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Citation: Teleszewski, T.J.;
Gładyszewska-Fiedoruk, K. Carbon
Monoxide Concentration in the
Garage of a Single-Family
House—Experiment and
One-Dimensional Model of Carbon
Monoxide Concentration. Appl. Sci.
2025,15, 1146. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app15031146
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
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Article
Carbon Monoxide Concentration in the Garage of a Single-Family
House—Experiment and One-Dimensional Model of Carbon
Monoxide Concentration
Tomasz Janusz Teleszewski 1and Katarzyna Gładyszewska-Fiedoruk 2,*
1Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Department of HVAC Engineering, Bialystok
University of Technology, Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Białystok, Poland; t.teleszewski@pb.edu.pl
2
Institute of Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 166,
02-776 Warsaw, Poland
*Correspondence: katarzyna_gladyszewska-fiedoruk@sggw.edu.pl
Featured Application: Based on the research carried out, this work proposes an origi-
nal automatic regulation system that is intended to warn against an excessive carbon
monoxide concentration and to reduce the carbon monoxide concentration in a garage.
Abstract: The paper presents a number of tests of the carbon monoxide concentration in
a single-car garage equipped with exhaust ventilation, while the combustion engine of a
parked passenger car is operating. The main source of carbon monoxide in the garage is
the internal combustion engine of a passenger car. Single-car garages are characterized
by a relatively small volume, which causes a rapid accumulation of carbon monoxide
inside the garage. The aim of this publication is to present the results of research on carbon
monoxide concentration in a single-family building garage with the combustion engine in
a passenger car running and at various air exchanges in the garage. The test results showed
that the permissible values (WHO, NAAQS) of carbon monoxide concentrations were
significantly exceeded, both with the exhaust ventilation switched on and off. The highest
carbon monoxide concentration values (2253 ppm) in the garage were observed when the
exhaust ventilation was turned off. The study also developed two one-dimensional models
of carbon monoxide concentrations in a garage with the combustion engine of a passenger
car turned on, with the exhaust ventilation turned on and off. The models developed can
be used in ventilation design to estimate the carbon monoxide concentrations in garages,
based on the type of car and the number of air changes.
Keywords: garage; carbon monoxide; combustion engine; carbon monoxide modeling;
indoor air pollution; air pollution health impact
1. Introduction
Car combustion engines generate emissions of many air pollutants, such as dust
(PM
2.5
, PM
10
), hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) [
1
]. Carbon monoxide is particularly dangerous and has an impact
on human health and life. Carbon monoxide is a highly toxic, odorless and colorless gas,
slightly lighter than air, which means it easily mixes with air and spreads indoors [
2
,
3
].
Potential sources of carbon monoxide in living rooms include heat sources and devices for
heating domestic hot water in which fuels are burned. Carbon monoxide is produced as a
result of an incomplete combustion of many fuels, such as coal, wood, fuel oil, gasoline,
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031146
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 2 of 11
kerosene and gas, in the absence of an adequate amount of oxygen. The danger of carbon
monoxide poisoning stems from the fact that carbon monoxide is undetectable by humans,
it enters the body through the respiratory system and is then absorbed into the bloodstream.
In the human respiratory system, carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin 210 times faster
than oxygen, blocking the supply of oxygen to the body, which poses a serious threat to
human health and life. Carbon monoxide prevents the proper distribution of oxygen in the
blood and causes damage to internal organs and, above all, to the brain. Acute poisoning
may result in coronary failure and irreversible damage to the central nervous system [
2
–
7
].
In garages, where cars are parked, the main sources of carbon monoxide emissions
are the internal combustion engines of passenger cars. The literature contains research
on carbon oxide concentrations in rooms where cars are parked or repaired [
8
–
10
]. In the
Quebec City region [
8
], 33% of car repair shops and car showrooms had atmospheric CO
concentrations above 25 ppm, a level considered to pose a risk of affecting chronic health.
In a single-car garage, with a volume of 73 m
3
[
9
], after 20 min of running the car, the carbon
monoxide concentration level was 253 ppm for a car without a catalytic converter, and
30 ppm for a car with a catalytic converter. Research on a parked passenger car in the garage
of a single-family house showed a carbon monoxide concentration of 420 ppm after 47 min
of the car running. It should be noted that the gaseous pollution in rooms is also associated
with sick building syndrome (SBS) [
11
,
12
]. In multi-car garages, the concentration of
carbon monoxide depends primarily on the number of cars and the type of ventilation
installed [
13
]. Carbon monoxide emitted by cars affects the level of carboxyhemoglobin
(HbCO) in the blood of employees operating garages in city centres [
14
]. According to the
research presented in [
15
], most of the deaths caused by carbon monoxide, unrelated to
fires, took place in garages or outbuildings.
