State-of-the-Art DC-DC Converters for Satellite Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Future manned and deep space missions require an Electrical Power System (EPS) that can deliver high power while overcoming challenges like weight and volume constraints and the harsh space environment. A variety of DC-DC converters are employed to supply, store, and transmit power to various satellite subsystems. This paper identifies the design specifications of DC-DC converters for a range of satellite applications and offers a state-of-the-art review of non-isolated, isolated, and integrated topologies. Foreseeing the future of electric propulsion, various sources for electric propulsion are compared, and converters for electric propulsion are studied. The topologies are compared regarding practical parameters like reliability, modularity, redundancy, efficiency, and power density. Furthermore, an application-wise comparison of the topologies and the type of satellite they are suitable for is provided. Finally, the research gaps pertaining to various space applications, such as the design of DC-DC converters, electric propulsion, deep space exploration, electronic component selection, and space-based power satellites, are presented.

Full text

Academic Editor: Jian Guo
Received: 3 January 2025
Revised: 16 January 2025
Accepted: 16 January 2025
Published: 28 January 2025
Citation: Ravindran, R.; Massoud,
A.M. State-of-the-Art DC-DC
Converters for Satellite Applications:
A Comprehensive Review. Aerospace
2025,12, 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/
aerospace12020097
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
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(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Review
State-of-the-Art DC-DC Converters for Satellite Applications:
A Comprehensive Review
Reshma Ravindran * and Ahmed M. Massoud
College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar; ahmed.massoud@qu.edu.qa
*Correspondence: rr2201032@qu.edu.qa
Abstract: Future manned and deep space missions require an Electrical Power System (EPS)
that can deliver high power while overcoming challenges like weight and volume constraints
and the harsh space environment. A variety of DC-DC converters are employed to supply,
store, and transmit power to various satellite subsystems. This paper identifies the design
specifications of DC-DC converters for a range of satellite applications and offers a state-of-
the-art review of non-isolated, isolated, and integrated topologies. Foreseeing the future of
electric propulsion, various sources for electric propulsion are compared, and converters for
electric propulsion are studied. The topologies are compared regarding practical parameters
like reliability, modularity, redundancy, efficiency, and power density. Furthermore, an
application-wise comparison of the topologies and the type of satellite they are suitable
for is provided. Finally, the research gaps pertaining to various space applications, such
as the design of DC-DC converters, electric propulsion, deep space exploration, electronic
component selection, and space-based power satellites, are presented.
Keywords: DC-DC converters; deep space missions; high-power electric propulsion;
satellite power system; space applications
1. Introduction
Satellites have been extensively used for applications such as mobile communication,
radio and television broadcasting, military intelligence, weather forecasting, and naviga-
tion. The launch of the satellites Sputnik (83 kg) and Explorer 1 (14 kg) by Russia and
America, respectively, marked the beginning of the age of satellites [
1
–
3
]. Satellites are
classified based on their mass into large, medium, and small satellites [
1
,
2
]. Large and
medium satellites (
Mass >
500 kg) can carry more payload and integrate larger solar arrays
to produce more power, making them suitable for communication, remote sensing, and
applications with a lifetime above 10 years. Small satellites (
Mass <
500 kg) are small and
cheap, with shorter mission times than large satellites [
1
,
4
,
5
]. Hence, they are suitable for
applications such as Earth observation, disaster management, space science, microgravity
research, earthquake forecasting, and gravitational field measurements, to name a few [
1
,
6
].
For many applications, two or more small satellites work together to form constellations
or operate in formation flying [
1
,
7
–
9
]. The classification of satellites based on their mass,
their corresponding power ranges, and applications is demonstrated in Figure 1[
10
–
16
].
The mission’s orbit is another parameter to be considered for satellites that are classified
based on their relative distance from the Earth as Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Geosynchronous
Earth Orbit (GEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), and deep space missions. While LEO satel-
lites are used for remote sensing, GEO satellites are mainly used for communication and
broadcasting. MEO satellites are used for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space
Aerospace 2025,12, 97 https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12020097

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 2 of 35
environment science [
10
,
17
]. The various mission orbits and their relative distances from
the Earth’s surface are shown in Figure 2.
A bus system and a payload system are the two essential components of a satellite.
The elementary operations of the satellite are performed by the bus system, while the
mission-specific tasks are performed by the payload system. The EPS is one of the primary
and critical components of the bus, contributing to about 33% of the overall mass of the
satellite [
18
,
19
]. The EPS comprises an energy source, an energy storage unit, and a unit for
controlling and distributing power, called the Power Conditioning and Distribution Unit
(PCDU) [
20
]. The solar array is the predominantly used energy source for satellites. The
energy storage unit, mostly, Li-ion batteries, ensures a continuous power supply, especially
during eclipses or when the solar arrays cannot meet the peak power demand [
21
]. The
PCDU interfaces with the PV array and storage systems or loads, ensuring effective power
conditioning and transmission [
22
]. The EPS is designed based on the time span of the
mission, orbit height from the surface of the Earth, solar panel sizing requirements, load
demand, satellite mass, radiation effects, efficiency, component count, battery requirements,
reliability, redundancy, and fault tolerance level [
23
,
24
]. The propulsion system is another
crucial component in a satellite, as it enables formation flying, interplanetary paths, collision
avoidance, orbital maneuvering, station keeping, and orbit transfers [
25
,
26
]. Electric
propulsion (EP) has recently gained popularity, especially in small satellites, as it offers
better fuel efficiency than the chemical propulsion used in large satellites [
27
–
29
]. Better
fuel efficiency is guaranteed by a high specific impulse (
Isp
), which is essentially a measure
of the propellant’s ability to produce thrust efficiently [
30
,
31
]. Nevertheless, EP systems
face a variety of challenges. One of the main challenges is the time taken to reach high
thrust, which limits their use to specific applications. One solution is to use high-power
systems, which improve the time taken to reach high thrust, providing more opportunities
for timely orbit changes and interplanetary missions. However, achieving high power
without increasing the overall mass or cost is another challenge [25].

