
Poland
Slovakia
Source: Au thor based on Euros tat (2025)
17.36% of cars are registered in the Hungarian capital, Budapest, and almost as
many in Pest County, so one third (32.46%) of passenger cars are concentrated in the
capital region (KSH, Information Database).This contributes significantly to the fact
that 10% of carbon dioxide emissions are also attributable to the capital, although
it is not the most polluting area in the country in terms of per capita emissions (see
Figures 3 and 4).
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Figure 3. CO2 emissions in Hungary, 2018
Source: OpenGHGMap (2025)
Figure 4. CO2 emissions per capita in Hungary, 2018
Source: OpenGHGMap (2025)
However, the Hungarian vehicle fleet is gradually ageing: while the average age
of the 3 million vehicles in 2008 was only 10.4 years, the average age of the 4 million
vehicles in 2022 will be 15.4 years (KSH, Information database, 2025).
The Ministry of the Interior keeps a detailed inventory of the electric car f leet in
Hungary along the following categories (Magyar Közlöny, 2015):
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
176
– pure electric vehicles (5E),
– externally charged hybrid electric car (plug-in hybrid with an electric range of
at least 25 km) (5P),
– extended range hybrid electric vehicle (plug-in electric vehicle with an electric
range of at least 50 km) (5N),
– zero emission vehicle (other, non-electric) (5Z).
In Hungary, low emission vehicles are marked with a green number plate.
According to the Ministry of the Interior (Monitoring data, 2024), 1609 vehicles
had received green plates by the end of 2016 and 4434 by the end of 2017. However,
the spread of e-cars has not stopped: compared to an average increase of 5-600 cars
per month in 2018-19, the number of e-cars has been well over 1000 cars per month
in recent years. More than 56% of vehicles with green plates by 31 December 2023
were pure electric, the extended range category (5N) has stagnated at around 30%
and the share of plug-in hybrids (5P) has shrunk significantly (from 24% to 14%)
(Department of the Interior, Green plate applications data, 2024). The trend and dis-
tribution of the number of cars with green plates are illustrated in Figures 5 and 6.
(Note: the discrepancy between the data reported above and the aggregate data in the
figures is explained by the “Other/Error Items” reported in the original database.)
Figure 5. Growth of alternative fuelled vehicles in Hungary between 2018-2023
12
4 272
48 533
2 649
25 496
2 638
11 700
1
6
-
10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
70 000
80 000
90 000
100 000
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Number
Electric car Hybrid Plug-in hybrid Other
Source: Au thor based on Minis try of Internal Af fairs (2024) data
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Figure 6. Distribution of alternative fuelled vehicles in Hungary [units; %]
491; 1%
25 496; 29%
11 700;
14%
6; 0%
45 342; 53%
206; 0%
2 971; 3%
14; 0%
48 533; 56%
EF motorcylce
Hybrid
Plug-in hybrid
Other
Electric car
Electric bus
Electric truck
Electric tow truck
Source: Source: Author based on Ministry of Internal Affairs (2024) data
Although the number of hybrid and e-cars has been growing dynamically in the
V4 countries, including Hungary, in recent years, they still do not represent a signifi-
cant share of the total car fleet, which is significantly inflated by the used car market.
The share of low-emission passenger cars is not at the EU average level in any of the
V4 countries (see Table 4).
Table 4. Share of fuel types in alternative fuels
Alternative fuel types Czechia Hungary Poland Slovakia EU27
BEV 17,31% 56,46% 1,91% 13,61% 30,28%
PHEV 10,88% 21,52% 1,67% 11,18% 20,76%
H2 0,01% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,02%
LPG 57, 41% 19,15% 96,24% 69,6 8% 42,01%
CNG 14,39% 2,87% 0,17% 5,52% 6,92%
Share of alternatives in total passenger cars 2,46% 1,95% 12,47% 2,41% 7,97 %
Share of BEVs in total passenger cars 0,43% 1,10% 0,24% 0,33% 2,41%
Source: European Alternative Fuels Observatory (2025)
It is also worth mentioning the charging network, as both literature research and
consumer surveys show that charging infrastructure is key. Although there is con-
siderable variation in the distribution of charging points across countries, with the
majority generally located in larger cities and along busier roads, on a per area basis
the Czech Republic has the highest number of charging points (72 per thousand km2)
and Poland the lowest (29 per thousand km2) among the V4, but none of the coun-
tries is close to the EU average (205 per thousand km2).
