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Integrating Global Citizenship Education into Ghana’s Common Core Programme: Pathways to
Empowering 21st Century Learners
Amadu Musah Abudu1
Iddrisu Bariham2
Joseph Yaw Dwamena Quansah3
1amadu.abudu@uds.edu.gh
2ibariham@uds.edu.gh
3jquansah@uds.edu.gh
1https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5647-4440
2https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5027-7003
3https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7425-2209
1,2,3University for Development Studies, Ghana
https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.4.167
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
ABSTRACT
Ghana’s Common Core Programme (CCP), introduced as part of recent educational reforms, aims to equip students with 21st-
century competencies, including critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and intercultural collaboration. While the CCP provides a
promising framework for incorporating Global Citizenship Education (GCE), the extent to which global citizenship principles are
fully integrated within the curriculum remains a critical issue. Grounded in Transformative Learning Theory, this study examines
the integration of GCE within the CCP and its potential to prepare students for active roles in an increasingly interconnected world.
The study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods approach, targeting a population that included teachers, head teachers,
and curriculum leads in basic schools across Ghana's Central, Ashanti, Western, and Savanna regions. Using a multistage sampling
method, a total sample size of 427 participants was selected. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews, and focus
group discussions, and the analysis combined path-coefficient calculations with inductive thematic analysis. The findings reveal
that skills (path coefficient = 0.335) exert the most significant influence on the CCP curriculum, reflecting the programme’s strong
emphasis on critical thinking, problem-solving, and practical competencies essential for global citizenship. Knowledge (path
coefficient = 0.305) and attitudes and values (path coefficient = 0.303) also play critical roles, highlighting the CCP’s commitment
to fostering global awareness, empathy, respect for diversity, and inclusivity. Furthermore, the high path coefficient between the
CCP and GCE (0.930) demonstrates a strong positive alignment with GCE objectives. The study also reports high R² values for
CCP (0.739) and GCE (0.865), suggesting a well-structured curriculum designed to promote global citizenship competencies. These
results conclude that the CCP is successfully aligning with the broader goals of GCE by equipping students with the knowledge,
skills, and values needed to thrive in a globalized world. To further enhance the integration of GCE within the CCP, the study
recommends that the Ministry of Education strengthen ongoing professional development for educators and provide additional
resources to support effective teaching practices.
Keywords: Civic Engagement, 21st Century Learners, Common Core Programme, Curriculum, Global Citizenship Education
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I. INTRODUCTION
As the world becomes increasingly interconnected through globalization, the role of education in preparing
students to navigate and contribute to this global landscape is becoming increasingly critical. Today, educational systems
are expected not only to impart traditional knowledge and skills but also to cultivate globally competent individuals who
can understand and address complex global issues. In this context, Ghana’s educational reforms, particularly the
implementation of the new Common Core Programme (CCP), aim to equip students with the skills, knowledge and
attitudes necessary to engage effectively in a globalized world. However, the extent to which Global Citizenship
Education (GCE) has been integrated into the CCP remains unclear.
GCE is essential for fostering students’ ability to think critically about global issues, appreciate cultural
diversity, and collaborate on problem-solving initiatives (Bosio et al., 2023; Waghid, 2023; Parejo et al., 2022). Xiong
(2024) asserted that the aim of GCE was to understand and appreciate global issues, respect cultural diversity, and foster
a sense of shared responsibility among students. This shift in educational focus is particularly relevant for countries like
Ghana, where the integration of GCE into the curriculum can play a crucial role in preparing students for the challenges
and opportunities of the 21st century (Addae et al., 2024; Ng, 2020). Without a clear and comprehensive integration of
Vol. 5 (Iss. 4) 2024, pp. 1997-2013 African Journal of Empirical Research https://ajernet.net ISSN 2709-2607
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GCE into the curriculum, students may not develop the global competencies required to contribute meaningfully to both
local and international communities. This integration is not merely an academic requirement but a crucial element in
ensuring that students are prepared to positively impact society at all levels, from local communities to the global stage
(Banks & Williams, 2022).
In this regard, González-Valencia et al. (2022) and Ng (2020) stated that the curriculum requires a careful
balance between global and local perspectives, as well as the provision of adequate resources and training for educators
to effectively teach GCE concepts. The prospects for integrating GCE into the CCP are promising, given the Ghanaian
government's commitment to educational reform and the growing recognition of global citizenship's importance in
today’s world (Addae et al., 2024). However, to fully realize these prospects, policymakers, educators, and stakeholders
must collaborate effectively in overcoming challenges and seizing the opportunities presented by this educational
initiative.
1.1 Statement of the problem
The integration of GCE into the CCP is of utmost importance as it fosters global awareness, enhances critical
thinking, and equips students with the skills needed to navigate and contribute to an interconnected world. Thus, GCE
is increasingly regarded as crucial for raising students’ awareness of global challenges, supporting sustainable
development, and promoting social cohesion in Ghana’s culturally diverse society (Addae et al., 2024; Pacho, 2021).
Nonetheless, there is a notable literature gap regarding the integration of GCE into the CCP and whether the curriculum
adequately prepares students to become informed, engaged, and responsible global citizens. This gap in the literature
poses a significant challenge for educators, policymakers and curriculum developers who are tasked with ensuring that
the CCP not only meets students’ academic needs but also equips them for the complexities of the globalized world.
Without a clear understanding of how well GCE is integrated into the CCP, students may not be adequately prepared to
address global issues, engage in critical thinking, and actively participate in both local and global communities.
Considering these concerns, this study aims to assess the influence of GCE in the development of CCP in Ghana.
This study sought to contribute to the ongoing dialogue on educational reform in Ghana and provide insights that could
inform the development of a curriculum better suited to preparing students for the demands of 21st century globalised
world.
1.2 Research Objectives
The objective for the study was to:
(i) Examine the extent to which the integration of knowledge component of GCE influences the development of the
CCP in Ghana.
(ii) Investigate how the incorporation of attitudes and values of GCE contributes to shaping the CCP in Ghana.
(iii) Explore the extent to which the inclusion of skills of GCE influence the development of the CCP in Ghana.
(iv) Assess how the CCP influences the preparation of learners for global citizenship.
1.3 Research Hypotheses
H₁: The integration of knowledge components of GCE positively influences the development of the CCP in Ghana.
H₂: The incorporation of attitudes and values components of GCE positively contributes to shaping of the CCP in Ghana.
H₃: The inclusion of skills components of GCE positively influences the development of the CCP curriculum in Ghana.
H₄: The CCP positively influences the preparation of learners for global citizenship.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.1.1 Transformative Learning Theory
The study is structured around Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory, which provides a foundational
framework for understanding how learning can foster meaningful change in individuals. According to Mezirow (2003),
transformative learning is a process through which individuals critically reflect on their assumptions, revise their frames
of reference, and adopt more inclusive, discriminating, and integrative worldviews. This theory is particularly relevant
to studies on Global Citizenship Education (GCE), as it aligns closely with its goals of fostering critical thinking, cultural
appreciation, and ethical responsibility in an increasingly globalized world.