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 3 of 35
Figure 1. Classification of satellites based on their mass and approximate power levels.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 4 of 35
Figure 2. Types of missions and their distances from Earth.
Power electronic converters are critical for generating, transmitting, and storing power
in satellites. The power harnessed from solar panels is transformed using a DC-DC con-
verter, stored, and converted for satellite onboard electronics. The power distribution
module uses DC-DC converters to regulate the main bus voltage to meet the demands of
individual subsystems in the satellite. The battery storage module also needs a DC-DC
converter for charge and discharge regulation. Furthermore, isolation may be required
at various power conversion phases, depending on the application. Figure 3shows the
various applications of DC-DC converters in satellites. Satellite power designs are driven by
increasing power levels while keeping the power system mass and cost within reasonable
limits [
32
]. These demands necessitate power electronic designs capable of managing high
distribution currents, thus eventually requiring an increase in the bus voltage (typical
voltages are 28 V DC for low-power satellites and 70 V and 100 V DC for larger satellites)
to minimize the current and mass of the satellite’s EPS [
33
,
34
]. Additionally, owing to
its benefits, the EP is expected to be a major contributor to propel future deep space and
interplanetary missions. This again demands high-power Power Processing Units (PPUs)
consisting of highly efficient DC-DC converters for satellite EP systems. Space-level power
electronic designs have complex design constraints compared to other commercial appli-
cations, as they are exposed to extreme temperatures and radiations. Even though high
efficiency and power density are required, reliability is crucial for satellite EPS designs.
Moreover, the choice of a DC-DC topology for a given space application is determined by
the type of satellite, the orbit, the mission duration, and the power requirements for the
mission while adhering to the strict design constraints in space. In this regard, identifying
the practical design constraints in space and reviewing the existing literature to compare
topologies for various applications based on these constraints becomes essential. A few
notable studies in the literature are either limited to a particular type of satellite or mission,
or they do not provide comparisons based on practical design constraints in space.
For example, Ref. [
35
] compared boost-based non-isolated DC-DC converter topolo-
gies for satellite MPPT applications. However, the study did not consider other non-isolated
or isolated topologies or other applications. Ref. [
36
] provided a detailed study on small
satellite microgrids, where the authors reviewed DC-DC converter topologies, solar arrays,
and satellite battery technologies. However, the scope of the study was limited to small
satellites, particularly nano-satellites, and did not discuss EP for satellites. This review
paper provides an in-depth review of DC-DC topologies for various satellite applications.
The scope of this review is not limited to small satellites or Earth-orbiting satellites; it also
considers large satellites, interplanetary missions, and deep space missions. This paper
spans a wide range of applications of DC-DC converters for satellites. Unlike the existing
literature, the topologies are compared using various practical parameters and applications.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 5 of 35
The important contributions of this paper are as follows, with a graphical abstract provided
in Figure 4:
•
We identify the design requirements for DC-DC converters and provide an up-to-date
review of various isolated and non-isolated topologies for satellite applications.
•
We analyze the scope of EP for future manned and deep space missions and review
DC-DC converters for EP in satellites.
•
We conduct a performance evaluation of the considered topologies in terms of practical
parameters (like reliability, power density, size, efficiency, redundancy, modularity,
and performance in harsh environmental conditions) and identify the best topology
for a specific satellite application.
• We compare the topologies based on various applications and types of satellites.
Figure 3. Applications of DC-DC converters for satellites.
Figure 4. Graphical abstract of this paper.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 6 of 35
Given a satellite application, we expect that this paper will guide researchers and the
space industry in selecting the best topology. The remainder of this paper is arranged as
follows. Section 2discusses the various electrical subsystems in satellites and the design
requirements of DC-DC converters for satellites. Section 3reviews the various isolated
and non-isolated topologies of DC-DC converters, and Section 4compares them based
on practical performance indicators. Section 5discusses future directions in the area
and provides insights into current and future deep space missions. Section 6concludes
this paper.
2. Electrical Subsystems in Satellites
2.1. Unregulated and Regulated Bus Systems for Satellite EPSs and EPS Architectures
Satellite EPSs can be classified into unregulated bus and regulated bus systems.
Figure 5a,b show the two types of bus systems [
37
]. To reduce the number of com-
ponents, conversion stages, and cost, and to improve the reliability of the regulated
bus system, unidirectional and bidirectional converters are sometimes integrated into
a single unit, resulting in a three-port integrated converter. A comparison of a con-
ventional two-port converter and an integrated three-port converter for satellite EPSs
was discussed in [
38
]. The power transfer from the source to the batteries and loads
uses either the Direct Energy Transfer (DET) or Maximum Power-Point Tracking (MPPT)
architectures [
23
,
36
,
39
–
46
]. Figure 5c,d show these architectures, respectively [
47
,
48
]. While
the MPPT architecture is used in low- and medium-power LEO satellites and interplan-
etary missions using unregulated bus systems, the DET is widely used in medium- and
high-power GEO satellites using fully regulated bus architectures [
49
]. Two basic design
approaches are used for distributing power: distributed power and decentralized power
architectures [
50
]. Figure 5e shows a schematic of the distributed power architecture, and
two types of decentralized approaches are demonstrated in Figure 5f,g [50].
Figure 5. EPS bus systems: (a) unregulated and (b) regulated EPS architectures for power distribution.
(c) DET architecture, (d) MPPT architecture, (e) distributed architecture, (f) decentralized architecture
with one input and many outputs, (g) decentralized architecture with multiple isolated converters.
The DET architecture is a dissipative method that dissipates excess power and reg-
ulates the bus voltage [
51
,
52
]. One of the most widely used DET architectures is the
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator (S3R) due to its simplicity, high reliability, and
efficiency [
53
]. In the S3R, the PV array is split into several sections, each individually
connected to a shunt regulator. A main error amplifier regulates the main bus voltage
and controls the power converters: the Battery Charge Regulator (BCR) and the Battery
Discharge Regulator (BDR) [
54
]. A modified S3R, called the Sequential Series Shunt Regu-
lator (S4R), was proposed in [
55
], which adds another series module to the S3R to improve

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 7 of 35
its reliability. The MPPT architecture is a series bus transfer method that uses a power
converter in series between the PV and loads to maintain bus voltage stability. For MPPT,
the algorithms used in stand-alone terrestrial applications, such as the Perturb and Observe
(P&O), Incremental Conductance (IC), and Ripple Correlation Control (RCC) methods, may
be used. Compared to the IC and RCC methods, the P&O oscillates more and draws less
power. More power is extracted using the IC method than the RCC method. In contrast to
the IC method, the RCC method is smoother and exhibits fewer oscillations [
36
]. A detailed
comparison of the MPPT algorithms for space applications is provided in [
56
,
57
]. S3R and
MPPT each offer distinct advantages, so their trade-offs must be carefully considered to
make the optimal choice. Moreover, techniques combining the two approaches to leverage
their specific advantages are also being studied [52].
2.2. Electrical Propulsion Systems
EP systems for satellite applications convert electrical potential energy to kinetic
energy to accelerate a propellant. The transition can generally be done electrostatically,
electrothermally, or electromagnetically based on the method used to accelerate the pro-
pellant [
25
,
58
–
60
]. In contrast to chemical propulsion, EP relies on energy sources such as
solar arrays, batteries, a Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG), or a nuclear reactor
and accounts for only about 10–50% of the overall mass of a satellite [
61
,
62
]. The most
popular and mature technology is solar EP. However, the scope of solar EP is limited by the
available solar radiation in space, which decreases quadratically with the distance from
the sun [
63
]. Nuclear EP uses energy from a fission reaction to ionize the propellant to
generate the required thrust. It can provide higher power than solar EP and is especially
beneficial for missions further from the sun, where the ability to harness solar power
becomes impractical [
64
]. Nevertheless, several barriers need to be crossed before its actual
implementation. A schematic showing various aspects of electric propulsion, such as the
types of electrical thrusters along with their power levels, the scope of solar EP and nuclear
EP, and a few past, present, and future solar EP missions along with their power levels, is
shown in Figure 6[65].
A PPU is the core component of the EP system, which offers power conditioning and
control for the thrusters for the EP system. The PPU uses DC-DC converters to convert the
low-voltage, high-current satellite power into high-voltage, low-current power required
by the thruster while providing isolation. The voltage level requirement varies based
on the thruster. For instance, while ion thrusters require high voltages in the range of
kilovolts, electrothermal thrusters require moderate voltages only. Thus, the PPU must be
designed to meet each thruster type’s unique electrical and operational demands. Moreover,
considering the limited power resources in space, the efficiency and reliability of PPUs
are crucial. Thus, efficient power electronic designs are required to ensure that maximum
energy is converted into proper thrust. Reliability is achieved through modular and robust
designs using specially designed space-grade components [66].
2.3. Features of DC-DC Converters for Satellite Applications
DC-DC converters are crucial components in satellites, and their design affects the
overall performance of the satellite. In the era of the miniaturization of satellites, a converter
capable of providing high power without increasing the mass or volume of the EPS is
highly relevant. In power electronics, improved power density is achieved at high switching
frequencies, leading to reduced dimensions of magnetics. Nevertheless, high switching
frequency increases switching losses, resulting in larger heat-sink requirements. Thus, a
trade-off exists between power density and heat dissipation requirements. Considering the
harsh and stringent environmental conditions in space, the converter components must be