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) programs are used to determine the three-
dimensional problems, in order to accurately simulate the concentration of air pollutants in
rooms [
16
–
18
]. One-dimensional models are also used in air quality simulations [
19
–
21
],
and can be used in automatic indoor air quality control systems [22–24].
Smaller single-family houses are currently being built in Poland due to the increasing
building, purchasing, and operating costs [
25
,
26
]. Smaller houses are also most often
characterized by garages with a small volume. Carbon monoxide is particularly dangerous
in rooms with a small number of air changes and in rooms with a small volume. The aim
of this study is to present the results of research on CO concentrations in a single-family
building garage when the combustion engine of a passenger car is turned on and with
various air exchanges in the garage. This study also develops a one-dimensional model
for estimating the carbon monoxide concentration in a small garage of a single-family
building equipped with exhaust ventilation. The results of the experiment and analysis
contribute to the development of an automatic signaling and control system for carbon
monoxide in garages of single-family houses. It should be emphasized that the main
research on air pollution in garages focuses mainly on dust [
27
–
29
], VOCs [
29
–
33
] and
carbon dioxide [
33
,
34
]. Carbon monoxide, even at low concentrations, becomes dangerous
to human health and life. A carbon monoxide concentration of 12,000 ppm can lead
to death even in a few minutes [
35
,
36
]. The WHO permissible concentration of carbon
monoxide over an 8 h period is 35 ppm [
37
]. At a carbon monoxide concentration level of
approximately 200 ppm a person begins to feel symptoms related to poisoning [35,36].
Chapter 2 of the article describes in detail the single-car garage of a single-family
house. Then, the carbon monoxide, humidity, and temperature measurement methods are
described. Section 4presents and discusses the numerical results of carbon monoxide con-
centration measurements in the garage at various exhaust ventilation flows. Additionally,
an automatic regulation system was proposed to protect the garage from an increase in
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 3 of 11
the carbon monoxide concentration. Section 5is a developed model of carbon monoxide
concentration, based on the measurement results from Section 4. The last part contains the
conclusions of the study.
2. Research Subject
The research was carried out in a single-car garage located in Bialystok, eastern Poland,
in a temperate climate. The garage has a small volume of 43.5 m
3
. The length, width and
height of the garage are 5.74 m, 3.75 m and 2.02 m, respectively. The garage area is 21.53 m
2
.
The garage is equipped with one 1.42 m
×
64 m triple-glazed and one 2.38 m
×
209 m
garage door. The experiment was carried out with the garage door closed and the window
closed. The garage is equipped with exhaust ventilation with a diagonal fan installed. The
walls of the building are made of 0.25 m thick ceramic blocks with a 0.10 m thick layer
of Styrofoam.
Measurements were made in February and March of 2024. The source of the carbon
monoxide was a hatchback passenger car, equipped with a three-cylinder engine with a
displacement of 1.198 cm3.
3. Materials and Methods
To assess the concentration of carbon monoxide in the garage, the recommended per-
missible concentrations of carbon monoxide indoors presented in Table 1were used
[37–39]
.
Table 1. Recommended limits of concentration of carbon monoxide in indoor air [37–39].
Recommended CO Concentration (ppm); (%) Authority
≥6 (0.0006%) WHO, 2021 [39] Ambient air (24 h)
≥9 (0.0009%) NAAQS (EPA) [37], Ambient air (8 h)
≥25 (0.0025%) WHO, 2000 [38] Ambient air (1 h)
≥35 (0.0035%) NAAQS (EPA) [37] Ambient air (1 h)
≥90 (0.0090%) WHO, 2000 [38] Ambient air (15 min)
Air parameters were tested using a Testo 435 and Testo 350 recorder (manufactured by
Testo SE & Co. KgaA, Titisee-Neustadt, Germany) with the following accuracy parameters:
carbon monoxide
±
2 ppm of reading for the range from 0.0 to 39.9 ppm,
±
5% of reading
for the range from 40.0 to 2000 ppm,
±
10% of reading for the range from 2001 to 10,000 ppm,
temperature
±
0.2
◦
C from 0 to +50
◦
C and relative humidity
±
2% from 2 to +98%. A
recording was performed every 1 min and the recorded value was the arithmetic average
from the samples taken every 5 s, i.e., from 12 measurements. Stored data were downloaded
to a laptop at the end of each measurement series in the garage using software (Testo
easyEmission Software 2.9 SP1) provided by Testo SE & Co. KGaA. There were no people
or pets in the garage during the experiment.