The key tenets of Transformative Learning Theory—critical reflection, experiential learning, and perspective
transformation—are integral to the study. Transformative learning begins with critical reflection, where learners analyse
their existing beliefs and assumptions to identify biases and limitations. This reflective process is essential for students
to question and deconstruct previously unexamined worldviews, enabling them to develop a more nuanced
understanding of global issues. Transformative learning also emphasizes experiential learning as a pathway to change.
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Mezirow (2003) asserts that meaningful transformation often occurs through activities that challenge learners’ frames
of reference. Ultimately, transformative learning culminates in perspective transformation, where individuals adopt a
broader and more inclusive understanding of the world. This shift enables learners to navigate and contribute
meaningfully to an interconnected global environment, reflecting the pivotal goal of integrating GCE into educational
curricula (Bosio et al., 2023). In the context of this study, the integration of GCE into CCP encourages students to reflect
on global issues such as human rights, social justice, and cultural diversity (Addae et al., 2024). GCE is framed as a
transformative process that equips students to move beyond traditional learning goals and embrace new ways of thinking
about the interconnected world. This directly aligns with Mezirow's emphasis on reflective and experiential learning as
key to transformation.
2.2 Empirical Review
2.2.1 Knowledge Component of Global Citizenship Education in the Common Core Programme
The integration of the knowledge component of GCE into Ghana’s CCP plays a critical role in shaping a
curriculum that provides students with a deep understanding of global interdependencies. This component of GCE
emphasises essential topics such as human right, social just, cultural diversity, and global inequality, which are
instrumental in fostering students' awareness of global challenges and opportunities (Khoo et al., 2021; Kazi, 2024).
According Khoo et al., (2021) and Kazi (2024), by embedding these themes into the CCP, students are introduced to a
curriculum that not only addresses academic requirements but also broadens their perspectives, enabling them to
appreciate the interconnected nature of the global community. Crawford et al. (2020) and Camilleri (2016) argued that
the inclusion of global perspectives in curricula helps students develop a critical awareness of their roles within a
globalized society. This aligns closely with the objectives of the CCP, which seeks to balance national developmental
goals with a global outlook. Similarly, Ydo (2023) emphasised that the knowledge component of GCE allows students
to critically engage with issues such as globalization and its implications for both local and international contexts. This
critical engagement fosters an understanding of human right, social just, cultural diversity and global interdependence,
which is particularly relevant for advancing Ghana's developmental agenda {Adam-Yawson et al., 2021 and Angyagre
& Quainoo, 2019). Moreover, knowledge-oriented GCE fosters global literacy by introducing students to complex
issues, such as climate change and global inequality, equipping them with the intellectual tools necessary to navigate
and address these challenges effectively.
Addae et al. (2024) asserted that embedding GCE knowledge into the CCP aligns seamlessly with Ghana’s
developmental priorities by enabling students to critically analyse and address local challenges through a global lens.
They further indicated that the inclusion of climate change in the curriculum helps students understand how global
environmental phenomena directly impact their immediate surroundings, including agricultural practices and water
management systems, both of which are vital for Ghana’s economy. Similarly, analysing migration from a global
perspective enables students to critically examine rural-urban migration trends in Ghana and their broader implications
for national development. Furthermore, the work of Edwards Jr. et al. (2020) on global education highlights the
importance of incorporating international frameworks, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), into national
curricula. This integration prepares students to engage actively in global initiatives while contextualizing these themes
within Ghana’s unique socioeconomic realities. By aligning the CCP with international goals such as sustainable
development, students are encouraged to see themselves as active contributors to both local and global efforts, thus
fostering a sense of shared responsibility and purpose. By leveraging insights from these studies, the CCP in Ghana has
the potential to bridge the gap between local and global perspectives, preparing students for active participation in a
complex and interconnected world.
The attitudes and values component of GCE are essential in fostering empathy, respect for diversity, and a sense
of shared responsibility among students. Buchanan et al. (2018) and Ferguson and Brett (2023) emphasize that this
dimension of GCE encourages learners to view themselves as integral members of a global community, promoting a
sense of interconnectedness and accountability toward others. This perspective is particularly significant in Ghana,
where the nation's socioeconomic and cultural diversity presents both challenges and opportunities for promoting social
cohesion and mutual respect (Addae et al., 2024).
By embedding attitudes and values into educational practices, students are exposed to foundational concepts
such as equity, justice, and sustainability. These values are not merely theoretical abstractions but are woven into
everyday learning experiences, enabling students to understand and appreciate their relevance to both local and global
contexts. Chankseliani et al. (2021) assert that integrating these elements into the curriculum builds a culture of empathy
and commitment to social justice, equipping students with the moral framework to engage constructively with societal
issues.
In Ghana, where classrooms reflect the nation’s rich cultural and socioeconomic diversity, the inclusion of GCE
values is critical for nurturing mutual respect and fostering a shared sense of purpose among students. This component
of GCE provides a platform for students to explore their individual identities while developing an appreciation for the
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perspectives and experiences of others. Such engagement fosters an environment where students learn to navigate
differences constructively, contributing to a more cohesive and inclusive society. Moreover, embedding attitudes such
as respect for diversity into the curriculum extends beyond fostering interpersonal harmony. It equips students with the
tools necessary to address broader societal challenges, including inequality, discrimination, and environmental
degradation. For instance, Ferguson and Brett (2023) highlight that students who internalize values like sustainability
and justice are more likely to take proactive steps to confront pressing global issues, such as climate change and social
inequities. This transformative potential of GCE is particularly relevant in Ghana, where these challenges have localized
impacts on communities and livelihoods.
Addae et al. (2024) further underscore the importance of fostering attitudes and values that empower students
to contribute positively to both their local and global communities. For example, cultivating empathy within the
curriculum helps students better understand the lived experiences of marginalized groups in Ghana, while instilling a
sense of shared responsibility inspires collective action toward societal improvement. By nurturing these values, GCE
not only enriches students' moral development but also lays the foundation for a more equitable and sustainable society.
Evidence from international contexts reinforces the importance of attitudes and values in education. Waghid (2024) and
Ydo (2023) argue that these components are critical for developing students' critical consciousness and moral reasoning,
which are indispensable for addressing local and global challenges. Similarly, González-Valencia et al. (2022) emphasize
that fostering global citizenship through values such as respect and equity equips students with the skills to navigate
cultural differences with sensitivity and confidence, which are invaluable in today’s interconnected world.
2.2.2 Attitude and Values Component of Global Citizenship Education in the Curriculum
The attitudes and values component of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) plays a vital role in cultivating
empathy, respect for diversity, and a sense of shared responsibility among students. Buchanan et al. (2018) and Ferguson
and Brett (2023) emphasize that this aspect of GCE encourages learners to perceive themselves as integral members of
a global community, fostering interconnectedness and accountability toward others. This perspective is particularly
relevant in Ghana, where the nation's socioeconomic and cultural diversity presents unique challenges and opportunities
for promoting social cohesion and mutual respect (Addae et al., 2024).