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 8 of 35
carefully chosen to perform well under such conditions. Thus, in summary, the following
design requirements are desirable for DC-DC converters in satellite applications [67,68]:
• High power density.
• High efficiency.
• Minimum increase in volume/weight/heat management.
• Reliability.
• Modularity.
•
Good performance in harsh environments like large temperature and pressure varia-
tions, mechanical vibrations, etc.
• High switching frequency to minimize the size of magnetic components.
• Lower Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
Figure 6. Summary of various aspects of EP (power sources for EP, electric thrusters along with their
power levels, and the evolution of solar EP).
These features are schematically represented in Figure 7. Several DC-DC converter
topologies are mentioned in the literature for various applications. However, they cannot
be directly adopted for satellite applications due to the strict design requirements in space.
The following section provides a detailed review of the topologies that can be adopted for
satellite applications.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 9 of 35
Figure 7. Desirable features of DC-DC converters for satellite applications.
3. Review of DC-DC Converters for Satellites
A review of various DC-DC converters for satellite applications is provided in this sec-
tion. For this review, the topologies are classified into non-isolated and isolated topologies.
Various integrated converters (isolated and non-isolated) and topologies for high-power
EP are also presented.
3.1. Non-Isolated Topologies
This section reviews the various non-isolated DC-DC converters for satellite applica-
tions. The classification is shown in Figure 8. Non-isolated converters provide benefits such
as design simplicity, reliability, and a reduced component count [
69
]. Nevertheless, they
suffer from problems such as a lack of controllability and increased losses due to extreme
duty-cycle operation [
70
]. They find applications in small satellites for converting and
regulating power.
Figure 8. Classification of non-isolated DC-DC converters for satellite applications.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 10 of 35
3.1.1. Buck-Derived Topologies
Buck converters are extensively used in small satellites to lower the main bus voltage
to power the LV subsystems in the satellite. In [
71
], a buck converter was used for an
educational nano-satellite to step down the bus voltage from 16.8 V to 12 V, 5 V, and 3.3 V to
supply the loads. Another demonstration was provided in [
72
], where a 5 V to 3.3 V buck
converter was used as an onboard converter for a pico-satellite. In [
73
], a buck topology was
employed to regulate the voltage for CubeSat payloads (3.3 V and 5 V). Recently, a ripple-
less buck converter was proposed to step down a 33 V satellite bus voltage to 1 V for LEO
applications [
74
]. The converter uses an inverted AC current replica to cancel the ripple
in the buck converter. Apart from the above-mentioned cases, the buck topology has also
demonstrated its effectiveness for MPPT applications. For instance, a buck converter was
used for MPPT (1500 W, 80 V to 28 V) in the Rosetta-Mars Express deep space
mission [75]
.
A topology based on a buck converter was proposed by the authors of [
76
] for MPPT
in nano-satellites. Without impacting the converter’s efficiency, the current ripple was
lowered by two coupled inductors at the load side. It also reduced the component count
of the EPS. The converter was simulated using MATLAB, and the output confirmed its
functionality under various source and load scenarios. In [
77
], two buck-derived converters,
a redundant MPPT converter, and a redundant load-side converter were proposed for nano-
satellites, comprising two half-bridge modules with a shared inductor and a fuse providing
over-current protection. The redundant module is operative only under faulty conditions.
Although the topology provides a fault diagnosis capability and improved reliability,
its applicability for small satellites needs to be evaluated, considering the volume and
weight restrictions of small satellites. A multi-stage EPS architecture for nano-satellites
was proposed in [
78
], which used four buck converters for MPPT, load-side conversion,
and battery charge regulation. Thus, in general, the conventional buck converter and its
derivatives have demonstrated good performance with regard to PoL conversions and
MPPT, especially for small satellites. While the conventional buck converter is not shown,
the various buck-derived topologies of DC-DC converters discussed above are shown
in Figure 9.
Figure 9. Buck-derived topologies (a) proposed in [76] and (b) proposed in [77].