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178
Table 5. Number of EV charging stations, 2024
Charging stations AC DC Total Stations/1000 km2
Czechia 3964 1682 5646 72
Hungary 3167 848 4015 43
Poland 6481 2918 9399 29
Slovakia 2040 889 2929 60
EU27 696,082 125,691 821,773 205
Source: European Alternative Fuels Observatory (2025)
3. Results of the consumer attitudes questionnaire
We conducted a market survey to identify the factors that help and hinder the uptake
of electric cars in Hungary, with data collected in 2022. The Russian-Ukrainian war
and its aftermath– apart from a short period of extreme fuel price increases and
then a correction– did not significantly affect the Hungarian market for cars and
e-cars, as confirmed in the previous chapter, so the consumer attitudes survey can be
considered time-tested and no new survey has been conducted on this topic since the
end of our data collection.
Representativeness was not a criterion in the design of the random sample of 620
respondents, as we sought consumers who were open to answering these questions
and who were expected to provide relevant responses. The sample was selected from
those who met the following criteria: residents of the capital (Budapest) and county
towns (85% of the sample) or their surrounding areas, who have a relatively high in-
come, drive a car and consider vehicle emissions to be a problem (87% of the sample,
of which 29% identified vehicle emissions as a significant problem).
The sample was 60-40% male to female. More than two thirds of respondents
were aged 45 and over. (The under-30 age group– otherwise very open and recep-
tive to innovative and environmentally friendly technologies– is not included due
to their very limited financial means.) Almost half of respondents have a tertiary
education. In terms of employment, 88% of respondents are active earners, of whom
68% are employed and 85% of respondents have an income perception of “living on
their income but with little to save”.
91% of the households in the sample have 1 or 2 cars, but the proportion is slight-
ly higher for self-employed people by occupation (1.9 cars compared to an average
of 1.6 for other occupations). Cars are predominantly conventional, with 78% of re-
spondents owning a petrol car and 41% a diesel car. In order of prevalence, these
types were followed by hybrid (3%) and electric (1%), while none of the respondents
had a plug-in hybrid.
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Around two thirds of the sample of 620 respondents are not against buying or
renting a new car in the next few years, but buying is much more popular (91%, in-
cluding 64% used cars), leasing and renting for at least 1 year less so. A higher pro-
portion of those with tertiary education and entrepreneurs plan to buy a car.
In terms of the mode of car to buy, petrol cars are the most popular in the total
sample and among the confident car buyers (37% and 42% respectively), with hybrid
cars second (31% and 26%). However, the share of those preferring electric cars in the
total population is also relatively high at 20%, a technology that is mostly popular
among women and university graduates (in line with the results of Vereckei-Poór–
Törőcsik, 2022), but more so in the longer term.
Among the respondents, the relatively lower price, familiarity and reliability are
arguments in favour of petrol cars when choosing the next car, while sustainability
and cost-effectiveness are arguments in favour of environmentally friendly technol-
ogies (hybrid and electric) (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Criteria for choosing next car
Source: Author
More than half of respondents (54%) think they will definitely or probably buy
an electric car in the future, mainly women, people under 55, people with higher
education, people living in larger cities and entrepreneurs. The most frequently cit-
ed arguments in favour of e-cars are that they are environmentally friendly (74%),
cheap to run (32%) and quiet (22%). The most common arguments against buying
an electric car are that the range is too short (46%), the price is too high (37%), the
charging infrastructure is inadequate (35%) and the battery is polluting (17%). The
survey confirmed that a significant level of subsidy (around 42%) would increase the
pool of potential buyers by nearly 30%, a level not reached in practice by any of the
previous tenders, and the intensity of the company e-car subsidy announced in early
2024 is at most 25%.
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180
28% of those surveyed have driven an electric car, almost twice as many men
(34%) as women, but three quarters have not yet charged (and of those who have, only
a third have tried paid public charging). This suggests that they have only ever driven
an electric car for car-sharing, or perhaps for a test drive or trial, and that their expe-
rience is not complete. 64% of the total sample said that they would also try an e-car
on a long test drive that included at least one charging session, which would broaden
the audience (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Preferences for learning about e-cars
Source: Author
Advantageously for the uptake of e-cars, 72% of those with experience of e-cars
had rather positive or even very positive impressions: quiet operation (61%), good
acceleration (41%), ease of use (26%) and comfort (15%) were the most frequently
mentioned, but more people also mentioned dynamic driving experience, cheap op-
eration and environmental aspects.