By embedding attitudes and values within educational practices, students are introduced to essential concepts
such as equity, justice, and sustainability. These values are not abstract ideals but are integrated into daily learning
experiences, enabling students to understand their practical relevance to both local and global contexts. Chankseliani et
al. (2021) argue that incorporating these elements into the curriculum fosters a culture of empathy and commitment to
social justice, equipping students with the moral framework needed to address societal issues constructively.
In Ghana, where classrooms often reflect the nation’s rich cultural and socioeconomic diversity, the integration
of GCE values is particularly important for nurturing mutual respect and fostering a shared sense of purpose. The
attitudes and values component provides a platform for students to explore their individual identities while appreciating
the perspectives and experiences of others. This dynamic fosters an environment in which students learn to navigate
differences constructively, contributing to a more cohesive and inclusive society. Furthermore, embedding attitudes such
as respect for diversity into the curriculum extends beyond interpersonal relationships. It equips students with the skills
necessary to engage with broader societal challenges, including inequality, discrimination, and environmental
degradation. Ferguson and Brett (2023) note that when students internalize values like sustainability and justice, they
are more likely to take proactive steps to address pressing global issues such as climate change and social inequities.
This transformative potential of GCE is particularly significant in Ghana, where such challenges often have localized
impacts on communities and livelihoods. Addae et al. (2024) emphasise the importance of fostering attitudes and values
that empower students to contribute positively to both their local and global communities. For instance, promoting
empathy within the curriculum helps students better understand the lived realities of marginalized groups in Ghana,
while instilling a sense of shared responsibility encourages collective action toward societal improvement. By cultivating
these values, GCE not only enriches individual students’ moral development but also lays the foundation for a more
equitable and sustainable society.
Evidence from international contexts further underscores the significance of attitudes and values in education.
Bosio et al., (2023) highlights that these components help students develop critical consciousness and moral reasoning,
which are essential for addressing local and global challenges. Similarly, Sharma et al., (2021) underscores that fostering
a sense of global citizenship through values like respect and equity enables students to navigate cultural differences with
sensitivity and confidence—skills that are indispensable in today’s interconnected world. The attitudes and values
component of GCE is a powerful mechanism for promoting social cohesion, empathy, and global responsibility. In
Ghana, where diversity is both a strength and a challenge, embedding these elements into the curriculum is crucial for
shaping students who are prepared to contribute meaningfully to their communities and beyond. By fostering respect
for diversity, a commitment to justice, and a shared sense of responsibility, this approach aligns education with broader
goals of social inclusion, equity, and sustainability.
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2.2.3 Skills Component of Global Citizenship Education in the Common Core Programme
The skills component of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) plays a pivotal role in equipping students with
the competencies required to navigate and address the complexities of an increasingly interconnected world. GCE
emphasizes the development of critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and problem-solving abilities—skills essential for
tackling global challenges such as climate change, economic inequality, and social injustice (Bosio et al., 2023). These
competencies enable students to critically analyse global issues, propose innovative and sustainable solutions, and act
as responsible citizens, contributing meaningfully to both local and global communities.
Kerkhoff and Cloud (2020) highlight the importance of integrating global themes into education, asserting that
such integration enhances students' capacity for ethical reasoning and critical problem-solving. Through this approach,
learners engage with real-world issues from a global perspective, not only acquiring knowledge but also developing the
ability to connect their learning to broader systems and structures. This fosters an understanding of the interdependence
between local and global contexts, illustrating how actions in one part of the world can have far-reaching consequences
elsewhere. Kim et al. (2019) corroborate this assertion and indicated that integrating these skills into educational
practices bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, empowering students to address
immediate community challenges while contributing to global progress.
Ghana’s Common Core Programme (CCP) embodies these principles by embedding a skills-oriented framework
within its educational objectives. The CCP emphasizes critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and practical problem-solving
as key elements of its mission, preparing students for the demands of a dynamic and interconnected world. This
alignment with GCE ensures that students are equipped not only for academic success but also for informed and active
citizenship. For example, the CCP encourages learners to critically examine global phenomena such as environmental
degradation, economic disparity, and social inequality, contextualizing these challenges within Ghana’s unique
sociocultural, economic, and environmental realities. By doing so, students develop a deeper understanding of their
immediate environment while maintaining a global perspective.
Furthermore, the CCP’s focus on critical thinking enables students to approach problems from diverse
perspectives, fostering the development of creative and evidence-based solutions. For instance, students are guided to
analyse the root causes and long-term implications of global issues such as climate change, poverty, and migration. This
analytical approach not only sharpens their intellectual abilities but also instils a sense of responsibility and urgency in
addressing these pressing challenges (Kim et al., 2019). By engaging with these topics, students are encouraged to take
informed actions that contribute to both local development and global sustainability.
The integration of GCE principles into Ghana’s CCP represents a forward-thinking approach to education,
ensuring that students are prepared to navigate the complexities of the 21st century. This alignment underscores the
significance of cultivating skills that transcend traditional academic disciplines, emphasizing ethical awareness, global
engagement, and the ability to address real-world problems. By bridging local relevance with global applicability,
Ghana’s education system is empowering students to become adaptable, responsible, and proactive participants in
shaping a more equitable and sustainable future. This holistic approach positions learners as both beneficiaries of
education and catalysts for societal transformation and global progress.
2.2.4 Preparation of Learners for Global Citizenship
The integration of GCE into the CCP offers numerous benefits that are essential for students’ holistic
development. By embedding GCE into the curriculum, students gain a deeper understanding of global interdependencies
and the challenges posed by issues such as climate change, migration, and global inequality (Khoo et al., 2021). This
understanding is crucial in helping students develop the skills necessary to navigate the complexities of the global
landscape (Kazi, 2024; Kim et al., 2019). Moreover, GCE plays a vital role in enhancing students’ critical thinking and
complex problem-solving abilities, which are essential for both academic success and active citizenship. By engaging
with global issues, students learn to analyze problems from multiple perspectives, think critically about potential
solutions and develop a sense of ethical responsibility. Chankseliani et al. (2021) highlighted that integrating GCE into
the curriculum allows educators to foster a culture of empathy, respect for diversity, and commitment to social justice
among students, thereby contributing to the creation of a more inclusive and equitable society. In the context of Ghana,
where socioeconomic and cultural diversity is significant, GCE can play a pivotal role in promoting social cohesion and
fostering mutual respect among students from diverse backgrounds. Addae et al. (2024) argued that GCE is essential for
building a shared sense of purpose and responsibility among Ghanaian students, enabling them to contribute positively
to both local and global communities. The inclusion of GCE in the CCP not only enhances students’ academic
competencies and equips them with the tools needed to become informed, engaged, and responsible global citizens
(Angyagre & Quainoo, 2019).
