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Psychological distress and coping strategies among
Indonesian psychologists during the COVID-19 pandemic:
a two-wave cross-lagged study
Fitri Ariyanti Abidin
a,b
, Ahmad Gimmy Prathama
a,c
, Efi Fitriana
a,b
, Evy Sulfiani Komala
a
and Joeri K. Tijdink
a,d,e
a
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia;
b
Center
for Relationship, Family Life and Parenting Studies, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran,
Sumedang, Indonesia;
c
Center for Innovation and Psychological Research, Faculty of Psychology, Universitas
Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia;
d
Department of Ethics, Law and Humanities, Amsterdam UMC, location
VUmc, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
e
Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Humanities, VU University,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Background: Psychologists play a crucial role in providing essential
psychological aid to individuals navigating the challenges posed by
the COVID-19 pandemic. However, studies focusing on the mental
health of psychologists during the COVID-19 pandemic remain
scarce. This study investigates the interaction between coping
strategies and psychological distress among a group of
Indonesian psychologists.
Methods: This longitudinal study was conducted over two-time
points in 2021, with data collected from April 29 to June 23 and
again from September 1 to October 23. A total of ninety-seven
psychologists, predominantly female (91 out of 97), participated.
The data was collected through an online survey, where
participants completed the Indonesian version of the Depression,
Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) and the Brief COPE
questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis was used to perform
cross-lag analyses on the data.
Results: The findings revealed that adaptive coping strategies were
strong predictors of continued use of adaptive coping strategies six
months later, while existing psychological distress strongly
predicted future distress. Notably, maladaptive coping strategies
demonstrated a similar pattern, predicting the continued use of
maladaptive coping techniques over time, but they were also
consistently associated with psychological distress across both
time points, though they did not significantly predict future
psychological distress.
Discussion: These findings shed light on the dynamic nature of
coping strategies and psychological distress among psychologists,
presenting significant implications for their support systems and
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 7 April 2024
Accepted 13 January 2025
KEYWORDS
Psychological distress;
coping strategies;
psychologist; COVID-19;
pandemic
© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://
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CONTACT Fitri Ariyanti Abidin fitri.ariyanti.abidin@unpad.ac.id Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychol-
ogy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia; Center for Relationship, Family Life and Parenting Studies, Faculty of
Psychology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE
2025, VOL. 13, NO. 1, 2456662
https://doi.org/10.1080/21642850.2025.2456662
mental health during the challenges posed by the pandemic.
Future studies should focus on how psychologists can reduce
maladaptive coping strategies to be better equipped to handle
very stressful situations such as a pandemic. Additionally,
researchers should explore eective interventions and programs
that can be implemented to enhance adaptive coping
mechanisms, ultimately improving overall psychological resilience
and well-being during crises.
Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant global impact, causing many fatalities and
leading to various consequences in personal lives and society. Low and middle-income
countries, including Indonesia, have faced severe repercussions, both in terms of
health and socioeconomic aspects. The Government of the Republic of Indonesia
implemented a ‘stay at home’ policy from April 17, 2020, to December 21, 2020, to
curb the transmission of the COVID-19 virus. The rapid and dangerous spread of the
COVID-19 virus, coupled with the profound uncertainty surrounding the pandemic
and the consequential alterations in daily life (e.g. activities, locations, schedules), can
serve as stressors that harm individuals’ mental well-being (Ching et al., 2021; Kaligis
et al., 2020; Necho et al., 2021; Teixeira da Silva, 2021; Wang et al., 2020). Recognizing
the crucial role of mental health in eectively addressing the challenges posed by the
COVID-19 virus, the World Health Organization (WHO) has emphasized the signifi-
cance of prioritizing mental health concerns.
Psychologists play a crucial role in providing psychological support and first aid to
individuals struggling to cope with the pandemic’s stressors, aiming to enhance their
quality of life and overall well-being (Karekla et al., 2021). Given the challenges posed
by COVID-19, psychologists are responsible for supporting other healthcare pro-
fessionals and frontline workers through various individual, structural, and organiz-
ational interventions (Dyer et al., 2022). However, with a limited number of
psychologists available and an increasing workload, they risk experiencing emotional
burnout and distress (Tandon, 2020). Previous studies have shown that mental health
professionals, including psychologists, psychiatrists, and nurses, face heightened
anxiety, stress, sadness, restlessness, and other mental health issues while working in a
COVID-19 environment (Gruber et al., 2021).