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 11 of 35
3.1.2. Boost-Derived Topologies
A boost converter is predominantly used to implement MPPT on satellites. For
instance, the Bepicolumbo mission to Mercury used a boost converter (12 kW, 100 V bus)
for implementing MPPT [
79
]. Various boost-based topologies for satellite applications
were compared and analyzed in [
35
] for MPPT applications, and based on the operating
voltage range, power-handling capability, and output impedance of the solar array, the best
topology was selected. Among these topologies, the conventional boost converter proved
to be highly reliable due to its reduced device count. Nevertheless, the losses associated
with the converter were high due to its reverse recovery diode. The switch-to-ground
boost topology has a simple driving circuit and transfers energy directly from the input
to the output. However, the topology has a high mass [
35
]. The topology was modified
and proposed in [
80
] and is bidirectional with reduced mass and volume. The topology
was specifically designed for high-power applications in LEO satellites. Another topology,
the two-inductor boost topology proposed in [
81
], provides advantages like continuous
input and output currents. However, the topology has two inductors and a poor dynamic
response [35].
The ripple cancellation-based boost converter proposed in [
82
] has an additional
branch to cancel ripple in the input current. However, the number of components in
the converter increases due to the additional branch added [
35
]. The common-damping
two-inductor
boost converter was derived from the two-inductor boost converter by adding
a damping network, showing improved bandwidth and a complicated power structure.
However, the converter leads to increased losses in the magnetic components [
35
]. Inter-
leaving boost converters reduce the component count, provide a good transient response,
and significantly reduce the output current ripple [
83
]. A boost-based multiple-input,
multiple-output interleaved topology was proposed in [
84
] for spacecraft applications. The
converter implements MPPT and provides a fixed voltage at the output and battery control.
Figure 10 shows the various boost-derived topologies of DC-DC converters.
Figure 10. Boost-derived topologies: (a) boost converter with a near switch ground, (b) 2-inductor
boost converter, (c) ripple cancellation-based boost converter, (d) common damping 2-inductor boost
converter, (e) interleaved boost converter, (f) 2-input multiple-output interleaved boost converter.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 12 of 35
Additionally, boost converters have also been proposed for battery discharge reg-
ulation in satellites, which regulate the bus voltage during eclipse periods. Ref. [
85
]
proposed a family of 14 interleaved boost converters for BDRs in satellites. The converters
demonstrated high efficiencies at output power ranging from 100 W to 1800 W. Due to the
interleaved structure, all the converters showed good dynamic performance, no RHP zero
effect, reduced filtering requirements, and low semiconductor device stresses. A similar
application using a boost converter with an additional inductance was proposed in [
86
]
for converting battery voltages between 55 V and 96 V to an average of 100 V output in
satellites. An efficiency of about 97% was obtained with a reduced size. In general, boost
converters have been mostly used for MPPT applications in small or large satellites, and
their application as BDRs is also being studied.
3.1.3. Buck–Boost-Derived Topologies
Buck–boost-based converters have voltage step-up or step-down capabilities. The
MPPT realization using a buck converter and a boost converter has the disadvantage that
the efficiency decreases significantly as the difference between MPP voltage and bus voltage
increases [
44
]. To overcome this, [
44
] proposed a buck–boost regulator (B2R) for application
in regulated or unregulated bus systems for satellite EPSs. The topology demonstrated
good performance and ensured that the bus voltage followed the maximum power-point
PV voltage to maximize efficiency.
Later, in [
87
], this topology was modified to the buck–buck–boost regulator (B3R) for
regulated bus systems, especially for LEO satellites. The topology was obtained by merging
the B2R topology and two-inductor buck topologies. It performs two functions: a step-up
function from the PV to the storage unit and a step-down function from the storage unit
to the regulated bus. By sharing some passive components for the solar array and bus
power regulation, the converter benefits in terms of mass and cost. Moreover, it can be
made modular to improve redundancy. In [
88
], a four-switch buck–boost converter based
on GaN and employing an RCC-MPPT controller for deep-space missions was proposed.
Although the simulation results of the converter showed high efficiency and power density,
experimental validations were not provided. Finally, in [
89
], an improved bidirectional
Weinberg topology was proposed for battery charge/discharge regulation. The topology
combines the Weinberg topology [
90
] and the buck topology, leading to high power density,
efficiency, and a non-complex structure. In addition, it also provides bidirectional power
flow capabilities and works in buck or boost modes.
Figure 11 shows the various buck–boost-derived topologies of DC-DC converters.
Figure 11. Buck–boost-derived topologies: (a) B2R converter, (b) B3R converter, (c) improved
Weinberg topology.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 13 of 35
3.1.4. Other Non-Isolated Topologies
In addition to the buck, boost, and buck–boost topologies, other topologies have been
discussed in the literature for satellite applications. For instance, in [
73
], a SEPIC converter
was used to implement MPPT for a CubeSat. In contrast to the conventional buck–boost
converter, the SEPIC converter provides a positive polarity output and does not have
the problem of floating switches during switching phases. Nevertheless, the converter’s
efficiency is very low under full irradiation conditions. Another study employed a SEPIC
converter with a latching relay to implement MPPT in CubeSats [
4
]. The latching relay
helps charge the battery directly from the solar array without MPPT under low-voltage
conditions. The experimental results demonstrated the improved reliability of the converter.
In [
91
], a one-switch constant power equalization charger using a multiple-stack buck–
boost converter was proposed for the series connection of supercapacitors in satellites.
The multiple-stack buck–boost converter can be realized using the SEPIC, Cuk, and Zeta
converters. A 25 W prototype of the system using a SEPIC converter showed promising
results. The literature does not provide other demonstrations of buck–boost converters,
such as the Cuk and Zeta, for satellite applications. A comparison of the non-isolated
topologies discussed above, in terms of the switching frequency, component count, type of
satellite, and power, is provided in Table 1.
3.2. Isolated Topologies
This section discusses the various isolated DC-DC converters for satellite applications.
Isolated converters are mainly required for secondary power distribution (as demonstrated
in Figure 5e–g) in satellites to interface the satellite bus with a wide variety of payloads.
The galvanic isolation between the input and output helps to attain effective power transfer
with minimal noise and electromagnetic interference. It can be provided through a coupled
inductor or using a transformer. The classification of various isolated DC-DC converters
for satellites is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Classification of isolated DC-DC converters for satellite applications.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 14 of 35
Table 1. Comparison of various non-isolated DC-DC converters.
Component Count
Converter References Switching
Frequency (kHz) S D L C Type of Satellite Power (W) Main Features
Conventional buck [71–73] - 1 1 1 1 Nano, pico, cube Low Good voltage regulation
Differentially connected buck
[Figure 9a] [36,76] 400 2 2 2 4 Nano-sat 30
Common mode noise rejection to reduce
leakage current
Load-side redundant buck
[Figure 9b] [36,77] - 4 0 1 1 Cube-sat -
Redundant module for
over-current protection
Switch-to-ground boost
[Figure 10a] [35,36] 130 1 1 3 3 Small sat 500
Simple driving circuits, direct energy trans-
fer from input and output, high mass
[80] 100 2 0 2 3 Small sat 5000 Low mass and volume
Two-inductor-based boost
[Figure 10b] [35,36,81] 130 1 1 2 2 Small sat 500
Continuous input and output currents, poor
dynamic response.
Boost with ripple cancellation
[Figure10c] [35,36,82] 130 1 1 3 5 Small sat 500 Ripple cancellation, high component count
Common-damping 2-inductor
boost [Figure 10d] [35,36] 130 1 1 1 3 Small sat 500
High bandwidth, high loss in
magnetic components
Interleaved boost [Figure 10e] [35,36] 130 2 2 4 4 Small sat 500
Low output current ripple, good transient
response, good transient response
Multi-output interleaved
[Figure 10f] [35,84] 100 4 7 2 2 - 500
B2R converter [Figure 11a] [35,44] 100 3 3 4 6 - 450 Good voltage regulation
B3R converter [Figure 11b] [35,87] - 3 3 3 4 - -
Good voltage regulation and
transient response.
Improved Weinberg converter
[Figure 11c] [35,89] 50 3 2 4 2 - -
Simple structure, high efficiency, and
power density

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 15 of 35
3.2.1. Flyback and Forward Converters
Flyback converters and forward converters are single-switch isolated DC-DC con-
verters that are popular for low-power applications due to their simple design and low
component count. A multiple-output converter based on a flyback converter was proposed
in [
92
]. The topology provides advantages like good load regulation, line regulation, and
high efficiency. Ref. [
93
] proposed an isolated multiple-output forward converter with
magnetic feedback. The converter is reliable, as the magnetic feedback and controllers
are not affected by the environmental conditions in space. However, topologies based on
flyback or forward converters exhibit high semiconductor switching stresses and have low
efficiency. Moreover, they exhibit low transformer utilization [94].
3.2.2. Full-Bridge Converter
Full-bridge converters are popular due to their features like good transformer core uti-
lization, simple circuits, low-voltage switch stress, and good power-handling
capacity [95]
.
Ref. [
96
] studied the full-bridge converter for high-power satellite applications. The con-
verter operates over a wide output voltage range with good efficiency. Nonetheless, the
output diodes’ speed determines the switching frequency. Also, the converter is prone to
shoot-through problems. A comparison of the phase-shifted full-bridge converter with
the PWM full-bridge converter showed that the phase-shifted PWM has an inherent soft-
switching capability and offers higher efficiency. However, it also faces similar problems
with switching frequency and shoot-through. Nevertheless, its control strategy is more
complex compared to the PWM full-bridge converter, making it a poor choice for high-
power satellite applications. The circuit topology of a basic full-bridge converter is shown
in Figure 13a.
Figure 13. (a) Full-bridge converter. (b) Current-fed Weinberg converter.
3.2.3. Current-Fed Weinberg Converter
The benefits of using the current-fed Weinberg topology for satellite applications
were investigated in [
96
,
97
]. Compared to the full-bridge converter, this converter is
shoot-through tolerant, and the input voltage spans a broad range without compromising
efficiency. However, its disadvantage lies in the high stresses on the semiconductor devices.
The circuit topology is shown in Figure 13b.
3.2.4. Current-Fed Cascaded Buck and Full-Bridge Converter
A current-fed converter based on the cascaded buck and full-bridge topology was
investigated in [
96
]. The converter is shoot-through tolerant and has a wide output volt-
age range. However, its high component count, limitation in operating frequency, and