Despite its many benefits, the successful integration of GCE into the CCP faces several challenges that must be
carefully addressed to ensure its effectiveness (Ministry Of Education, 2018). According to MOE (2018), one of the key
challenges is the need to design a curriculum that effectively incorporates GCE concepts while ensuring that these
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concepts are taught in a way that aligns with the Ghanaian context. This requires a careful balance between global and
local perspectives and the provision of adequate resources and training for educators to effectively teach GCE concepts
(Poole & Russell, 2015). Poole and Russell (2015) and Holden and Hicks (2007) emphasized that the successful
integration of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) depends on teachers’ readiness, who must have the necessary skills
and knowledge to effectively deliver GCE content. However, educators may lack the necessary training and resources
to implement GCE successfully. This challenge is particularly pronounced in developing countries like Ghana, where
educational resources are often limited and resistance to incorporating global perspectives into curriculum exists due to
a focus on national development goals (Nijhuis et al., 2012; Chubb et al., 2024).
Furthermore, there is a significant gap in empirical research regarding the effectiveness of GCE integration
within the CCP and whether the curriculum adequately prepares students to become informed, engaged, and responsible
global citizens (McCowan et al., 2022; Trang, 2021). This lack of evidence poses a challenge for educators, policymakers
and curriculum developers who are tasked with ensuring that the CCP not only meets the academic needs of students
but also equips them for the complexities of the globalized world (Addae et al., 2024; Pacho, 2021; Helm et al., 2024).
However, to fully realize this potential, policymakers, educators and stakeholders must work together effectively to
address the challenges and capitalize on the opportunities presented by this educational initiative. Integrating GCE into
the CCP is crucial for raising students’ awareness of global issues, supporting sustainable development, and fostering
social cohesion within Ghana’s culturally diverse society.
2. 3 Conceptual Framework
To effectively integrate global citizenship education into the curriculum, a holistic approach is required—one
that seamlessly incorporates knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values across subjects and learning experiences. The
conceptual framework in Figure 1 shows the components of the GCE and their influence on CCP.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
Keys:
CCP= Common Core Programme
KLG= KNOWLEDGE
ATV = attitude and values.
SKS=SKILLS
GCE= Global Citizenship Education
As shown in Figure 1, well-structured curriculum should equip students with a comprehensive understanding
of global systems, human rights, social justice, environmental sustainability, and cultural diversity, fostering an
awareness of interconnectedness and collective responsibility. Equally crucial is the development of essential attitudes,
such as empathy, respect for diversity, responsibility, and commitment to peace, inclusion, and equity, that encourage
ethical action in a globalized world. These cognitive and attitudinal components should be complemented by the
cultivation of key skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, effective communication, intercultural
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collaboration, digital literacy, and civic engagement. Experiential learning activities—such as project-based learning,
debates, community service, and cross-cultural exchanges—provide practical opportunities for students to apply these
competencies to real-world challenges. By embedding global citizenship education across disciplines, cocurricular
programmes, and experiential learning, schools can create an environment where students can become reflective,
responsible, and active participants in both local and global contexts. This comprehensive approach ensures that learners
not only acquire the competencies necessary for global citizenship but also internalize the values and motivation required
to contribute meaningfully toward a more just, sustainable and peaceful world.
III. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
This study employed a mixed-methods research design anchored by a convergent parallel design. In this study,
qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analysed separately but concurrently. The results of each method
were then compared and integrated during the discussion phase. The quantitative component provided statistical insights
into the degree of GCE integration, whereas the qualitative component delved deeper into the experiences and
perspectives of key stakeholders. The mixed-methods approach was chosen to enable triangulation of findings from
different data sources, thus enhancing the credibility and reliability of the research outcomes (Creswell & Plano Clark,
2018).
3.2 Target Population
The target population for this study comprised teachers, head teachers, and curriculum leads in Central, Ashanti,
Western and Savanna Regions of Ghana. The multistage method was used in selecting the sample for the study. The
target population is about 89,416. These are the people engaged in the implementation of the curriculum in Ghana.
3.3 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
Multi-stage sampling was used to select sample for the study. In the first stage, Ghana, with its 16 regions, was
divided into three geographical zones based on their socio-cultural and geographical dynamics: the Coastal Belt, Middle
Belt, and Northern Belt. From these zones, four regions (Central, Ashanti, Western and Savanna) were randomly
selected. These regions were selected to reflect diverse geographical, cultural, and economic contexts within Ghana. At
the second stage, four districts within each region were randomly selected, totalling 16 districts. In the next stage, 5
schools were also randomly selected from each of the districts selected. The total number schools selected were 80.
After the schools were selected, teachers were randomly chosen using a simple random sampling method, ensuring that
the sample was unbiased. Only teachers who had been continuously teaching in school for a minimum of six years were
eligible for the study. In all, a sample size of 427 was selected using Krejcie and Morgan's sample size determination
table. The sample distribution is shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Sample Distribution
Geographical Zone
Number
of Regions
Number of
Regions Selected
Number of
District selected
Number of Schools
Selected
Number of Teachers
Selected
Coastal Belt
4
1
4
20
104
Middle Belt
7
2
8
40
216
Northern Belt
5
1
4
20
107
Total
16
4
16
80
427
Table 1 shows the number of regions, district, schools, and teachers selected from each geographical zone.
The survey consisted of structured questionnaire primarily featuring closed-ended questions. The items of the
questionnaire measured the presence of GCE themes in the curriculum and perceptions of GCE’s effectiveness in
enhancing student engagement and global awareness. The questionnaire items were assessed using a five-point Likert
scale, where participants may indicate their level of agreement or disagreement, ranging from "strongly disagree" to
"strongly agree." The scale accurately measures attitudes and perceptions. A numerical number ranging from 1 to 5 was
assigned to each response. We conducted a pilot test involving 20 teachers for the purpose of ensuring clarity and
reliability. The Cronbach's Alpha of the 42 items yielded 0.85 and this high value suggests internal consistency among
the items in the questionnaire. A Cronbach's Alpha of 0.85 is considered acceptable, indicating that the items effectively
measure the study's core constructs.
Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews and group focussed discussions. Semi-
structured interviews were conducted with curriculum leads and headteachers of the selected schools. In each district,
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ten interviews were conducted for the qualitative data. For this study, saturation was reached after the 10th informant in
each district, as the information provided began to repeat similar elements already expressed by previous informants. In
all, the total interviews conducted were 160 in the 16 districts selected for the study. The 10 participants used in each
district were appropriate and reliable since data saturation in qualitative studies can be reached in an array of interviews
from 2 to 17 (Yin, 2018; Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). These interviews were conducted to explore the participants’ views
on the integration of GCE and their assessment of the CCP’s effectiveness in promoting global citizenship. Also, seven
focus group discussions, each involving six teachers, were conducted in each of the 16 districts.