Research among Australian mental healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic
reveals that the crisis has negatively impacted various aspects of their lives, especially work-
place culture and social activities. Northwood et al. (2021) reports that during the early
stages of the pandemic, mental healthcare workers faced high levels of anxiety, depression,
and professional burnout. Similarly, a study by Kane et al. (2022) of psychiatric and mental
health services in ten European countries in 2021 found that the majority of workers felt
their workload had increased due to the diversification of tasks and the added complexity
of providing care. Nearly half reported greater diculty in achieving a work-life balance,
and many felt their health had been adversely aected by the crisis.
Adopting diverse coping strategies reduces anxiety and minimizes potential stress
(Astari et al., 2022). Coping strategies can be categorized into two distinct types: adaptive
2 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
and maladaptive. Adaptive coping strategies have traditionally been found to positively
inuence individuals who employ them (Folayan et al., 2016), including increase in
psychological resilience and self-reported satisfaction with life. Examples of adaptive
coping strategies include religious or spiritual practices like prayer and scripture
reading (Cairney et al., 2014), physical activities, meditation, music appreciation, and
social interaction with friends and family (Feld & Shusterman, 2015). On the contrary,
maladaptive coping refers to methods that often result in adverse consequences.
Examples of maladaptive coping include drug use, excessive eating (Feld & Shusterman,
2015), and engagement in other detrimental behaviors. Historically, these coping strat-
egies have been associated with negative eects on one’s life, including the risk of addic-
tion (Furnari et al., 2015). The number of adaptive coping strategies endorsed by
respondents had a significant negative relationship with depression (Meyer et al.,
2022). The use of maladaptive coping strategies was a unique predictor of both burden
and psychological distress (Coomber & King, 2012).
Previous studies have documented the trajectory of psychological distress and found
that serious distress experienced by adults becomes a strong predictor of serious distress
after 15 months (Breslau et al., 2021). Regarding coping strategies, a study among people
with traumatically acquired spinal cord injuries showed that coping strategies remained
relatively stable over time (Pollard & Kennedy, 2007)
Research on the mental health of healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pan-
demic has been abundant (e.g. Di Tella et al., 2020; Galbraith et al., 2021). However,
limited attention has been given to the mental health of a specific group within psychol-
ogists. This gap is significant because psychologists play an essential role in mitigating the
psychological impacts of the pandemic. Understanding their coping mechanisms and
psychological distress levels is crucial, as their well-being directly inuences their
ability to support others eectively.
Addressing this gap, our study focuses on investigating the interrelated inuence of
coping strategies and psychological distress in a sample of Indonesian psychologists.
We explore this dynamic relationship at two dierent time points through longitudinal
research. The underlying theoretical basis of our study suggests that coping strategies and
psychological distress mutually inuence each other. For a detailed theoretical
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of relationship between adaptive coping strategies and psychologi-
cal distress.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 3
framework, please refer to Figure 1 (illustrating adaptive coping strategies) and Figure 2
(illustrating maladaptive coping strategies).
The necessity of this study is underscored by the lack of research on the mental
health of psychologists during the pandemic. Addressing this gap can inform the
development of targeted interventions to support this critical workforce. The practical
purpose of the study is to identify eective coping strategies and potential areas for
intervention to enhance the psychological resilience and well-being of psychologists
during crises.
Methods
We preregistered our study on the Open Science Framework. The preregistration details
can be accessed at https://osf.io/vzf7s.
Participants
The recruitment strategy for the first time point involved reaching out to a broad spec-
trum of Indonesian psychologists who oered online, oine, or mixed counseling ser-
vices during the COVID-19 pandemic. We employed multiple channels for participant
recruitment, including professional associations, online forums, social media, and
email invitations. We provided comprehensive information about the study’s objectives,
procedures, and ethical considerations to enhance response rates and ensure sample
representativeness. We emphasized the voluntary nature of participation, guaranteed
confidentiality and anonymity, and directed interested psychologists to an online
survey for consent and questionnaire completion. The first-wave recruitment yielded
172 participants.
For the second time point, we contacted participants who had completed the initial
survey and expressed willingness to partake in the follow-up assessment. Personalized
invitations underscored the importance of their continued involvement. We contacted
them three times. To maintain respect for participants’ voluntary decision-making, no
further invitations were sent after the third follow-up.
Figure 2. Conceptual framework of relationship between maladaptive coping strategies and psycho-
logical distress.