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 16 of 35
lower efficiency due to additional switching stages are the disadvantages of this topology.
Figure 14a shows the circuit topology of a current-fed cascaded buck and
full-bridge converter.
Figure 14. (a) Current-fed cascaded buck and full-bridge converter. (b) Resonant LLC converter.
3.2.5. Resonant Converters
Resonant converters, like isolated LLC and LCC resonant DC-DC converters, as
well as series resonant converters that use resonant networks to achieve zero-voltage or
zero-current switching, have been proposed for satellite applications [
96
,
98
]. In terms
of efficiency, the resonant LLC converter is superior, and the LCC converter is superior
in the input or output voltage range. In [
99
], a two-stage factorized power architecture
was proposed for power distribution in satellites, in which the second stage adopts an
interleaved LLC resonant converter. The converter has high efficiency and power density
over a wide voltage range. Recently, a SiC-based T-type three-level LLC resonant converter
was proposed in [
100
] and experimentally demonstrated for a 500 W, 48 V/11 A satellite
application. A novel modulation scheme was used to achieve a wide output voltage range
and high efficiency in the converter. Although resonant converters are highly efficient
and have reduced mass, they require complex control circuitry [96]. Figure 14b shows the
circuit of a basic resonant LLC converter.
3.2.6. Dual-Active Bridge Converter
The Dual-Active Bridge (DAB) topology has been widely accepted among researchers
over the past couple of years for high-power density applications. It exhibits high perfor-
mance and efficiency with inherent galvanic isolation and soft-switching capabilities. It
is well-suited for handling high power and has a simple structure and high transformer
utilization factor [
95
,
101
]. In a study by NASA [
102
], a bidirectional interleaved DAB
converter was studied for satellite EPSs. A prototype of the converter (2 kW per module)
using 650 V GaN semiconductors was developed and tested under cryogenic conditions.
The study demonstrated the benefits of using the DAB converter for satellite EPSs. Sev-
eral works have been proposed in the literature based on DAB converters for high-power
applications in electric aircraft. As the study in [
102
] opened new possibilities for DAB
converters for satellite applications and because the design limitations for electric aircraft
and satellites are comparable (although not the same), these topologies are discussed in
this review.
Ref. [
103
] performed the modeling, design, implementation, and performance
evaluation of the DAB converter using SiC switches for aircraft electrical power net-
works. Ref. [
104
] compared the conventional DAB, Active Neutral Point Clamped
(ANPC), Neutral Point Clamped (NPC), and Input-Series Output-Parallel (ISOP) convert-
ers using Wide-Band-Gap (WBG) devices for more electrical aircraft (MEA) applications.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 17 of 35
Figure 15a–e show
these DAB topologies. A comparison in terms of efficiency, heat man-
agement, power density, specific power, and EMC is shown in Figure 15f [
104
]. The figure
illustrates the superiority of the ANPC type concerning efficiency, heat regulation, and
power density. The ISOP and conventional DAB converters exhibit comparable results,
with the conventional DAB showing higher efficiency. Although the NPC converter pro-
vides the best EMC performance along with the ANPC type, it shows poor performance in
terms of the other three parameters. The design of a conventional DAB converter for space
applications was discussed in [105].
Regarding the modulation strategy, single-phase-shift modulation is the most widely
used method in DAB converters due to its simplicity [
106
,
107
]. Advanced modulation
methods, like extended or dual-phase-shift modulation and triangular or trapezoidal
current modulation, were proposed in [
67
,
108
]. Ref. [
109
] proposed an interleaved parallel
DAB topology with a coupled inductor for MEA and compared the converter’s performance
with three modulation methods viz. single-phase shift, extended phase shift, and PWM
plus single-phase shift. The topology is shown in Figure 15e. According to the study, single-
phase shift combined with PWM can handle at least twice the power of a conventional
DAB converter, while an extended phase shift can lower the current stress.
Figure 15. DAB converter topologies: (a) conventional, (b) ISOP type, (c) NPC type, (d) ANPC
type, (e) parallel interleaved type. (f) Comparison of power density, thermal management, volume,
efficiency, and EMI of various DAB converters.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 18 of 35
3.2.7. Active-Bridge Active-Clamp Converter
Another topology of the DC-DC converter for aerospace applications with galvanic
isolation is the Active-Bridge Active-Clamp (ABAC) topology [
98
] as shown in Figure 16a.
Its operating behavior is similar to that of the DAB converter. However, it provides a
current-fed LV stage. Ref. [
67
] compared various parameters of the ABAC converter
with those of the DAB converter. A constant current on the DC side, due to interleaved
inductors with reduced filter requirements on the LV side, makes the ABAC converter
superior to the DAB converter. Nevertheless, a capacitor filter is required to control the
ripple resulting from asymmetries in the topology and from harmonics in the load current.
A comparison of the weight and volume of the ABAC and DAB converters was provided
in [
67
], showing that in DAB converters, the weight is mainly contributed by capacitors,
whereas in ABAC converters, a major part of their weight and volume is contributed
by inductors. Nonetheless, the inductance values associated with ABAC converters are
relatively low, which reduces the converter’s weight and volume. This tendency becomes
more evident at higher powers, making these converters a strong candidate for high-power
applications. Thus, the ABAC converter is a suitable replacement for the DAB converter,
without loss of efficiency and with improved power density.
Figure 16. (a) Active-bridge active-clamp converter. (b) Improved active-clamp forward converter.
3.2.8. Active-Clamp Forward Converter
Ref. [
110
] proposed an improved active-clamp forward (ACF) converter to develop a
reliable, lightweight, and EMI-compatible EPS for satellites. Although the ACF converter
has a simple structure, fewer components, and clamping properties, its oscillating input
current, high
di/dt
value, and voltage stress across the switches demand a larger filter size
and make it a poor choice, especially for high-input-voltage applications. These problems
were addressed with the improved ACF proposed in [
110
], which uses two series-connected
switches to decrease semiconductor stresses. Moreover, during turn-off, a delay is provided
to avoid the imbalance in switch voltage stress.
The experimental results also revealed a lower ripple in the current on the input
side. Thus, the improved ACF topology is a strong contender for satellites that require
high power density. Figure 16b shows the improved ACF topology proposed in [
110
]. A
comparison of isolated DC-DC converters in terms of the switching frequency, component
count, and power is shown in Table 2.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 19 of 35
Table 2. Comparison of various isolated DC-DC converters.
Component Count
Converter References Switching
Frequency (kHz) S D L C Power (W) Main Features
Full-bridge converter [Figure 13a] [96] 50 4 4 1 2 1000
Wide output voltage, good efficiency, shoot-
through problems.
Current-fed Weinberg converter
[Figure 13b] [96] 50 2 5 0 2 500
Shoot-through tolerant, high efficiency, wide out-
put voltage, suitable for LV applications, HV stress
across switches.
[111] 150 2 3 1 1 1500 Fast dynamic response.
Current-fed cascaded buck and full-
bridge converter [Figure 14a] [96] 50 5 6 1 1 1000
Shoot-through tolerant, high component count,
limitation in operating frequency, lower efficiency
Resonant LLC converter [Figure 14b] [96]>200 4 4 2 2 1000
High efficiency, lower weight, high switching fre-
quency, complex control circuitry.
Conventional DAB [Figure 15a] [104] - 8 0 1 2 - Soft switching, galvanic isolation, simple structure.
[67] 100 8 0 1 2 8400
ISOP-DAB [Figure 15b] [104] 16 0 2 4 - Low EMI noise, low efficiency.
NPC-DAB [Figure 15c] [104] - 12 4 1 3 -
Low volume and weight, low EMI noise, low effi-
ciency.
ANPC-DAB [Figure 15d] [104] - 16 0 1 3 -
High efficiency, good heat management, high
power density.
Parallel interleaved DAB [Figure 15e] [104] 50 8 0 5 4 250
ABAC converter [Figure 16a] [67,98] 100 8 0 3 4 8400 High efficiency, high power density.
ACF [Figure 16b] [110] 300 2 2 3 3 100
Reliable, lightweight, low EMI noise, high
power density.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 20 of 35
3.3. Integrated Topologies
This section reviews the various integrated multi-port converter topologies for ap-
plication in satellites. In integrated multi-port topologies, switches and storage elements
are shared during various operating modes, reducing component count and conversion
stages. They are compact and have improved reliability compared to several independent
converters performing the same task. A classification of integrated DC-DC topologies is
provided in Figure 17a.
Figure 17. (a) Classification of integrated topologies of DC-DC converters for satellite applications.
(b) Three-port modified half-bridge converter.
3.3.1. Three-Port Modified Half-Bridge Converter
Ref. [
38
] proposed a three-port DC-DC converter (TPC) with one input port from
the solar array, one bidirectional port from the battery, and an isolated output port. The
topology achieves zero-voltage switching for all semiconductors and reduces on-state
losses by adopting synchronous rectification on the secondary side. A generalized method
for modeling a three-port converter was also provided in the paper. However, the converter
employs a complex control technique. Figure 17b shows the three-port modified half-
bridge converter.
3.3.2. Non-Isolated PWM Three-Port Converter
In TPCs, the duty cycle during each pulse cycle is shared among many input ports. This
effectively reduces the duty cycle of individual ports, leading to increased RMS currents and
reduced efficiency [
112
,
113
]. Moreover, problems due to unshared grounds and the com-
plexity of control circuits also exist [
37
]. To overcome such challenges,
Ref. [114] proposed
a novel non-isolated PWM TPC using a uni- and bidirectional PWM converter, as shown in
Figure 18a. The converter is simple, avoids unshared ground issues, has higher effective
duty cycles, and reduces inductor sizes. The size of passive elements in the converter
decreased by about 19%, compared to the conventional non-isolated TPC.
3.3.3. Two-Switch Forward with Integrated Buck Converter
In [
18
], the heritage design properties of DC-DC converters for satellites were shown
to align with the International Satellite Electronics Design Standards [
115
]. According to
the study, the following design characteristics must be met by a DC-DC converter designed
for satellite EPSs:
•
Non-Leg Structure: The converter should have a conservative design in which a fault
at a node should not interrupt the functioning of the entire system, thus ensuring an