Quantitative data collected from the stakeholders were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical
methods. Descriptive statistics, including percentages and mean were used to summarise biodata. Inferential statistical
techniques, such as t-tests, chi-square tests, and ANOVA, were used to test the hypotheses and determine whether
significant differences exist in GCE integration in CCP. Qualitative data from interviews and focus group discussions
were inductively analysed based on themes.
The research adhered to ethical guidelines, and consent was obtained from all participants prior to their
involvement in the study. Participants received a detailed information sheet explaining the study’s purpose, procedures,
potential risks and benefits, and their rights as participants, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time
without penalty. To protect participants’ identities, pseudonyms were used in place of real names in all data records and
publications.
IV. FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
4.1 Findings
In all 388 questionnaires were retrieved representing 90.9% of the respondents. This section presents the results
of the path analysis and structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) conducted to examine the relationships between the
independent variables (Knowledge (KLG), Attitudes and Values (ATV), and Skills (SKS)) and the dependent variable
(GCE). The study sought to test four key hypotheses related to how these latent variables influence the CCP curriculum
and the impact of the CCP on fostering GCE in students. The demographic characteristics of respondents are indicated
in Table 2.
Table 2
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Characteristics
Freq.
Percent
Gender
Female
164
42.23
Male
224
57.7
Total
388
100.0
Age (years)
20 - 30
26
6.7
31 - 40
130
33.5
41 - 50
146
37.6
51 – 60
86
22.2
Total
388
100.0
Highest academic qualification
Diploma
194
50.0
First Degree
165
42.5
Second Degree
29
7.5
Total
388
100.0
Years Teaching Experience
6 - 16
128
33.0
17 - 27
187
48.2
28 - 38
59
15.2
Above 38
14
3.6
Total
388
100.0
The demographic data in Table 2 highlights a diverse and experienced respondent pool, characterized by
balanced gender representation, a wide age range, substantial teaching experience, and strong academic qualifications.
These attributes suggest that the respondents are well-positioned to provide valuable insights into curriculum
management and teaching practices. The predominance of mid-to-late career educators with higher qualifications further
reinforces their capacity to engage critically with the study’s themes, offering a robust foundation for exploring issues
in pedagogical beliefs and practices.
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This study employed structural equation modelling (SEM) approaches. These statistical techniques were
essential for elucidating the relationships between observed variables and their corresponding latent constructs. The
Table 3 aimed to delineate how each manifest variable correlates with its associated latent variable, to assess cross-
loadings, and to evaluate the overall fit of the model. Such analytical procedures are critical for validating the theoretical
underpinnings of latent structures within the dataset and for refining measurement models. Table 3 and Figure 3 present
the empirical findings in detail.
Table 3
Correlation, Cross-Loading, and Model Assessment
Latent
variable
Manifest
variables
Standardized
loadings
Loadings
Location
Commu-
nalities
Redun-
dancies
Standardized
loadings
(Bootstrap)
Standard
error
The
critical
ratio
(CR)
Lower
bound
(95%)
Upper
bound
(95%)
KLG
GLS
0.823
0.823
0.000
0.677
0.824
0.017
49.580
0.793
0.856
HUR
0.789
0.789
0.000
0.622
0.781
0.032
24.845
0.703
0.862
SOJ
0.459
0.459
0.000
0.210
0.455
0.072
6.382
0.314
0.595
CUD
0.440
0.440
0.000
0.193
0.434
0.052
8.488
0.318
0.556
ICC
0.806
0.806
0.000
0.650
0.806
0.026
31.368
0.750
0.849
ATV
ERD
0.829
0.829
0.000
0.687
0.831
0.014
60.779
0.793
0.854
INE
0.707
0.707
0.000
0.500
0.705
0.038
18.395
0.629
0.773
COP
0.650
0.650
0.000
0.423
0.639
0.046
14.111
0.525
0.721
ETA
0.687
0.687
0.000
0.472
0.687
0.033
21.100
0.609
0.753
SKS
CRT
0.773
0.773
0.000
0.597
0.769
0.027
28.717
0.702
0.814
DIL
0.430
0.430
0.000
0.185
0.424
0.066
6.565
0.244
0.546
CIE
0.275
0.275
0.000
0.076
0.260
0.077
3.576
0.119
0.423
ECO
0.689
0.689
0.000
0.475
0.694
0.044
15.801
0.590
0.771
PSA
0.768
0.768
0.000
0.590
0.768
0.034
22.502
0.698
0.835
CCP
CCP
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.739
1.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
GCE
GCE
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.865
1.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
Figure 3
Path Coefficients
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Definition of variables
Independent Variable CCP= Common Core Programme
Latent variable 1: KLG= KNOWLEDGE
Manifest Variables GLS=Global System
HUR=Human Right
SOJ= Social Just
CUD=Cultural Diversity
ICC= Inter-cultural Collaboration
Latent variable 2: ATV = attitude and values.
Manifest variables ERD = Empathy and respect for diversity
INE = inclusive and equity
COP=Commitment to peace
ETA=Ethical Action
Latent Variable 3 SKS=SKILLS
Manifest Variables CRT=Critical Thinking
DIL=Digital Literacy
CIE=Civic Engagement
ECO=Effective Communication
PSA=Problem Solving Abilities
Dependent Variable GCE= Global Citizenship Education
4.1.1 Objective 1 the Integration of Knowledge Components of GCE into CCP
The path coefficient as shown in Table 3 and Figure 3 for the relationship between Knowledge (KLG) and the
Common Core Programme (CCP) is 0.305, suggesting a moderate but meaningful positive impact of GCE knowledge
integration in CCP curriculum development. This finding, with a highly significant critical ratio (CR) of 35.164 and a
95% confidence interval between 0.289 and 0.324, reinforces that knowledge acquisition within this curriculum is both
substantial and statistically reliable. In the analysis of key knowledge components within the Knowledge of Global
Linkages (KLG) domain, specifically, Global Systems (GLS) and Human Rights (HUR)—the standardized loadings
were found to be notably high, at 0.823 and 0.789, respectively. These figures underscore the substantial contribution of
these components to the curriculum, reinforcing the inference that the CCP’s focus on global awareness and human
rights is strategically aligned with the overarching educational objective of cultivating globally competent students.
Additionally, perspectives gathered from interviews with respondents regarding the incorporation of GCE knowledge
into the CCP are outlined below:
Incorporating the knowledge components not only rejuvenates the curriculum but also increases its
effectiveness in equipping students to become knowledgeable, ethical, and active participants in the
global community. This enhanced curriculum deepens students' comprehension of global systems,
covering the complexities of international trade, environmental sustainability, and international legal
frameworks—crucial knowledge for addressing the challenges of the 21st century. (Headteacher 4)
This enriched curriculum framework, through the integration of components like global systems, human
rights, social justice, cultural diversity, and intercultural collaboration, positions the Common Core
Programme (CCP) in Ghana at the forefront of contemporary educational practices. (Headteacher 7)
This curriculum framework, developed through the integration of elements such as global systems,
human rights, social justice, cultural diversity, and intercultural collaboration, places Ghana's
Common Core Programme (CCP) at the forefront of contemporary educational methodologies. By
weaving these broad and globally pertinent components into the curriculum, the CCP not only meets
international educational benchmarks but also caters to the complex needs of today's students.
