No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Nuclear Power and Propulsion for Enhanced Planetary Science Exploration
Abstract
The exploration of outer planets and icy moons demands advanced propulsion and power solutions to overcome the limitations of chemical and solar-electric systems. This paper highlights the transformative potential of Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) and nuclear power systems for deep-space missions. NTP systems, with their high thrust and specific impulse, enable reduced trip times and increased payload capacity, facilitating flagship-class missions to distant worlds. Nuclear power systems provide sustained energy for high-power instruments, such as ice-penetrating radars, LIDARs, and mass spectrometers, critical for investigating subsurface oceans and detecting organic compounds. Additionally, they enable high-rate data transmission over vast distances, ensuring maximum scientific return from robotic missions to the outer solar system.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
The Radar for Europa Assessment and Sounding: Ocean to Near-surface (REASON) is a dual-frequency ice-penetrating radar (9 and 60 MHz) onboard the Europa Clipper mission. REASON is designed to probe Europa from exosphere to subsurface ocean, contributing the third dimension to observations of this enigmatic world. The hypotheses REASON will test are that (1) the ice shell of Europa hosts liquid water, (2) the ice shell overlies an ocean and is subject to tidal flexing, and (3) the exosphere, near-surface, ice shell, and ocean participate in material exchange essential to the habitability of this moon. REASON will investigate processes governing this material exchange by characterizing the distribution of putative non-ice material (e.g., brines, salts) in the subsurface, searching for an ice–ocean interface, characterizing the ice shell’s global structure, and constraining the amplitude of Europa’s radial tidal deformations. REASON will accomplish these science objectives using a combination of radar measurement techniques including altimetry, reflectometry, sounding, interferometry, plasma characterization, and ranging. Building on a rich heritage from Earth, the moon, and Mars, REASON will be the first ice-penetrating radar to explore the outer solar system. Because these radars are untested for the icy worlds in the outer solar system, a novel approach to measurement quality assessment was developed to represent uncertainties in key properties of Europa that affect REASON performance and ensure robustness across a range of plausible parameters suggested for the icy moon. REASON will shed light on a never-before-seen dimension of Europa and – in concert with other instruments on Europa Clipper – help to investigate whether Europa is a habitable world.
Mission concepts using Nuclear Thermal Propulsion for planetary science missions have demonstrated the enhanced capability in delivering higher payload mass and/or reduce trip by a factor of two or more when compared with traditional chemical propulsion powered missions. To perform high-fidelity mission analysis and simulate realistic mission scenarios, a model-based approach is implemented on the Spacecraft Integrated System Model. The implementation of model-based systems engineering allows the execution of integrated descriptive model and requirements verification. The system model is also used to perform trade space exploration for various planetary science mission concept architectures. This paper apprises the current progress on the NTP mission model development and simulation of a conceptual NTP powered lunar rendezvous mission. Requirements and descriptive models are integrated with the physics based analytical tools to visualize and verify the mission requirements along with the parametric analysis for spacecraft arrival conditions during the lunar capture maneuver.
This paper discusses the current challenges of exploration of outer planets and proposes a nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) system for future deep space exploration missions. The mission design problem with respect to the NTP system is presented where it is proposed that NTP-powered missions need to integrate the requirements and constraints of mission objective, spacecraft design, NTP system design, and launch vehicle limits into a self-consistent model. The paper presents a conceptual NTP-powered rendezvous mission to Neptune that uses a single high-performance–class commercial launch vehicle to deliver over 2 mT of useful payload in a direct transfer trajectory with total trip time being under 16 years.
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) can enable new class of planetary science missions for deep space exploration. To perform high-fidelity mission analysis an integrated mission model for an NTP powered spacecraft in currently being developed. In this paper, we extend our initial model-based framework and demonstrate mission analysis using an integrated modeling approach. The integrated model enables in performing parametric analysis and optimizing results by linking key system parameters across analysis tools. The paper demonstrates an example NTP demo mission using the modeling approach described.