After turning on the measuring equipment and beginning the recording of air parame-
ters, the combustion engine of the car parked in the garage was started, the garage was
quickly left and the its door was closed. After an hour of the experiment, the gate was
opened, and after 30 min, when the carbon monoxide concentration was zero, the recording
was stopped. Measurements were made in two locations in the garage, at the front and
rear of the car, at a height of 1 m [
40
]. The one-hour measurement recording time was
performed at one minute intervals.
In order to obtain different air exchange values in the garage, the air flow in the exhaust
ventilation duct was regulated by changing the rotational speed of the exhaust fan rotor.
The rotational speed of the fan rotor is changed by changing the voltage of the fan’s electric
motor, which is regulated by an autotransformer. The average velocity measurement in
the exhaust grille was performed using a Testovent 417 (manufactured by Testo SE & Co.
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 4 of 11
KGaA) measuring funnel, with an accuracy of
±
0.1 m/s. The volume flow in the exhaust
duct was determined as the product of the average velocity and the cross-sectional area of
the measuring funnel and the number of air changes in the garage was determined from
the quotient of the volume flow and the volume of the garage. Before measuring the air
parameters, the garage was ventilated by opening the garage door for one hour. After
ventilating the garage, the carbon monoxide concentration inside and outside the garage
was zero. All measurement series presented in this publication start from the moment the
combustion engine is turned on in a car parked in the tested garage. The car ’s combustion
engine was turned on when the engine was cold.
4. Results and Discussion
Table 2shows the numbers of the measurement series, measurement duration, average
temperatures and relative humidity values in the garage, the number of air changes, and
average and maximum values of carbon monoxide concentration in the analyzed garage.
The average values of carbon monoxide concentrations presented in Table 1refer to the
first 15 min and the entire 1 h period of the carbon monoxide recording. During the
measurements, the average temperatures inside the garage ranged from 8.86
◦
C to 12.11
◦
C
(Table 2) and the average air humidity values ranged from 47.95% to 88.30%. The garage
was unheated. In Series 1, measurements were made without ventilation, with the supply
fan turned off and the exhaust duct closed. Due to the permissible standards [
38
] of carbon
monoxide concentrations in rooms where people stay, all one-hour average values of the
measurement series do not meet the WHO assumptions [38].
Table 2. Parameters of the measurement series: measurement duration, average temperature and
relative humidity, number of garage air changes, average and maximum air concentrations of
carbon monoxide.
Series
Number
Measurement
Duration
Average
Internal
Temperature
Average
Relative
Humidity
Number of
Air Changes
per Hour
Average CO
Concentration
over the Entire
(1 h)
Measurement
Period
Average CO
Concentration
over 15 min
Maximum
Value of CO
Concentration
cexp(avg) cexp(avg)_15 cexp(max)
- min. ◦C % 1/h ppm ppm ppm
Series 1 60 8.86 83.45 0 1151 350 2253
Series 2 60 10.59 88.05 6 277 163 356
Series 3 60 11.86 82.10 8 223 150 265
Series 4 60 12.11 88.30 10 177 125 226
Series 5 60 12.09 54.60 17 113 95 142
Series 6 60 11.24 47.95 37 55 58 85
Series 7 60 9.97 77.31 73 29 24 48
In the case of a fifteen-minute measurement period, only Series 6 and 7 meet WHO
standards [
38
] in terms of carbon monoxide concentrations. In the case of the NAAQS
standard [
37
], only Series 7 meets the guidelines for permissible indoor concentrations for
a one-hour interval.
Figure 1shows the relationship between the average hourly and maximum carbon
monoxide concentrations as a function of the number of air changes for the range of air
changes from 6 to 73 1 h measurement series with ventilation turned on (Series 2–7). The
relationship between the average hourly and maximum carbon monoxide concentrations
as a function of the number of air changes in the garage can be approximated by a power
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 5 of 11
function. As the number of the air changes in the garage decreases, the carbon monoxide
concentration in the garage increases.