(Curriculum Lead 2)
The feedback obtained through focussed discussions and interviews underscores a broad consensus that elements
of Global Citizenship Education (GCE) have been effectively incorporated into the Common Core Programme (CCP).
Additionally, the participants' responses highlight the significant role that GCE plays in shaping the CCP, with an
anticipation that learners will acquire the requisite knowledge essential for navigating the complexities of the 21st
century.
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4.1.2 The Incorporation of Attitudes and Values Components of GCE into CCP
The path coefficient of 0.303 as shown in Figure 2 indicates a moderate positive impact of Attitudes and Values
(ATV) on shaping the Common Core Programme (CCP) curriculum, a finding close in strength to the influence of
Knowledge (KLG). The critical ratio (CR) of 36.689 was statistically significant, and the 95% confidence interval
reinforced its reliability, underscoring the importance of attitudes and values. This finding aligns with the growing
emphasis on affective domains in education, which many scholars regard as fundamental for preparing students to
engage thoughtfully and responsibly within diverse global and local contexts. The standardized loadings shown in Table
3 for specific components under ATV—Empathy and Respect for Diversity (ERD) at 0.829 and Inclusion and Equity
(INE) at 0.707—further affirm the importance of these values in the CCP’s curriculum structure. High loadings for these
values indicate that the CCP curriculum intentionally prioritizes empathy, respect for diversity, and inclusion, aiming to
cultivate not only knowledgeable students but also ethically and socially responsible individuals. The focused group
discussions revealed that the CCP incorporates specific components of GCE that enhance learners' abilities to understand
and appreciate diverse cultures. These components, including empathy, respect for diversity, and inclusion, are integral
to the curriculum. Confirmatory interviews with selected respondents supported these findings, with several participants
expressing views that align with the integration of these GCE elements within the CCP:
The integration of empathy within the curriculum enables students to develop emotional intelligence by
learning to understand and share the feelings of others, thereby fostering a supportive classroom
environment. Such cultivation is essential for nurturing ethical sensitivity, which forms the bedrock for
responsible behaviour both within the community and in broader societal contexts. (Headteacher 26)
The curriculum’s emphasis on respect for diversity and inclusion mirrors the rich tapestry of cultural,
social, and personal perspectives present in society. This educational strategy not only teaches students
to value differences but also ensures that all students feel recognized and supported, thereby providing
them with equitable opportunities to achieve excellence. (Curriculum Lead 12)
Furthermore, the incorporation of equity into the curriculum involves tailoring resources and
pedagogical approaches to meet the varied needs of all students. This commitment to fairness addresses
systemic inequalities and promotes justice, ensuring that every student has the chance to succeed,
irrespective of their background. (Curriculum Lead 27)
A commitment to peace is also central to the curriculum, equipping students with vital skills in conflict
resolution and non-violent communication. These skills are crucial for fostering peaceful interactions
and constructively resolving disputes, thereby contributing to societal stability. (Curriculum Lead 13)
Moreover, the curriculum's focus on ethical action guides students to make decisions based on moral
principles and to act with integrity. This preparation fosters the development of conscientious leaders
and citizens, who are capable of ethical decision-making in their personal, professional, and civic lives.
(Headteacher 64)
The quotations from participants and the insights garnered from focused group discussions suggest that
integrating foundational values such as empathy, respect for diversity, and inclusion into the CCP not only enhances
academic achievement but also develops students into conscientious individuals prepared to address contemporary
challenges. This holistic educational approach is crucial for nurturing students who are not only well-informed but also
ethically sound and socially responsible, thereby enabling them to contribute positively to society.
4.1.3 The Inclusion of Skills Components of GCE into CCP
The path coefficient of 0.335 indicates that Skills (SKS) exert the most substantial influence on the development
of the Common Core Programme (CCP) curriculum compared with the other latent variables of Knowledge (KLG) and
Attitudes and Values (ATV). The high critical ratio (CR) of 62.413 and the 95% confidence interval of [0.323, 0.347]
confirm the robustness of this relationship, establishing Skills as the most influential factor shaping the CCP curriculum.
This result aligns with the global shift in educational priorities, where skills acquisition, particularly in critical thinking
and problem-solving, is increasingly recognized as essential for preparing students for the complexities of the 21st
century.
The manifest variables within Skills, specifically Critical Thinking (CRT) and Problem-Solving Abilities (PSA),
exhibit strong standardized loadings of 0.773 and 0.768, respectively. These values confirm that these competencies are
integral to the CCP’s design, emphasising the programme’s focus on equipping students with practical and cognitive
abilities. The integration of essential skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, civic engagement, digital literacy, and
effective communication significantly enhances the CCP curriculum's capacity to prepare students for global citizenship.
This has been echoed by respondents as stated below.
The curriculum's focus on critical thinking enables students to thoroughly analyse information from a
wide range of sources and perspectives. This skill is crucial for global citizenship as it equips students
to make informed decisions, recognize biases, and understand complex global issues. Additionally, it
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encourages them to reflect on the ethical implications of their decisions and actions on both local and
global scales. (Curriculum Lead 14)
Problem-solving skills are vital for navigating the complex challenges of global interconnectedness.
The CCP curriculum develops these skills, equipping students to tackle real-world problems, create
innovative solutions, and navigate the uncertainties of the global landscape. This skill set is increasingly
important in a world where economic, environmental, and social challenges require cross-border
cooperation and creative solutions. (Headteacher 32)
The integration of civic engagement skills into the curriculum enables students to actively engage in
their local communities and the wider global context. These skills, which include an understanding of
civic rights and responsibilities, community service, and participation in democratic processes, foster
a sense of responsibility and a commitment to positively influence society. (Headteacher 29)
In today's rapidly digitalizing world, digital literacy is essential for global citizens. It encompasses
effective use of digital tools, understanding of digital content and platforms, and ethical engagement
online. Digital literacy provides students with the ability to access international information, connect
with global networks, and participate in worldwide discussions—key components for effective global
citizenship. (Curriculum 11)
Crucial for global citizenship, effective communication skills allow students to clearly and persuasively
express ideas, actively listen, and engage in dialogues across cultural and linguistic barriers. These
skills are critical for building relationships, collaborating internationally, and advocating for changes
in a globally interconnected world. (Curriculum 34)
By cultivating these key skills, the CCP curriculum not only provides students with the necessary tools
for academic and personal success but also prepares them to actively engage with and contribute to the
global community. These skills ensure that students are not just informed about the world but are active
participants in shaping it, ready to take on leadership roles in various international contexts. This
comprehensive skill set is essential for developing students who are informed, engaged, and capable of
making significant positive impacts globally. (Headteacher 53)
The quotations and interactions with focused groups highlight that critical thinking and problem-solving skills
are considered essential components of contemporary education. Their prominent inclusion in the Common Core
Programme (CCP) resonates with the findings of Kazi (2024) and Wang (2023), who argue that such skills equip students
to critically and constructively address real-world issues. Furthermore, Khoo et al. (2021) emphasize that curricula
emphasizing skills development not only bolster students' capabilities to tackle various challenges but also foster lifelong
learning. This approach ensures that students are prepared to adapt continuously to the changing demands of society.