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 21 of 35
extended life for the satellite. A non-leg structure was proposed in [
115
] as a potential
solution in this context.
•
PWM Controlled: To align with the strict EMI and EMC regulations in space and con-
sidering the variations in passive components in space, pulse-frequency modulation
control is not recommended for DC-DC converters for satellites. Thus, PWM control
is the proposed method of control [115].
Figure 18. (a) Non-isolated PWM TPC. (b) Two-switch forward with integrated buck converter.
To create a DC-DC converter architecture that complies with the aforementioned
requirements, the authors of [
18
] developed the topology shown in Figure 18b. A buck
converter and a forward converter are combined, thus eliminating a diode and a switch. As
a result, the topology’s cost, mass, and volume decrease. Furthermore, ZVS is obtained for
a few switches, increasing the efficiency of the converters. The above-mentioned integrated
topologies are compared in terms of their switching frequency, power, and component
count in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of various integrated DC-DC converters.
Component Count
Converter References Switching
Frequency (kHz) S D L C Power (W) Isolated/Non-Isolated Main Features
Three-port modified
half-bridge converter
[Figure 17b] [38] - 5 1 2 3 200 Isolated
Soft switching dur-
ing turn-on, complex
control technique.
Non-isolated PWM three-port
converter [Figure 18a] [37] 100 3 2 2 4 240 Non-isolated
Simple circuit,
reduced size.
Two-switch forward with
integrated buck converter
[Figure 18b] [18] 100 2 4 3 2 600 Isolated
Low mass and vol-
ume, ZVS switching,
improved efficiency.
3.4. DC-DC Converters for Electric Propulsion
The PPU of the EP unit uses a highly efficient, isolated converter for voltage conversion.
The topology selection depends on the type of satellite and the thruster. For small satellites,
the pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) is a preferable choice [116–118]. It stores and discharges
energy in the form of short pulses through a pair of electrodes. The energy storage function
in PPTs is achieved using capacitor banks, and a DC-DC converter is used to charge and
discharge the capacitor. The small satellite’s input voltage is minimal, but the PPT thruster
needs a very high DC output voltage. Therefore, to attain such high gain, a high-voltage,
low-power DC-DC converter is needed. Moreover, the instantaneous release of energy
from the capacitor into the thruster creates large reverse voltages, which may damage
the sensitive electronic components. Thus, isolated DC-DC converters are the preferred

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 22 of 35
choice. In [
117
], a flyback converter was proposed, and the results were demonstrated for
a 20W CubeSat, achieving an efficiency of 88%. To overcome the low efficiencies of the
flyback converter, [
116
] proposed a boost–flyback converter operating in DCM and critical
conduction mode for a similar application. In [
118
], a full-bridge LLC resonant topology
was used for EP for micro- and nano-satellites. A 10 W prototype of the converter was
developed to validate the performance.
For large satellites, the Hall-effect thruster and the gridded ion thruster are predomi-
nantly used. In [
119
], a 15 kW, 400 V discharge supply for the PPU of a Hall-effect thruster
using SiC was proposed. The system uses two parallel full-bridge modules, each operating
at 7.5 kW, 300 V nominal voltage. A 200 W prototype of the converter demonstrated an
efficiency of around 92%. In [
120
], a resonant converter-based 4 kW discharge supply for a
Hall-effect thruster was proposed. The converter demonstrated good performance over
a broad spectrum of input and output conditions. A PPU for a 6 kW Hall-effect thruster
with a wide output voltage range was proposed by JAXA in [
121
]. The output current and
voltage ranges of the converter are 4 to 34 A and 175 to 800 V, respectively. The design
is based on four 1.5 kW modules, which switch between series and parallel connections
for multiple output connections. The modular structure significantly minimizes the ther-
mal and mechanical design. An efficiency of 96% and a power density of 0.3 kW/kg
were obtained. The control algorithm for the thruster was discussed in [
122
]. A forward
converter-based heating power supply for a Hall-effect thruster was proposed in [
123
]. A
150 W experimental prototype of the system demonstrated an efficiency of 90%.
A 5 kW PPU for a 40 cm gridded ion thruster was proposed in [
124
]. The design
was based on a phase-shift-modulated/PWM DAB converter, which showed high power
density and efficiency. Ref. [
125
] proposed a combined dual modulation scheme for an all-
electric propulsion system. The lower RMS or peak current under ZVS due to the combined
dual modulation helps achieve high efficiency and good transient response throughout the
whole operating range of the converter. Furthermore, it performs well against EMI noise as
well. The control scheme was validated using a 1 kW–5 kW DAB converter [125].
A two-stage DC-DC converter comprising a four-switch interleaved buck–boost con-
verter and an LLC resonant converter was proposed in [
126
] for high-power PPU in an ion
propulsion system. The interleaving method used in the first stage reduced the magnitude
of the magnetic components, and the soft-switched LLC resonant converter improved effi-
ciency. Furthermore, using transformer leakage inductance as resonant inductance offered
a high power density. A 1.2 kW prototype demonstrated good efficiency and power density.
The first stage of the converter is shown in Figure 19, and a comparison of topologies for
EP based on switching frequency, component count, and power is presented in Table 4.
Figure 19. Four-switch interleaved buck–boost converter.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 23 of 35
Table 4. Comparison of various DC-DC converters for EP in satellites.
Component Count
Converter References Switching Frequency (kHz) S D L C Power (W) Main Features
Flyback [116,117] - 1 1 1 1 20 W Simple circuit, suitable for
small satellites.
Resonant LLC [118] - 4 8 1 6 10 W Simple circuit, suitable for
small satellites.
Forward converter [123] 100 1 1 1 1 150 W Simple circuit, low
component count.
Resonant LLC [Figure 14b] [120]>200 4 4 2 2 1 kW
High efficiency, lower
weight, high switching
frequency, complex
control circuitry.
4 parallel converters [122] 50 - - - - 6 kW
High efficiency over wide
output range, low
component count, parallel
or serial switching of
converters to obtain
multiple output conditions
DAB [Figure 15a] [124,127] - 8 0 1 2 5 kW Soft switching, galvanic
isolation, simple structure.
DAB with combined dual
modulation [Figure 15a] [125] - 8 0 1 2 1–5 kW
Decreased EMI, a large
output voltage range, high
efficiency, and
power density.
4-switch interleaved
buck–boost + LLC resonant
[Figure 19][126] - 8 0 2 1 1.2 kW Soft switching, low size of
inductor, high power
density, and efficiency.
4. Comparative Analysis of Various Topologies
This section provides a performance analysis and comparison of the various DC-DC
converter topologies for satellite applications. The most important consideration for satellite
applications is reliability, which must be weighed against other factors like converter cost,
efficiency, and power density. Switching devices and their control circuits are considered
the parts most prone to failure in a power converter. The lower the component count, the
greater the reliability. Capacitors are also prone to failure, especially during high-temperature
operations. Although they are troublesome and their reliability is uncertain, they are unavoid-
able. Space-grade components are used to improve performance, although at an increased
cost [128]. Redundancy and modularity are two important means of improving reliability.
To improve the converter’s power density, the switching frequency can be increased
to minimize the size of the passive components while still meeting design specifications.
Nevertheless, a larger switching frequency results in increased switching losses and has
higher heat dissipation requirements [
129
]. This also leads to reduced efficiency. Therefore,
a trade-off exists between power density, efficiency, and heat dissipation requirements in the
converter [
130
]. Regarding efficiency, high-efficiency operation reduces fuel consumption
and extends the satellite’s life. Moreover, it results in lower heat dissipation requirements,
lower costs, and improved reliability and power density. Semiconductor devices account for
most of the losses in power converters, reducing efficiency, especially at high powers. Thus,
in high-power satellite applications, parallel connection of several modules is adopted,
so that each module carries only a fraction of the total power [
104
]. This helps improve
the efficiency of the converter. Moreover, it also enhances performance by increasing the
redundancy, ease of maintenance, scalability, and fault ride-through capabilities of the
converter [
131
]. A schematic demonstration showing the above-mentioned dependencies
of various performance parameters for satellite applications is provided in Figure 20. A
comparison of isolated, non-isolated, and integrated topologies, as well as the topologies
for EP, based on their reliability, redundancy, modularity, power density, and efficiency, is
shown in Tables 5–8, respectively. The power density and efficiency values presented in
the tables are obtained from the corresponding references, and reliability is classified as