Figure 1. Dependence of average hourly and maximum carbon monoxide concentrations as a function
of the number of air changes for measurement series with ventilation turned on.
Figure 2shows the dependence of the carbon monoxide concentration as a function of
time and the number of air changes in the garage. With the ventilation turned off (Series 1),
during the 60 min measurement, a linear increase in carbon monoxide in the garage
was noted and did not stabilize in this time interval. After 60 min, the concentration of
carbon monoxide was approximately 2253 ppm, which constitutes a direct threat to human
life [
36
,
37
]. In the case of an operating exhaust ventilation (Series 2–7), carbon monoxide
increases first, and then the carbon monoxide concentration in the garage stabilizes to
a constant value. The stabilization time depends on the number of air changes. The
stabilization time of the carbon monoxide concentration decreases with an increase in
the air changes in the garage. In the first few minutes of the measurement (Figure 2), an
increase and then a decrease in the carbon monoxide concentration in the garage was
noted, which is caused by starting the cold combustion engine of the car. Starting a cold
engine generates a local increase in carbon monoxide concentration, which is caused by
the low initial fuel combustion temperature in the engine [
41
]. The trends in the carbon
monoxide concentration changes in the garage (Figure 2), with the ventilation both on
and off are similar to the trends in carbon monoxide concentrations presented in the
publications [
9
,
10
,
19
]. The value of the carbon monoxide concentrations depends primarily
on the number of air changes in the garage, the size of the internal combustion engine, and
additional optional filters located in the car’s exhaust system [
19
]. In the case of multi-
car garages, the carbon monoxide concentration in the room where the cars are parked
depends primarily on the current number of parked cars [
13
]. Due to the high traffic of cars
in multi-car garages, the trends in carbon monoxide concentration do not stabilize [
13
], as
in the case of single-car garages in single-family buildings. It should be emphasized that
in the garage examined, the only source of carbon monoxide was the combustion engine
of a passenger car. In garages, additional sources of carbon monoxide may be boilers [
18
],
power generators [19] and cigarette smoking [42].
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 6 of 11
Figure 2. Carbon monoxide concentration as a function of time—comparison with the model.
Figure 3shows the impact of opening the external garage door on the carbon monoxide
concentration in the garage, when the combustion engine of a passenger car is running.
The car was parked with its back to the garage door. In the first interval (1) the engine
was turned off and the garage door was open. During this period, the carbon monoxide
concentration was 0 ppm. After six minutes, the car engine was turned on and the carbon
monoxide concentration in the next six-minute period (2) was approximately 14 ppm. After
closing the garage door, the carbon monoxide concentration began to rise rapidly (3) and
after another 8 min (3) it reached 290 ppm. Twenty minutes after the start of the experiment,
the garage door was opened and the engine was turned off, which resulted in a sharp drop
in carbon monoxide concentration to zero in the 27th minute of the experiment. The test
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 7 of 11
results (Figure 3) show how important it is to open the garage door before starting the car’s
combustion engine.
Figure 3. Carbon monoxide concentration as a function of time—the impact of opening the garage
door on the carbon monoxide concentration when the combustion engine in a car is running.
The basic, commonly used and recommended, means of protection against carbon
monoxide poisoning are carbon monoxide detection sensors combined with an alarm.
When the acoustic carbon monoxide alarm goes off, leave the room quickly [15].
Based on the research conducted, an automatic signalling and control system for
carbon monoxide in garages of single-family houses was proposed (Figure 4). The system
consists of a regulator (1), a carbon monoxide sensor (2), an exhaust fan (3) connected to the
exhaust ventilation duct (4), an acoustic alarm (5), and an electric actuator (6) that opens
the garage door (7). If a significant concentration of carbon monoxide is detected by the
carbon monoxide sensor (2), the fan (3) is turned on at the maximum rotor speed, the alarm
is activated by the acoustic generator (5) and the garage door (7) opens using the electric
actuator (6).
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of garage protection system against carbon monoxide: 1—regulator, 2—
carbon monoxide sensor, 3—exhaust fan, 4—exhaust ventilation duct, 5—acoustic signal, 6—electric
actuator, 7—garage gate.
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 8 of 11
5. One-Dimensional Model of Carbon Monoxide Concentration in
a Garage
The balance of the carbon monoxide concentration in the garage consists of carbon
monoxide supplied from outside c
a
or carbon monoxide c
i
removed from the garage
through the supply and exhaust ventilation and carbon monoxide Q
e
generated by the
internal combustion engine of the car located inside the garage:
Vdc
dt =nV(ca−ci) + Qe, (1)
where t[h] is the time, V[m
3
] is the volume of the garage, and n[1/h] is the number of air
changes in the garage.