4 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
The participants’ ages ranged from 25 to 70 years old, with a mean age of 37.80
(SD = 9.83), and the majority were female (93.7%). Their working experience varied
from 1 to 37 years, with an average of 7.60 years (SD = 7.14). A significant proportion
of respondents (80.4%) reported having 1–10 years of professional experience. We
compared the demographic characteristics of non-respondents (n = 65) to those of
respondents. Non-respondents’ ages ranged from 26 to 69 years, with a mean age
of 37.38 (SD = 9.68). The gender distribution included 87.5% females. Their working
experience ranged from 1 to 30 years, with a mean of 8 years (SD = 7.21), and
70.3% of non-responders reported having 1–10 years of professional experience.
These similarities suggest that the dropout rate did not introduce significant biases
into the sample.
Procedures
The Ethical Committee of Universitas Padjadjaran approved the research plan
(Number 01/UN6.KEP/EC/2021). The longitudinal study was conducted over two-
time points in 2021. The first time point takes place from April 29 to June 23,
2021, and the second from September 1 to October 23, 2021. During the first
period, Indonesia experienced a surge in COVID-19 cases due to new variants, strain-
ing the healthcare system despite intensified measures. By the second period, cases and
fatalities declined, reecting the success of interventions and vaccination eorts. At
each time point, participants were required to complete a set of online questionnaires,
which typically took about 20 min to complete. To encourage participation and
express our appreciation to the participants, we oered a token of gratitude in the
form of a voucher valued at approximately $3. These vouchers were randomly
awarded to 50 participants at each time point.
Measures
Psychological distress
Psychological distress was assessed using the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale
(DASS-21), which comprises three dimensions: depression, anxiety, and stress. Each
dimension is evaluated through seven items, resulting in a total of 21 items. Partici-
pants were instructed to rate their agreement with each item using a 4-point Likert
scale, ranging from ‘0’ indicating no agreement or occurrence to ‘3’ indicating com-
plete agreement or frequent occurrence. The DASS-21 questionnaire has been vali-
dated in the Indonesian context. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) demonstrated
that all DASS-21 items were valid, with the following fit indices: RMSEA = 0.076,
CFI = 0.961, TLI = 0.955, and SRMR = 0.065. Additionally, the reliability results were
satisfactory, ranging from 0.850–0.923 (Nada et al., 2022). Sample items from the
questionnaire include ‘I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all’
(Depression), ‘I was aware of dryness of my mouth’ (Anxiety), and ‘I found it hard
to wind down’ (Stress). The internal consistency in the current samples was .91 in
the first time point and .92 in the second time point. The total score on the DASS-
21 represents the level of general psychological distress, where higher scores indicate
greater psychological distress.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 5
Coping strategies
The Brief COPE questionnaire consists of 28 items designed to assess two distinct aspects
of coping strategies: Adaptive Coping and Maladaptive Coping. Adaptive Coping encom-
passes seven dimensions: Active Coping, Emotional Support, Use of Informational
Support, Positive Reframing, Planning, Acceptance, and Religious Coping. In contrast,
Maladaptive Coping comprises seven dimensions: Self-Distraction, Denial, Substance
Use, Behavioral Disengagement, Venting, Self-blame, and Humor. Each dimension is
represented by two items, resulting in a total of 14 dimensions. Participants were
required to rate the frequency of their engagement in each coping strategy using a 4-
point Likert scale, where ‘1’ indicates ‘I usually don’t do this,’ and ‘4’ indicates ‘I do
this often.’ The validation process for the Indonesian version of the questionnaire was
completed by Huda et al. (2022) Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) demonstrated
that the construct met the criteria for a good fit, with indicators showing CFI = 0.952,
NFI = 0.950, GFI = 0.953, RMR = 0.027, and RMSEA = 0.075. The internal consistency
coecients for the Adaptive Coping were found to be .89 in the first time point and
.82 in the second time point. The internal consistency coecients for the Maladaptive
Coping aspect were found to be .64 in the first time point and .72 in the second time
point. Scores for adaptive and maladaptive coping were calculated individually and
then summed for each participant. Higher scores indicate a greater use of the respective
coping style, whether adaptive or maladaptive.
Data analysis
Descriptive statistics, such as numbers and percentages, were utilized to describe the
demographic data. The score of DASS-21 and the Brief COPE were analyzed using
descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation. Pearson correlation analy-
sis was performed to examine the relationships between the variables. The statistical
analysis was conducted using SPSS Statistics version 24. To test the hypotheses, multiple
regression analysis was employed Kenny (2014), and the path coecients and p-values
for the relevant cross-lag pairs generated using SPSS software.