4.1.4 The CCP Positively Influences the Preparation of Learners for Global Citizenship
The path coefficient of 0.930 between the Common Core Programme (CCP) and Global Citizenship Education
(GCE) signifies a strong positive impact, indicating that the CCP curriculum plays a substantial role in advancing GCE
objectives. This finding is bolstered by a critical ratio (CR) of 57.662, highlighting the statistical significance of this
relationship, and an R² value of 0.865, which reveals that 86.5% of the variance in GCE outcomes can be attributed to
the CCP curriculum. This high coefficient suggests that the CCP curriculum is not only aligned with the goals of GCE
but is also an effective framework for cultivating globally competent students.
The comprehensive integration of GCE elements such as Knowledge, Attitudes and Values, and Skills within the CCP
curriculum underscores its commitment to fostering competencies essential for global citizenship. This commitment is
reflected in the sentiments expressed by participants during focused group discussions and interviews, as summarized
below
The CCP curriculum introduces students to crucial global challenges such as sustainability, human
rights, and international relations. This exposure is critical in helping students understand the
complexities of global systems and the effects of both individual and collective actions on an
international scale. Such insights are crucial for developing well-informed global citizens who are
conscious of the world beyond their local environment. (Headteacher 44)
Central to GCE is the skill of critically engaging with global issues. The CCP encourages this by
prompting students to explore challenging content, participate in debates viewing multiple perspectives,
and draw well-supported conclusions. These activities are vital in boosting students' ability to critically
evaluate both global and local issues, thus preparing them to effectively tackle these challenges.
(Headteacher 57)
Ethical reasoning, a core component of global citizenship, involves applying ethical principles in
decision-making processes. The CCP curriculum emphasizes values like justice, equality, and respect
for diversity, which are essential in guiding students' actions on a global scale. Through discussions
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and reflective activities, students learn to address the ethical dimensions of global issues and advocate
for fair solutions. (Headteacher 19)
Effective communication and collaboration are essential for participation in global networks. The CCP
enhances these skills through group projects, presentations, and discussions that require precise
articulation of ideas and collaborative efforts. These interactions are crucial in helping students
develop the ability to navigate cultural and linguistic differences, thereby enhancing their capacity for
international cooperation. (Curriculum Lead 37)
Beyond educating students about global issues, GCE aims to actively involve them in addressing these
challenges. The CCP supports this objective by encouraging civic engagement and community
involvement, engaging students in projects and initiatives that apply their learning in practical settings.
This hands-on involvement fosters a sense of responsibility and empowers students to contribute
positively both locally and globally. (Headteacher 5)
The CCP employs an interdisciplinary approach to help students see connections between various
academic subjects and their relevance to global issues, such as linking science with social studies to
enhance understanding of environmental sustainability. This comprehensive approach promotes a
deeper appreciation of how different disciplines intersect within global contexts, enriching the overall
learning experience. (Curriculum Lead 12)
These remarks underscore the importance of incorporating GCE into the CCP as a means of developing well-
rounded learners who comprehend global issues, value diversity, and act responsibly in both local and global contexts.
By integrating GCE, the CCP not only enhances academic learning but also empowers learners to make significant
contributions to a more inclusive society.
4.2 Discussion of Findings
The integration of knowledge components such as global systems, human rights, social justice, cultural
diversity, and intercultural collaboration significantly influences the development of the CCP in Ghana, as evidenced by
the data. The quantitative analysis reveals a path coefficient of 0.305, indicating a moderate yet substantive positive
impact of GCE on the CCP curriculum development. This statistical finding is robust, supported by a critical ratio (CR)
of 35.164 and a 95% confidence interval that spans from 0.289 to 0.324, affirming the substantial and statistically reliable
integration of this knowledge into the curriculum. The standardized loadings for specific components like Global
Systems (GLS) and Human Rights (HUR) are particularly high at 0.823 and 0.789, respectively. These metrics not only
validate the substantial contributions of these elements to the curriculum but also reinforce the strategic intent of the
CCP to align with global educational objectives, promoting a comprehensive understanding of global interdependencies
and human rights issues as integral to developing globally competent students. Complementing these quantitative
insights, qualitative data derived from interviews and focused group discussions offer deeper understanding into how
these integrations translate into educational practice. The inclusion of key global education components revitalizes the
CCP curriculum, significantly enhancing its effectiveness in equipping students to become knowledgeable, ethical, and
proactive global citizens. Studies by Bosio et al. (2023) and Waghid (2024) support this finding that curricula
emphasizing global systems and human rights better equip students to think critically and ethically about international
issues and encourage active global citizenship. Furthermore, Lourenço (2021) confirmed that knowledge-focused
curricula foster students’ understanding of their roles in both local and global contexts, which is a core goal of the CCP.
However, Addae et al. (2024) argued that in diverse contexts like Ghana, balancing global knowledge with local cultural
understanding is crucial to enhance curriculum relevance needed for the 21st century. Participants in these discussions
consistently affirm the effective incorporation of GCE into the CCP, highlighting its pivotal role in shaping the
curriculum and ensuring that learners are well-prepared to handle global complexities with informed perspectives and
critical thinking skills.
In terms of attitudes and values, the path coefficient of 0.303 underscores a positive and impactful integration
into the CCP curriculum. This moderate influence, closely rivalling the impact of knowledge integration, is statistically
significant, with a CR of 36.689 and solid confidence intervals that underscore the reliability of these findings. The
qualitative feedback from focused group discussions reveals that the curriculum effectively fosters these values, crucial
for cultivating an understanding and appreciation of diverse cultures. It also enhances the social and ethical sensitivity
of students, enabling them to act conscientiously within their communities and in broader societal contexts. This is
supported by Banks and Williams (2022), who emphasized that curricula embedded with empathy and inclusivity
encourage students to develop a deeper understanding of societal challenges and motivate them to contribute to positive
social change. Similarly, Pacho (2021) argued that attitudes like empathy and respect for diversity are essential in
education systems, particularly in multicultural contexts, as they foster social cohesion and a shared sense of
responsibility. However, despite the clear value of fostering these attitudes, challenges are associated with integrating
affective learning into the curriculum. Angyagre and Quainoo (2019) highlighted the difficulty of effectively
implementing values-based education, noting that success depends heavily on teachers’ ability to model and teach these
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attitudes. They argued that without sufficient training and resources, educators may struggle to convey complex values
such as empathy and inclusion meaningfully. This concern is echoed by Golden (2016), who found that the effective
integration of values into curricula requires educators who are themselves proficient in these skills and who have access
to support systems that reinforce the affective aspects of learning. Moreover, while attitudes and values play a crucial
role, scholars such as Chubb et al. (2024) caution against the need to carefully maintain the balance between affective
and cognitive components. They suggest that while values like empathy and equity are essential, they must be integrated
alongside academic knowledge to avoid diluting the curriculum’s focus on measurable learning outcomes. This view is
relevant in the context of Ghana’s CCP, where national educational goals must balance both cognitive rigor and ethical
development. The path coefficient of 0.303 and the high loadings for ERD and INE substantiate the CCP’s strong
orientation toward integrating values such as empathy, diversity, and inclusion.