The concentration of carbon monoxide in clean, fresh outdoor air is small and will
be ignored in further calculations (c
a
= 0), therefore Equation (1) can be written in the
following form:
Vdc
dt =−nVci+Qe, (2)
After integrating Equation (2), a model of the change in carbon monoxide concentra-
tion as a function of time twas obtained:
cnum =Qe
nV +ct=0−Qe
nV e−nt, (3)
where ct=0 [ppm] is the initial concentration of carbon monoxide in the garage.
Assuming that the garage was ventilated before the measurement, the initial con-
centration of carbon monoxide can be assumed to be negligible (c
t=0
[ppm]), therefore
Model (3) can be simplified to the following form:
cnum =Qe
nV 1−e−nt , (4)
If the exhaust ventilation fan in the garage is turned off (n
∼
=
0), Formula (1) takes the
following form:
Vdc
dt =Qe, (5)
After assuming a zero initial value of the carbon monoxide concentration (c
a
= 0) for
t= 0
and integrating Equation (5), a model for a garage with the exhaust ventilation turned
off was obtained in the form of a linear function:
cnum =1
VQet, (6)
The relative error of Models (3) and (6) was determined according to the following
formula:
δcnum =
cex p −cnum
cex p
100% (7)
where c
exp
is the carbon monoxide concentration measured in the garage, and c
num
is the
carbon monoxide concentration determined using Equations (3) or (6).
The average relative error of the model for all of the measurement series was 8.98%.
A graphical comparison of the results from the model and experiment is shown in
Figure 2
. Carbon monoxide change trends are similar to those determined from 3D models
(CFD)
[17,18]
. First, the carbon monoxide concentration increases, and then stabilizes [
43
].
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 9 of 11
The developed algorithm can be used to estimate the carbon monoxide concentration
in the garage, which should be the basis for the design of the garage exhaust ventilation in
single-family buildings.
6. Conclusions
The research results indicated a significant problem with high carbon monoxide con-
centrations in small, single-family building garages, with a parked car and the combustion
engine running. If the exhaust ventilation is turned off and the garage door is closed, the
carbon monoxide concentration increases linearly over a one-hour period to the value of
2253 ppm. In the case of a small garage with the exhaust fan turned off, a carbon monoxide
concentration dangerous to human life (376 ppm) was reached after just five minutes.
When the ventilation is turned on, the concentration of carbon monoxide stabilizes, but it
does not reach a level safe for human health. The results of testing the carbon monoxide
concentration in the garage indicated that carbon monoxide should be taken into account
when designing the efficiency of exhaust ventilation in garages.
In this work we developed a carbon monoxide concentration model in the garage in a
single-family house. The average relative error of the model was 8.98%. The developed
model can be implemented in automatic control regulation of the exhaust ventilation in
the garage.
Very good carbon monoxide reduction effects were achieved by opening the garage
door completely. An electric actuator that opens the garage door, controlled by the cre-
ated model, can be used as an actuator in an automatic regulation system to reduce the
accumulated carbon monoxide concentration in the garage in an emergency.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.J.T. and K.G.-F.; methodology, T.J.T.; software, T.J.T.;
validation, T.J.T.; formal analysis, K.G.-F.; investigation, T.J.T.; resources, K.G.-F.; data curation,
T.J.T. and K.G.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, T.J.T.; writing—review and editing, T.J.T.;
visualization, T.J.T.; supervision, T.J.T. and K.G.-F.; project administration, K.G.-F.; funding acquisition,
K.G.-F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The study has been executed with resources of the statutory work financed by the Ministry
of Science and Higher Education in Poland (WZ/WB-II´
S/8/2023 and Institute of Environmental
Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW)).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data generated and analyzed during this study are available on
request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to ongoing research
and analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Nomenclature
caconcentration of carbon monoxide supplied from outside to the garage (ppm)
ciconcentration of carbon monoxide removed from the garage (ppm)
ct=0 initial concentration of carbon monoxide in the garage (ppm)
nnumber of air changes (1/h)
ttime (h)
Qecarbon monoxide generated by the internal combustion engine of a car in a garage (µdm3/h)
Vgarage volume (m3)
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 1146 10 of 11
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