This study examines four regression models to understand the relationship between
coping strategies and psychological distress over time. In Model 1, adaptive coping at
T2 is predicted by adaptive coping at T1 and DASS at T1. The assumptions for this
model include linearity of the phenomenon measured (VIF = 1.08), constant variance
of the error terms, normality of the error term distribution, and independence of the
error terms (Durbin Watson = 1.76). Model 2 investigates DASS at T2, predicted by
adaptive coping at T1 and DASS at T1, with assumptions of linearity (VIF = 1.08), con-
stant variance of the error terms, normality of the error term distribution, and indepen-
dence of the error terms (Durbin Watson = 1.85). Model 3 focuses on maladaptive coping
at T2, predicted by maladaptive coping at T1 and DASS at T1. The assumptions for this
model include linearity of the phenomenon measured (VIF = 1.12), constant variance of
the error terms, normality of the error term distribution, and independence of the error
terms (Durbin Watson = 1.90). Finally, Model 4 examines DASS at T2, predicted by
maladaptive coping at T1 and DASS at T1, with assumptions of linearity (VIF = 1.12),
constant variance of the error terms, normality of the error term distribution, and inde-
pendence of the error terms (Durbin Watson = 1.85). Overall, the assumptions of
6 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
linearity, constant variance, normality, and independence of error terms are satisfactorily
met for all models.
Result
The final sample comprised 97 Indonesian psychologists, resulting in a dropout rate of
43.60%.
Descriptive statistics and correlation between age, coping strategies and
psychological distress overtime
Table 1 illustrates the descriptive statistics and intercorrelation between age, coping strat-
egies and psychological distress overtime. There was a negative correlation between age
and psychological distress, both in T1 (r = −0.27) and T2 (r = −0.33). There was a posi-
tive correlation between Adaptive Coping Strategies at T1 and T2 (r = 0.80). Maladaptive
Coping Strategies at T1 were positively correlated with Maladaptive Coping Strategies at
T2 (r = 0.64). Regarding psychological distress, psychological distress at T1 was positively
correlated with psychological distress at T2 (r = 0.72).
Adaptive coping strategies at T1 had correlated negatively with psychological distress
at T1 (r = −0.27) and with psychological distress at T2 (r = −0.24). Maladaptive coping
strategies at T1 correlated positively with psychological distress at T1 (r = .33) and T2
(r = .27). Maladaptive coping strategies at T2 correlated positively with psychological dis-
tress at T1 (r = 0.35) and T2 (r = 0.51).
Cross-lagged analysis of adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies and
psychological distress
Figure 3 illustrates the path analysis examining the relationships between adaptive
coping mechanisms and psychological distress (measured by DASS) across two-time
points (T1 and T2). At T1, a significant negative correlation (r = −0.27*) indicates
that higher adaptive coping is associated with lower psychological distress. Over
time, adaptive coping mechanisms at T1 significantly predict adaptive coping at T2
(β = 0.81*), and psychological distress at T1 significantly predicts distress at T2 (β =
0.72*), suggesting strong stability within each variable. However, the cross-lagged
paths between coping mechanisms and distress across time are not significant.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlation between age, coping strategies and psychological
distress overtime.
M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Age 37.80 (9.83) – – – – – –
2. T1 Adaptive Coping Strategies 48.92 (5.74) 0.12 – – – – –
3. T1 Maladaptive Coping Strategies 28.21 (4.17) −0.10 0.29** – – – –
4. T1 Psychological Distress 9.43 (8.32) −0.27** −0.27* 0.33** – – –
5. T2 Adaptive Coping Strategies 47.30 (5.09) 0.01 0.80** 0.20* −0.14 – –
6. T2 Maladaptive Coping Strategies 26.72 (4.24) −0.18 0.14 0.64** 0.35** 0.24* –
7. T2 Psychological Distress 10.71 (9.21) −0.33** 0.24 0.30** 0.72** −0.13 0.53**
Note: T1 = Time Point 1, T2 = Time point 2; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 7
Specifically, adaptive coping at T1 does not significantly predict distress at T2 (β =
0.08), and distress at T1 does not significantly predict coping mechanisms at T2 (β
= 0.01). Additionally, the correlation between adaptive coping and distress at T2 is
also not significant (r = −0.13). In summary, while adaptive coping strategies are
stable over time and associated with lower distress concurrently, their long-term pre-
dictive impact on reducing psychological distress is limited.
while adaptive coping strategies are stable over time and associated with lower distress
concurrently, their long-term predictive impact on reducing psychological distress is
limited.