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 24 of 35
low, medium, or high, based on the component count, redundancy, and modularity of the
converter. Additionally, the topologies are classified based on application type and satellite
type, as shown in Table 9.
Figure 20. Various performance indicators of DC-DC converters for satellite applications.
Table 5. Comparison of various non-isolated DC-DC converters in terms of performance indicators.
Converter
References
Figure Reliability Redundancy Modularity
Power Density
Efficiency
Differentially connected buck [36,76] Figure 9a Medium Yes No High 97
Load-side redundant buck [36,77] Figure 9b High Yes No - -
Switch-to-ground buck [35,36] Figure 10a High No No - 96
Two-inductor-based boost [35,36,81] Figure 10b High No No - >96
Boost with ripple cancellation [35,36,82] Figure 10c Medium No No High >96
Common-damping 2-inductor boost
[35,36] Figure 10d High No No - >96
Interleaved boost [35,36] Figure 10e High Yes yes - >96
Multi-output interleaved boost [35,84] Figure 10f High Yes Yes - 96
B2R Converter [35,44] Figure 11a Medium No No - 96
B3R Converter [35,87] Figure 11b High Yes Yes - High
Improved Weinberg converter [35,89] Figure 11c Medium No No - High
Table 6. Comparison of various isolated DC-DC converters in terms of performance indicators.
Converter References Figure Reliability Redundancy Modularity
Power Density
Efficiency
Full-bridge converter [96] Figure 13a Medium No No Medium 95
Current-fed Weinberg converter
[96] Figure 13b High No No Medium 95
Current-fed cascaded buck and
full-bridge converter [96] Figure 14a Medium No No Medium 90–95
Resonant LLC converter [96] Figure 14b Medium No No Medium 95–98
Conventional DAB [104] Figure 15a High No No Medium High
ISOP-DAB [104] Figure 15b High Yes Yes Medium High
NPC-DAB [104] Figure 15c Low No No Low Low
ANPC-DAB [104] Figure 15d Low No No High High
Parallel interleaved DAB [104] Figure 15e High Yes Yes High -
ABAC converter [67,98] Figure 16a Low Yes Yes High High
ACF converter [110] Figure 16b High Yes Yes High 90–95
Table 7. Comparison of various integrated DC-DC converters in terms of performance indicators.
Converter
References
Figure Reliability Redundancy Modularity
Power Density
Efficiency
Three-port modified half-bridge
converter [38] Figure 17b Low No No Low High
Non-isolated PWM three-port
converter [37] Figure 18a Medium No No Medium 97.3
Two-switch forward with integrated
buck converter [18] Figure 18b High No No High 95

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 25 of 35
Table 8. Comparison of various DC-DC converters in PPU for EP.
Converter Ref. Figure Type of
Thruster Reliability Redundancy
Modularity
Power
Density
Efficiency
Resonant LLC [120] Figure 14b Hall thruster Medium No No High >95
4 parallel converters [122] - Hall thruster High No Yes High 96.1
DAB [124,127] Figure 18 Ion thruster Medium No No High High
DAB with combined dual
modulation [125] Figure 18 - High No No High -
4-switch interleaved
buck–boost + LLC
resonant [126] Figure 19 Ion thruster High No Yes High High
Table 9. Comparison of the selected topologies based on their application in satellites and the type
of satellite.
Application Figure Reference Large Small Mini Micro Nano Pico Femto
MPPT
Figure 9a [36,76]✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 9b [36,77]✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 10a [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10b [35,36,81]✓ ✓
Figure 10c [35,36,82]✓ ✓
Figure 10d [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10e [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10f [35,84]✓ ✓
Figure 11a [35,44]
Figure 11b [35,87]
Battery Regulator
Figure 10f [35,84]✓ ✓
Figure 11b [35,87]
Figure 11c [35,89]
Voltage Regulation
Figure 9a [36,76]✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 9b [36,77]✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 10a [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10b [35,36,81]✓ ✓
Figure 10c [35,36,82]✓ ✓
Figure 10d [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10e [35,36]✓ ✓
Figure 10f [35,84]✓ ✓
Figure 11a [35,44]
Figure 11b [35,87]
Figure 11c [35,89]
Multi-Port Conversion Figure 17b [38]✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 18a [37]✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 18b [18]✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Electric Propulsion Figure 14b [96]✓ ✓
Figure 15a [104]✓ ✓
Figure 19 [126]✓ ✓
Power Distribution
Figure 13a [96]✓ ✓
Figure 13b [96]✓ ✓
Figure 14a [96]✓ ✓
Figure 14b [96]✓ ✓
Figure 15a [104]✓ ✓
Figure 15b [104]✓ ✓
Figure 15c [104]✓ ✓
Figure 15d [104]✓ ✓
Figure 15e [104]✓ ✓
Figure 16a [67,98]✓ ✓
Figure 16b [110]✓ ✓
5. Future Directions
When discussing the future challenges for power electronics in satellite applications,
the main expected change is the increase in power [
132
]. This adds additional design
constraints for power converters like the need for better heat dissipation equipment, avail-
ability of components that can tolerate high power, reduction of EMI, and reduction in
weight and volume of magnetic components. The increase in power could be tackled
by increasing the voltage of the main bus, hence limiting the current flow and reducing
the cable weight [
133
]. Moreover, increased voltage levels demand a better selection of