The possibility of using an e-car for private purposes provided by the employer is
also very popular, with 83% of non-employers respondents saying they would use it.
However, far fewer would pay a rental fee, at 46% of employees open to this option.
Regarding charging, nearly three quarters of respondents (73%) said they were
aware of the charging options for e-cars. However, our survey also strongly sug-
gests that respondents overestimate the true breadth and depth of their charging
knowledge. Half of those who are aware of charging options believe that their
home is suitable for home charging, and in line with this, 52% would prefer this
charging method, followed in popularity by charging at work (26%) and in public
(17%) (Figure 9).
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Figure 9. Home charging and the preferred charging method
Source: Author
4. The focus group interview
Of those interviewed for the questionnaire research, 8 people were able to participate
in the focus groups, and additional groups were organised with additional partic-
ipants on a random sample basis. The analysis below summarises the results of 4
focus groups with a total of 20 participants, mainly from the capital and large rural
cities, mostly with higher education, family backgrounds and middle-aged partici-
pants. Most of them had no experience with electric cars.
The transport habits of the focus group participants follow the pattern of the pre-
vious (questionnaire) survey: 1-3 cars are available in the household, used daily or
weekly for commuting to work and errands, depending on the proportion of work at
home, typically for a daily distance of up to 20 km. On weekends, they occasionally
travel 30-40 or even 150-160 km. The car is by far the most important means of daily
transport for respondents in Budapest and urban areas with county status, public
transport is not common (for reasons of practicality and convenience), while walk-
ing and cycling are more common in smaller rural settlements.
Car use was associated with established habits, so although there was some open-
ness towards e-cars, most expect further innovation and development in e-car use
and are at most thinking about replacing traditional vehicles in the long term. More
people would be willing to replace (at least partially) private car use by alternative
means of transport (bicycles, e-scooters, e-bikes, scooters, car-sharing services), but
slowness, more cumbersome handling, dangerous traffic in larger cities, inadequate
road infrastructure and, in particular, weather dependency are important barriers.
The majority of participants agreed with the environmental benefits of e-cars in
urban transport but were sceptical about the lifetime environmental benefits. They
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
182
are aware of the accelerating uptake of e-cars, but a majority of respondents are also
sceptical about this, for two main reasons: (1) charging a large number of e-cars at
the same time would be problematic, and (2) the current price of e-cars is significant-
ly higher than that of classic cars with similar characteristics. Some of the partici-
pants could see it more as a second car, mainly for urban use.
Based on the discussion, the most important car purchase criteria are the planned
budget, value for money, appropriate (sufficiently large) size, maintenance costs
(consumption, servicing) and reliability. The relatively high price discourages even
interested respondents from buying an e-car, and leads many respondents to the
used car market, where the supply of electric cars is still significantly lower and in-
terested respondents would prefer to keep their old (classic) car for longer journeys.
Conversely, respondents who have tried or are actively using an electric car will tend
to buy an electric car for their next purchase.
Reducing the purchase price of e-cars as a priority, together with preferential
loans and subsidies or a combination of these, would be the most likely to boost sales.
Several participants considered it important that the subsidies should not be reflect-
ed in the repayment instalments but in the purchase price itself (clarity), and that
they should be available to the widest possible social group, without being “visible”
beneficiaries (e.g., taxi companies). Support for purchase is also an important as-
pect, as participants felt that car ownership is the main driver of car ownership in
Hungary, with no culture of renting.
Ease and accessibility of charging was the second most important dimension.
Consumers would be more open to e-cars if fast (faster) charging could be provided
and if electricity could be accessed at relatively good prices. The technical need to in-
crease the performance and lifetime of batteries was also raised, but it was acknowl-
edged that there is a lack of information on charging technologies and costs (even
compared to conventional cars). Some mentioned that a complete replacement of
the battery pack could speed up the use of e-cars, but this is not yet widespread and
a range of at least 1000 km would be desirable.
Other barriers mentioned by several participants were the lack of a service net-
work for electric cars (despite the fact that they were aware that e-cars also require
less servicing) and a narrower product range. The possibility to test drive an e-car
is generally considered a motivating factor only once one has made a commitment
to buy an e-car. As regards the environmental message, some respondents explained
that, in addition to industrial pollution, the electrification of car transport– and
thus the individual– can do little to slow down climate change, but that sufficiently
broad communication (on environmental benefits, battery use and recycling, etc.)
can go a long way to ensuring that e-cars are accepted as green by consumers in
a truly visible and “credible” way.