Figure 4 illustrates the path analysis examining the relationships between maladaptive
coping mechanisms and psychological distress (measured by DASS) across two-time
points (T1 and T2). At T1, there is a significant positive correlation (r = 0.33*), indicating
that higher maladaptive coping is associated with higher psychological distress. Over time,
maladaptive coping mechanisms at T1 significantly predict maladaptive coping at T2 (β =
0.57*), and psychological distress at T1 significantly predicts distress at T2 (β = 0.64*),
suggesting strong temporal stability within both variables. However, the cross-lagged
paths are not significant. Specifically, maladaptive coping at T1 does not significantly
predict distress at T2 (β = 0.16), and distress at T1 does not significantly predict maladap-
tive coping mechanisms at T2 (β = 0.04). At T2, there remains a significant positive cor-
relation (r = 0.53*), indicating a continued association between higher maladaptive coping
and higher psychological distress. In summary, while adaptive coping is concurrently
associated with lower distress, maladaptive coping consistently shows a link with higher
distress over time. Nevertheless, like adaptive coping, maladaptive strategies exhibit
Figure 3. Cross-lagged analysis of adaptive coping strategies and psychological distress.
8 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
limited predictive power for future distress levels. Thus, although maladaptive coping pat-
terns remain stable over time, their impact on distress is unlikely to diminish.
Discussion
The present study aims to investigate the interrelated inuence relationship between
coping strategies and psychological distress in a sample of Indonesian psychologists.
The findings reveal that adaptive coping strategies predict future adaptive coping strat-
egies six months later, while psychological distress consistently predicts subsequent
psychological distress. However, a distinct pattern emerges with maladaptive coping.
In addition to predicting future maladaptive coping strategies, maladaptive coping
shows a strong association with psychological distress at both time points, although it
does not significantly predict future psychological distress.
The results corroborate the notion that both adaptive and maladaptive coping strat-
egies can predict future coping behaviors. These findings are consistent with research
by Nielsen and Knardahl (2014) conducted outside the context of COVID-19, which
revealed a high degree of stability in coping strategies over a two-year period. Our
study supports the idea that coping strategies exhibit some trait-like characteristics, as
suggested by Nielsen and Knardahl (2014), although they may be less stable over time
compared to personality traits, as noted by Carver and Connor-Smith (2010). This
suggests individuals can develop and enhance their coping mechanisms to deal with
stressors and challenges more eectively.
Psychological distress has been recognized as a predictor of subsequent psychological
distress. This correlation is supported by a longitudinal study by Baykiz et al. (2023)
Figure 4. Cross-lagged analysis of maladaptive coping strategies and psychological distress.
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 9
involving COVID-19 patients, where it was observed that the relative DASS-21 scores
tended to maintain similar levels of severity over time. This finding is consistent with
the conclusions of Lovibond (1998), indicating enduring stability in depression,
anxiety, and stress syndromes over a period spanning from 2 to 8 years.
An interesting finding from our study is the stability of maladaptive coping over time.
Maladaptive coping remains consistently associated with psychological distress across
both time points, indicating its persistence in contributing to distress. In contrast, adaptive
coping shows a weaker and less stable pattern, with a significant correlation with psycho-
logical distress only in the first wave, but not in the later wave. This highlights the endur-
ing impact of maladaptive coping on distress, while adaptive coping’s inuence appears
more limited and short-lived. This finding aligns with Smida et al. (2021), who reported
that among medical residents, maladaptive coping was correlated with all indices of
increased psychological distress-depression, anxiety, and stress-while adaptive coping
showed no such correlation. Beyond the context of COVID-19, our results are also con-
sistent with prior research by Aldao et al. (2010) and (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010,
2012), which found a stronger association between maladaptive coping strategies and psy-
chopathology compared to the weaker relationship observed between adaptive strategies
and psychopathology. Maladaptive strategies (e.g. rumination, suppression, avoidance)
also appear to be more rigid and stable over time (Aldao et al., 2010). It is plausible
that, in both everyday life and during extreme events like a pandemic, individuals may
possess adaptive coping mechanisms but struggle to eectively utilize them under high
levels of stress, thereby reducing their ability to mitigate psychological distress.