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 26 of 35
converter topology, power device packaging, and magnetic components. In summary,
although increasing the bus voltage level is an effective solution with regard to increased
power levels in satellites, several hurdles need to be overcome to achieve the same [130].
5.1. Wide-Band-Gap Devices
New technologies like WBG devices (SiC and GaN) provide better performance com-
pared to Si technology [
134
–
137
]. Recent research on WBG devices has demonstrated their
superior efficiency and power density compared to Si-based devices [
138
,
139
]. However,
the capabilities of WBG devices cannot be fully exploited by simple replacement. System-
and component-level refinements need to be performed. With the integration of WBG,
switching frequencies above hundreds of kilohertz are theoretically allowed. This can help
reduce the value of the inductors and hence the dimensions of the converter. Nonetheless,
increasing the switching frequency poses various challenges, such as increased switching
losses, parasitic effects, and heat management, which should be carefully studied. Ad-
ditionally, the reliability of such devices for application in space needs to be studied in
detail, especially their performance under radiation regarding single-event effect (SEE) and
single-event burnout (SEB) [
140
]. Heat management at high power levels, which affects the
efficient operation of a power converter, is another open area of research in the future [
141
].
5.2. Deep Space Missions
The unbounded, limitless area of space that extends beyond the Moon to Mars and
throughout our solar system is known as deep space. Comprehending the planets, moons,
and minor bodies within our solar system facilitates our exploration of the past, the
diversity of our own and other planetary systems, and our understanding of our origins.
Thus, deep space missions are expected to show remarkable progress in the near future.
Spacecraft need to be resilient to the harsh environmental conditions in space, and strong
propulsion and communication systems are required for spacecraft to be able to accomplish
this. For such missions, electric propulsion is thought to be a crucial and innovative
technology. Furthermore, interest in using small satellites for exploring deep space is
growing. The BepiColombo, GOCE, and SMART-1 missions by ESA are a few examples.
NASA is also exploring electric propulsion for deep space missions. For instance, the
Lunar Gateway’s power and propulsion component is expected to showcase cutting-edge,
high-power solar electric propulsion. Figure 21 shows a few present and future deep space
missions along with their power levels [
142
,
143
]. It is evident that the power requirements
for deep space missions show an increasing trend. This increase in power demands
intensive research on novel DC-DC converters that can work reliably and efficiently in such
radiation-hardened environments.
5.3. Solar Power Satellites
Space-based solar power (SBSP) is a method in which solar energy in space is harvested
for utilization on Earth. SBSP necessitates wireless power transmission via microwaves, laser,
or by reflecting sunlight directly. It is expected to change the future of electricity generation
and distribution by producing electricity in an efficient and pollution-free manner. A wireless
energy grid may involve beaming power from Earth to space and back. The spacecraft
may also be located in different orbits, such as LEO or GEO. Although the technology has
enormous potential, it is still in the conceptual stage. Several obstacles must be overcome,
resulting in a new area of research for future scientists and engineers [144–146].

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 27 of 35
Figure 21. Various deep space missions, along with their power and mass.
5.4. Wireless Power Transfer for Satellite Power Distribution
In dusty and harsh environments, where physical connectors may deteriorate, Wireless
Power Transfer (WPT) is considered acceptable, especially for small satellites. Although the
efficiency of WPT systems is relatively low, with sufficient research and development, it can
be a potential method for power transfer in space applications. WPT is especially helpful in
improving the reliability and robustness of regulation and transmission of power [
10
,
147
,
148
].
This opens up new avenues of research in the design and development of highly efficient
DC-DC converters for wireless power transfer in space. A summary of a few identified
research gaps in various space applications is provided in Table 10.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 28 of 35
Table 10. Research gaps in various space applications.
Area Research Gaps
Design and Development of DC-DC Converters
• Improve fault-tolerant capability without increasing size.
• Avoid common mode current for fail-safe operation.
• Improve power density.
• Reduce ripple content of output current to improve battery health.
• Improve reliability by avoiding single-element failure.
• Solve unshared ground issues in multi-port converters.
• Increase power levels for converters (>100 kW).
• Increase output voltage range (>300 V).
• Increase high-voltage conversion ratio.
• Improve efficiency and power density.
• Design modular converters.
• Improve the design of input and output EMI filters.
Adoption of Solar EP/Nuclear EP
• Improve the specific impulse and durability of high-thrust systems.
• Improve the efficiency and reliability of low-thrust systems.
• Increase power levels (>100 kW).
• Increase understanding of the reliability and lifetime of propulsion systems at higher
power levels.
• Reduce specific mass.
Deep Space Exploration
•
Develop electronic components capable of withstanding high radiation and temperatures
in deep space.
• Develop high-power propulsion systems.
•
Develop new materials and technologies to enhance the efficiency and durability of solar
panels in deep space.
Electronic Components for Space Applications
• Develop higher-rating space-grade SiC and GaN semiconductors
• Design PCB layouts and packaging techniques with low parasitics for WBG devices.
• Design gate drivers for switches.
• Study the reliability of WBG devices under cryogenic and radiation-hardened
environments.
• Develop EMI mitigation methods.
• Develop high-current/high-energy-density capacitors.
• Develop low-loss magnetic materials that can withstand high temperatures.
Solar-Based Power Satellites
• Develop low-cost solar cells with a long lifetime.
• Investigate Perovskite solar cells.
• Develop large-scale microwave/laser-based wireless energy transfer methods.
• Develop kilometer-scale space solar power plants.
6. Conclusions
DC-DC converters are critical for generating, transmitting, and storing power in satel-
lites. This paper classifies the applications of DC-DC converters in satellites and provides a
state-of-the-art review of isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters for a range of satellite
applications. The topologies are compared based on practical parameters like modularity,
efficiency, reliability, redundancy, and power density. Electric propulsion is a promising
future technology owing to its better fuel efficiency compared to chemical propulsion. Thus,
various sources and DC-DC converters for electric propulsion are compared and contrasted.
The research gaps pertaining to a variety of current and prospective satellite application
domains, such as space-based solar power and wireless power transmission for satellite
power distribution, are also highlighted in this paper.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.R and A.M.M.; methodology, R.R.; formal analysis, R.R.;
investigation, R.R.; resources, R.R.; data curation, R.R.; writing—original draft preparation, R.R. and
A.M.M.; writing—review and editing, R.R. and A.M.M.; supervision, A.M.M.; project administration,
A.M.M.; funding acquisition, A.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This publication was supported by Qatar University through the Graduate Assistantship
program. The statements made herein are the sole responsibility of the authors.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Aerospace 2025,12, 97 29 of 35
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ABAC Active-Bridge Active-Clamp
ACF Active-Clamp Forward
ANPC Active Neutral Point Clamped
B2R Buck–Boost Regulator
B3R Buck–Buck–Boost Regulator
BCR Battery Charge Regulator
BDR Battery Discharge Regulator
DAB Dual Active Bridge
DET Direct Energy Transfer
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
EP Electric Propulsion
EPS Electrical Power System
GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit
IC Incremental Conductance
ISOP Input-Series Output-Parallel
LEO Low Earth Orbit
MEA More Electric Aircraft
MEO Medium Earth Orbit
MPPT Maximum Power-Point Tracking
NPC Neutral Point Clamped
P&0 Perturb and Observe
PCDU Power Conditioning and Distribution Unit
PPT Pulsed Plasma Thruster
PPU Power Processing Unit
RCC Ripple Correlation Control
RTG Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
S3R Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
S4R Sequential Series Shunt Regulator
SBSP Space-Based Solar Power
SEE Single-Event Effect
SEB Single-Event Burnout
TPC Three-Port Converter
WBG Wide Band Gap
WPT Wireless Power Transfer
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