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
5. Comparative analysis and evaluation of results
The following section compares research results from different sources (literature,
questionnaire survey, focus group interview). The comparative analysis avoids re-
peating the results. It will highlight similarities and differences and identify key ar-
eas that could determine the further development and uptake of e-cars.
In many respects, the direction of influence on the advantages and disadvantages
of electric cars is similar across the different data sources. Not all aspects have been
explored in the same depth in each research step, and it is worth bearing in mind
that the results have been generated from different methodologies and with different
geographical focus.
A summary of the research results is presented in Table 6.
Points of convergence
The different research sources led to the same or similar results in several aspects.
For example, within the economic category, both the literature and the question-
naire and focus group interviews identified the relatively high price as a major disad-
vantage of e-cars. This disadvantage was identified as a particularly big problem by
Hungarian respondents in the domestic survey and also in the literature for the V4
countries, while it is less pronounced in higher income countries.
The second, economic type factor is the importance of subsidies, which is also
linked to the price issue. As e-cars are sold on the world market at a higher price (due
to higher costs) irrespective of the region under study, the local (domestic) market
price can be reduced by public intervention, which encourages purchases. Both the
literature review and the questionnaire survey have shown that the wider the scope
and the higher the rate/volume of support, the higher the propensity to buy e-cars.
In all the technological type aspects, we found that e-cars are at a disadvan-
tage compared to classic cars: their range is shorter, charging times are longer and
charging networks have less coverage. However, two points should be noted from
the literature: firstly, charging times are not necessarily (much) longer, as some rapid
chargers can charge a discharged battery to 80% in 20-30 minutes, and secondly, the
coverage (density) of the charging network varies (i.e. is not evenly distributed) from
region to region and even within countries, so this statement cannot be generalised
in full.
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
184
Table 6. Summary of the results of the research on electric cars
Aspect (relative) Literature Questionnaire Focus group
Economic
Total life cycle cost + n.d. ?/–
Price – – – – –
Importance of support +++
Cost-effective mainte-
nance
?++ ?
Price of fuel n.d. +n.d.
Technological
Range – – – –
Time of charging ? – –
Charger infrastructure ? – – –
Environmental
Environmental friendly +++/? ?
GHG emissions ++ + +
Noise emissions ++/– +n.d.
Other
Habits n.d. – – –
Short range vehicle n.d. +n.d.
+ e-cars are better than conventional cars
– e-cars are worser than conventional cars
? the advantage of e-cars over conventional cars is not clear
n.d. no data
Source: Au thor based on the li terature and resul ts
The findings from different sources were consistent with the favourable (zero
or near-zero) emissions of electric cars. 87% of the respondents to the question-
naire consider emissions from cars to be a relatively or very big problem, but few
are likely to know in absolute terms or even in terms of ratios how much emission
reduction could be achieved by electrification of cars. Therefore, this advantage
was less emphasised than in the literature, which draws conclusions by looking at
precise figures.
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The role of electric cars inreducinggreenhouse gas…
Finally, from a social point of view, it is important to mention the role of habits
and practices. The literature we have reviewed did not address this issue, but both
the focus group and the questionnaire highlighted as an argument for using and
buying conventional cars that their accessibility, use, refuelling and other features
are familiar and convenient, which gives them an advantage over e-cars. In our
view, this opinion is a general phenomenon and stems from a lack of confidence
(insecurity) in new technology. However, as with many other new technologies,
the younger generation, higher educated and higher income groups are the social
groups that are more open to e-car use in all V4 countries and of course in the
Western countries.
Points of divergence
The life cycle efficiency of electric cars is reported in the literature to be signifi-
cantly higher than that of classic cars. However, lay users have expressed doubts as
to whether they are really more efficient when taking into account electricity genera-
tion, battery raw material extraction or end-of-life recycling. As a result of this lack of
information, there was also a perception in the focus groups that e-cars produce even
more emissions over their entire life cycle than conventional cars. This discrepancy
and lack of knowledge could be reduced with proper information and awareness.
There was a lack of consistency between economic type factors in terms of main-
tenance costs. While respondents to the questionnaire rated the relative cheapness of
running an e-car as a strong positive, participants in the focus groups gave a more
nuanced picture of the service costs, battery degradation, and the continuous reduc-
tion or withdrawal of e-car discounts. The importance of subsidies and discounts
has been highlighted in the literature and is therefore currently perceived as an ad-
vantage for e-cars, but in the longer term it is likely that the benefits will diminish as
significantly more e-cars are introduced.