The result that maladaptive coping consistently predicts psychological distress under-
scores the need for interventions aimed at reducing maladaptive coping strategies.
Proven examples in the literature include dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and the
Optimal Health Program (OHP). DBT has been eective in helping patients with border-
line personality disorder reduce maladaptive coping and enhance adaptive coping
(Southward et al., 2023). The OHP successfully improved adaptive coping behaviors
and decreased maladaptive coping behaviors among stroke patients within 12 months
(Sheth et al., 2023).
If we compare the psychological distress scores in our sample with those of other
populations from relatively similar periods—such as healthcare workers in India (Sree-
nivasan et al., 2024), working women in Pakistan (Akbar & Ghazal, 2023), and secondary
school students in North Macedonia (Naumova, 2022)—we find that our population has
lower scores. Although a comparison between our sample and these samples should be
taken carefully, this dierence can be understood from two perspectives: First, as a col-
lectivist society (Triandis, 1995), Indonesia aligns with Siu and Chang’s (2011) findings
that family support is a key factor in reducing depressive symptoms, a prominent indi-
cator of psychological distress. In collectivist cultures, close-knit family ties often provide
emotional and social support, helping individuals manage stress and anxiety more eec-
tively. Second, religious coping mechanisms might play a significant role in Indonesia. In
Indonesian society, religious practices are deeply embedded in daily life and provide a
source of emotional resilience. As highlighted by Rochmawati et al. (2018), activities
such as prayer, singing or playing religious music, reading sacred texts, attending reli-
gious lectures, and donating to those in need (Marchira et al., 2016; Permana, 2018)
are common coping strategies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Hakim (2020) found
10 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
that the general population in Indonesia widely used religious practices12314. to main-
tain emotional stability.
In terms of demographic background, our analysis reveals a negative correlation
between age and psychological distress, which is evident in both the initial and sub-
sequent waves of our study. The mean age of participants closely reects the demo-
graphic profile of most psychologists, who primarily fall within the 21–40 age range
(https://data.ipkindonesia.or.id/). Younger age emerges as a significant factor inuencing
levels of depression, anxiety, and stress during a pandemic. This finding contrasts with
Sheikhbardsiri et al. (2021), which found no correlation between age and these psycho-
logical distress indices. Nonetheless, our results align with existing research indicating
that younger individuals experience higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress
during such crises (Hudan et al., 2022; Mautong et al., 2021; Seco Ferreira et al., 2020;
Tee et al., 2020). This aligns with previous findings indicating an inverse relationship
between age and the severity of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. One plausible
explanation for this pattern is that younger individuals may be more susceptible to the
economic and employment repercussions of the pandemic (Caqueo-Urízar et al., 2020;
Wang et al., 2020). Furthermore, exposure to predominantly negative news coverage
of COVID-19, particularly prevalent on social media platforms, could exacerbate
mental health challenges among the younger demographic (Cao et al., 2020). Interest-
ingly, despite older individuals being often classified as a high-risk population, advanced
age emerges as a protective factor against psychological distress. This protective eect
may be attributed to accumulated life experience (Ardelt et al., 2013) and a potentially
reduced fear of illness and mortality (e.g. Fortner et al., 2000).
Our study presents several significant strengths. Firstly, employing a longitudinal
approach allows us to establish a causal relationship between coping strategies and
psychological distress. Secondly, while numerous studies have explored various popu-
lations, research specifically focusing on psychologists as essential mental health pro-
fessionals during the COVID-19 pandemic remains scarce. Therefore, our study
represents a pioneering eort in this regard, particularly within the Asian context.
However, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations. Firstly, attrition in our
study cohort highlights a challenge, emphasizing the importance of addressing this
issue in future research. While the dropout rate is relatively high, it falls within an accep-
table range for longitudinal studies, especially given the ongoing challenges posed by the
COVID-19 pandemic during the data collection period (e.g. Jarden et al., 2023). Impor-
tantly, we compared demographic characteristics between respondents and non-respon-
dents and found no significant dierences in age, gender, or professional experience,
suggesting that attrition did not introduce substantial bias into our findings. To mitigate
attrition, we suggest clear communication and informed consent, regular updates,
exible scheduling, incentives, rapport-building, and streamlined procedures with
reminders. Thus, in-person procedures are recommended for future studies. Secondly,
it is essential to consider the impact of the pandemic on symptoms reected in the
DASS. The prevailing uncertainty during this period suggests a likelihood of heightened
levels of anxiety and stress. Additionally, the generalizability of the results to other popu-
lations or settings may be limited. The specific context of Indonesian psychologists, as
well as the unique stressors presented by the COVID-19 pandemic, may not be directly
applicable to other groups or dierent cultural settings. Future research should aim to
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE 11
replicate these findings in diverse populations and contexts to enhance the external val-
idity of the results.