The strongest influence among the latent variables studied is attributed to the integration of key skills, with a
path coefficient of 0.335 indicating that skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, civic engagement, digital
literacy, and effective communication are paramount in shaping the CCP curriculum. This finding corroborates a global
educational shift towards prioritizing such skills acquisition, recognized as essential for preparing students to effectively
navigate and respond to the complexities of a globalized society. Lourenço’s findings align with those of Ferguson and
Brett (2023), who posit that these skills foster an adaptable, resilient mindset, essential for students to thrive in both
local and global contexts. The focus on such skills in the CCP curriculum indicates that it is strategically aligned with
global educational standards, which prioritize cognitive flexibility and problem-solving as core components of student
development. Despite these findings, some studies have raised important considerations regarding the implementation
of skills-focused curricula. Poole and Russell (2015) argued that while critical thinking and problem-solving skills are
essential, effectively integrating these skills into the curriculum requires substantial teacher training and resources.
Without appropriate support, educators may face challenges in effectively delivering these competencies, which could
undermine the intended impact on students. Furthermore, Chankseliani et al. (2021) cautioned that an overemphasis on
skills without adequate knowledge integration may result in superficial learning experiences in which students lack a
strong theoretical foundation to apply their skills meaningfully Nonetheless, the strong path coefficient (0.335) and high
loadings on CRT and PSA indicate that the CCP curriculum is designed with a strong orientation toward practical and
cognitive skill development. This focus is not limited to theoretical instruction but emphasizes the application of
knowledge through problem-solving and critical engagement with content. The CCP’s prioritization of these
competencies aligns with contemporary educational frameworks, as described by Angyagre and Quainoo (2019), who
emphasize the role of skills-based learning in preparing students for active citizenship and meaningful contributions to
society. This skills-oriented approach equips students to address complex, real-world challenges, reflecting an
educational vision aligned with global standards for 21st-century learning. For optimal impact, however, these findings
highlight the importance of providing teachers with the necessary training and resources to support skills-based learning
fully, ensuring that the CCP effectively fosters both practical skills and foundational knowledge for holistic student
development. The curriculum’s emphasis on these skills significantly enhances students' capacity to engage critically
with complex issues, innovate solutions to real-world problems, and participate actively in both their local communities
and the global arena.
The high R² value of 0.865 further underscores the CCP curriculum’s effectiveness in promoting GCE. This
level of explanatory power suggests that the CCP’s design is deeply aligned with global citizenship goals, creating a
learning environment in which students can cultivate a sense of global responsibility. Lourenço (2021) corroborates this
finding, arguing that high-impact educational frameworks for GCE provide structured opportunities for students to
understand and address global challenges. In Lourenço’s view, effective GCE curricula prepare students to appreciate
cultural diversity, engage in civic responsibility, and develop an ethical orientation toward global issues—outcomes that
are evident within the CCP framework. Studies by Bosio et al. (2023) and Waghid (2024) emphasized that an effective
global citizenship curriculum must incorporate a balance of cognitive, affective, and practical skills to address the
complexity of global issues. Bosio et al. (2023) specifically highlighted that curricula fostering critical thinking, cultural
empathy, and global awareness prepare students to navigate diverse social and cultural contexts, thus contributing to
their readiness for global engagement. This aligns closely with the CCP’s focus on equipping students with the
knowledge, values, and skills necessary to engage responsibly and ethically in an interconnected world.
However, some studies have raised concerns about the challenges inherent in such ambitious curriculum
integration. McCowan et al. (2022) pointed out that while GCE goals are increasingly embedded in national curricula,
practical obstacles—such as inconsistent teacher training, resource limitations, and varying interpretations of GCE
content—can hinder the full realization of GCE outcomes. In contexts like Ghana, where resources may be constrained,
the CCP’s success in promoting GCE may depend heavily on teacher readiness and ongoing professional development.
Golden (2016) and Angyagre and Quainoo (2019) argued that for GCE integration to be sustainable and impactful,
teachers must be equipped with both the pedagogical skills and the resources to deliver content effectively. Without this
support, the ambitious goals of GCE may be challenging to achieve, regardless of curriculum quality. Additionally, while
the strong path coefficient indicates that the CCP curriculum has a substantial positive effect on GCE, scholars such as
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Addae et al. (2024) highlight the importance of balancing global competencies with local contextual understanding.
They caution that without integrating local perspectives, GCE may inadvertently alienate students by focusing too
heavily on global issues at the expense of local relevance. This perspective is particularly relevant to Ghana, where
integrating both global and local citizenship education may enhance students’ ability to act as engaged citizens within
both their immediate communities and the broader world.
V. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The study’s findings demonstrate that the CCP is strongly aligned with the transformative goals of GCE,
providing a robust framework for equipping students with competencies essential for navigating the complexities of a
globalized world. The high path coefficients for skills (0.335), knowledge (0.305), and attitudes and values (0.303)
underscore the curriculum’s emphasis on fostering critical reflection, global awareness, and ethical action—hallmarks
of transformative learning. These components are vital for cultivating students’ ability to address global challenges,
engage with diverse perspectives, and contribute meaningfully to their local and global communities. Both quantitative
and qualitative findings together underscore a comprehensive and impactful approach to curriculum development that
meets global educational standards. Overall, the findings from this study confirm that the CCP is a pioneering
educational initiative that robustly integrates global citizenship education at its core, setting a benchmark for curriculum
development in Ghana and potentially influencing other educational systems globally. As this programme continues to
evolve, it holds the promise of shaping generations of students who are well-prepared to meet the challenges of the 21st
century with confidence, competence, and a compassionate understanding of the world around them.
5.2 Recommendations.
To further enrich the CCP’s effectiveness in fostering a holistic understanding among students, it is
recommended to strengthen interdisciplinary teaching approaches. This could involve more integrated projects and
assignments that require students to apply knowledge from various disciplines to solve complex problems, thus
reflecting real-world global issues more accurately. The success of any curriculum heavily depends on the competency
and preparedness of its educators. Therefore, ongoing professional development should be provided to ensure that
teachers are not only familiar with the content of GCE but also skilled in delivering it effectively for the demands of the
21st century.
To deepen students’ understanding of global citizenship and encourage practical application of their learning,
the CCP should increase opportunities for community engagement. This could involve partnerships with local and
international NGOs, community service projects, and initiatives that allow students to engage with global issues on a
local level.
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