The cost of fuel was also identified as a separate factor in the questionnaire, where
the advantage of electric cars is clear. Specifically, this dimension was not discussed
during the focus group interviews, nor was a literature analysis carried out. Based
on recent trends (see energy price explosion in Western Europe), it is clear that the
cost of refuelling e-cars can be as volatile as the price of petrol, and therefore the
future energy mix, energy independence and pricing of electricity will be of great
importance.
In the environmental category, we observed two contrasting results. The first,
which is also related to total life cycle costs, is that while some of the literature and
consumers who filled in the questionnaire clearly consider electric cars to be more
environmentally friendly than conventional cars, others, as well as many of the focus
group participants, question the advantage of e-cars in terms of overall environmen-
tal impact. Lay participants are most sceptical about the production and treatment
of batteries as waste. It is worth noting that few have precise information on the sec-
ondary and recycling potential of batteries, but expert participants also agree that
Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Development…
186
the environmental benefits of e-cars may become clearer as battery technology con-
tinues to develop significantly.
Not mentioned by the focus group participants, but consistently mentioned in
the questionnaire and in the literature, the benefits of e-cars include low noise pol-
lution. However, silent operation can also be a disadvantage: a small proportion of
(Hungarian) consumers considered the “silence” of e-cars as a disadvantage, partly
for safety reasons and partly out of habit. Although media bias9 and a lack of accurate
knowledge about noise pollution may play a role, there are also findings in the liter-
ature that mention this type of safety risk. E-cars can be heard at a distance of only
about 5 metres when driving at low speeds, while internal-combustion cars can be
heard from up to 50 metres, which may explain why the rate of hit-and-run accidents
involving electric cars in the US is higher (0.9%) than that of conventional cars (0.6%)
(Misdariis– Pardo, 2017).
6. Conclusions
From the literature review and the analysis of the statistics, it can be concluded that
electric cars are indeed technologically and environmentally superior to convention-
al cars when considering their whole life cycle efficiency. In addition, other external
factors can also enhance the environmental benefits of e-cars, the most important
of which is the energy mix from which electricity is produced. Using the estima-
tions from the literature (Bieker, 2021), a GHG reduction by 66% has already caused
roughly 59,000 tons of GHG emission savings in the Czech Republic, 134,000 tons
in Hungary, 115,000 tons in Poland, and 17,900 tons in Slovakia per year, while a full
electrification of passenger cars would further decrease the yearly GHG emissions by
nearly 40 M tons of CO2 equivalent in the V4 countries.
From an economic point of view, there are a number of challenges to the rapid
uptake of electric cars in the V4 region. The most important is the relatively high
price of e-cars, which is holding back sales even in higher-income countries, despite
significant government subsidies and economic incentives. Other important con-
siderations are the charging time and the availability of charging networks, which
are both a technological issue and may require users to reorganise daily activities or
routes, which may entail additional costs. In addition, the energy mix and the exter-
nal energy dependency of the country or the consumer can have a significant impact
on the charging tariff through the price of electricity, which can also be generalised
to the V4 countries.
The results of the Hungarian consumer survey were in many respects consistent
with the secondary data. The environmental benefits of e-cars and the economics
of operation are recognised by consumers, but the high price and time needed for
9 The small number or isolated cases presented in the media may also appear to be widely accepted as a ge-
neral phenomenon in the eyes of consumers.
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charging are seen as a serious barrier. Most people still plan to buy a conventionally
powered car, including mainly second-hand vehicles, but feedback suggests that the
share of hybrid and fully electric cars in the transport sector will increase. If the
high-cost price could be substantially reduced through significant public support,
this would be a major boost to consumer openness to electric cars.
Electric cars have only been on the market for a relatively short time and there
is still a considerable lack of knowledge or a lot of misinformation among consum-
ers about e-cars. However, climate change and increasingly obvious environmental
problems call for more sustainable technologies, both from a regulatory and strate-
gic perspective and from a societal perspective. Governments are also motivating
the market and consumers to use newer, more efficient devices through subsidies
and regulations, but through responsible behaviour and environmental sensitivi-
ty, business and consumers themselves are increasingly willing to do more to pro-
mote sustainable development. The technological development of electric cars will
not stop, and as competition increases and the market becomes saturated (including
with second-hand e-cars), e-car use will become more economical and affordable for
consumers. This also requires the development of charging networks and the adap-
tation of driving habits (culture). The electrification of passenger cars can achieve
significant GHG savings and thus play an important role in the climate mitigation of
the V4 countries.
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