In conclusion, the findings suggest that coping mechanisms, both adaptive and mala-
daptive, exhibit stability over time, with individuals tending to maintain their established
coping patterns. While adaptive coping strategies were predictive of their future use,
psychological distress remained a significant predictor of their own persistence. Interest-
ingly, maladaptive coping strategies, though associated with psychological distress at
both time points, did not predict future psychological distress, indicating a complex
relationship between coping styles and mental health outcomes. Younger individuals
experienced higher levels of distress, likely due to the economic and social impacts of
the pandemic, making them the most vulnerable group.
Future research should focus on mitigating maladaptive coping mechanisms and enhan-
cing adaptive coping mechanisms among practicing psychologists. A key focus could be to
study the eect of family-based support interventions, which aim to improve family
members (or friends’) emotional understanding and support, helping psychologists
manage stress more eectively. Additionally, community-driven programs, such as peer
support groups or outreach activities, may prove valuable in reducing stress and preventing
burnout. Specifically for the Indonesian context, integrating religious coping mechanisms
into these interventions could further strengthen emotional resilience during crises,
oering a holistic approach to supporting psychologists in high-stress environments.
Eective interventions should be structured, evidence-based, and specifically tailored to
address psychologists’ unique challenges in these settings. Workshops and training sessions
can be pivotal in increasing awareness of maladaptive coping patterns while equipping par-
ticipants with practical strategies for identifying and addressing these behaviors eectively.
Moreover, regular mental health assessments—whether mandatory or voluntary—can aid
in the early detection of stress and maladaptive coping mechanisms, enabling timely and
targeted intervention. Aligning these interventions with culturally relevant practices,
such as prayer, communal support, and spiritual reection, can foster greater acceptance,
active participation, and long-term eectiveness. This culturally sensitive approach not
only mitigates immediate stressors but also strengthens connections to meaningful and
locally resonant coping strategies. To advance this field, future studies should explore inte-
grated interventions combining adaptive coping mechanisms with family- and commu-
nity-based support systems to address psychological distress comprehensively.
Furthermore, investigating the mediating role of organizational support in reducing mala-
daptive coping strategies among psychologists could yield valuable insights, paving the way
for systemic and sustainable improvements in psychologists’ well-being.
For psychologists in training, embedding coping strategy education into academic
curricula can better prepare future professionals to proactively identify and address mala-
daptive patterns. Interactive methods, such as role-playing exercises and case studies,
oer trainees valuable opportunities to cultivate self-awareness and practice adaptive
coping skills in a safe and controlled setting. Reective practices, including journaling
and guided supervision sessions, further encourage trainees to examine their emotional
responses and coping mechanisms over time critically.
Replicating this study on a global scale is essential to validate and generalize the
findings across diverse cultural, social, and professional contexts. Expanding the scope
of these studies to include other mental health professionals, such as psychiatrists,
12 F. A. ABIDIN ET AL.
counselors, and social workers, can provide a broader understanding of stress and coping
dynamics within the mental health workforce. This comparative approach can uncover
profession-specific stressors and tailor interventions accordingly. Furthermore, future
research should explore the applicability of these findings beyond Indonesian psycholo-
gists, specifically investigating whether the observed patterns hold true in non-Indone-
sian and non-psychologist populations.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Author’s contribution
FAA, AGP, and JKT designed the longitudinal study; ESK conducted the initial and
follow-up data collection; EF performed the data analysis; FAA and AGP contributed
to the interpretation of the results; FAA and JKT drafted and revised the manuscript.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Institutional review board statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was
approved by an Institutional Review Board/Ethics Committee. See details under Methods.
Declaration of generative AI in scientific writing
During the preparation of this work, the authors used ChatGPT 4.0 to improve the
grammar of the manuscript, as English is not the authors’ first language. After using
this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full
responsibility for the content of the publication.
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.
Data availability
Data supporting the findings of this study are available at https://osf.io/phm8s.
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