Highly efficient nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) can enable a new class of planetary science missions for deep space exploration. This paper presents Jupiter and Saturn rendezvous missions using an NTP system that will focus on end-to-end trajectory analysis. The complexities of Earth escape and planetary orbital insertion using finite burn maneuvers are highlighted. With respect to the mission design problem, NTP-powered missions need to integrate the requirements and constraints of mission objectives, spacecraft design, NTP system design, and launch vehicle limits into a self-consistent model. Using a single high-performance-class commercial launch vehicle with a lift capability to low Earth orbit of 22 metric tons, an NTP-powered mission can deliver NASA’s large strategic science missions in a direct transfer trajectory to Jupiter in 2.1 years and to Saturn in 4.7 years.
Data returned from the Cassini–Huygens mission have strengthened Enceladus, a small icy moon of Saturn, as an important target in the search for life in our solar system. Information gathered from Cassini to support this includes the presence of a subsurface liquid water ocean, vapor plumes and ice grains emanating from its south polar region, and the detection of essential elements and organic material that could potentially support life. However, several outstanding questions remain regarding the connectivity of plume material to the ocean and the composition of the complex organic material. Herein we introduce Tiger, a mission concept developed during the 2020 Planetary Science Summer School at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Tiger is a flyby mission that would help further constrain the habitability of Enceladus through two science objectives: (1) determine whether Enceladus's volatile inventory undergoes synthesis of complex organic species that are evidence for a habitable ocean, and (2) determine whether Enceladus's plume material is supplied directly from the ocean or if it interfaces with other reservoirs within the ice shell. To address the science goals in a total of eight flybys, Tiger would carry a four-instrument payload, including a mass spectrometer, a single-band ice-penetrating radar, an ultraviolet imaging spectrograph, and an imaging camera. We discuss Tiger's instrument and mission architecture, as well as the trades and challenges associated with a habitability-focused New Frontiers–class flyby mission to Enceladus.
The future of human exploration missions to Mars is dependent on solutions to the technology challenges being worked on by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and industry. One of the key architecture technologies involves propulsion that can transport the human crew from Earth orbit to other planets and back to Earth with the lowest risk to crew and the mission. Nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) is a proven technology that provides the performance required to enable benefits in greater payload mass, shorter transit time, wider launch windows, and rapid mission aborts due to its high specific impulse and high thrust.
Aerojet Rocketdyne (AR) has stayed engaged for several decades in working NTP engine systems and has worked with NASA recently to perform an extensive study on using low-enriched uranium NTP engine systems for a Mars campaign involving crewed missions from the 2030s through the 2050s. Aerojet Rocketdyne has used a consistent set of NASA ground rules and they are constantly updated as NASA adjusts its sights on obtaining a path to Mars, now via the Lunar Operations Platform-Gateway. Building on NASA’s work, AR has assessed NTP as the high-thrust propulsion option to transport the crew by looking at how it can provide more mission capability than chemical or other propulsion systems.
The impacts of the NTP engine system on the Mars transfer vehicle configuration have been assessed via several trade studies since 2016, including thrust size, number of engine systems, liquid hydrogen stage size, reaction control system sizing, propellant losses, NASA Space Launch System (SLS) payload fairing size impact, and aggregation orbit.
An AR study activity in 2018 included examining NTP stages derived from Mars crew mission elements to deliver extremely large cargo via multiple launches or directly off the NASA SLS. This paper provides an update on the results of the ongoing engine system and mission trade studies.
This paper proposes an innovative Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR) concept of the Korea Advanced NUclear Thermal Engine Rocket (KANUTER) for future space applications. KANUTER consists of an Extremely High Temperature Gas cooled Reactor (EHTGR) utilizing hydrogen propellant, a propulsion system, and an electricity generation system. KANUTER has the notable characteristics of high efficiency, being compact and lightweight, and having bimodal capability. The high efficiency comes from the extremely high temperature of the reactor loaded with an ultra heat-resistant ternary carbide fuel. The compact and lightweight EHTGR results from the thermal neutron spectrum core adopting efficient moderators. The EHTGR could be bimodally operated in a propulsion mode of 100 MWth and an electricity generation mode of 100 kWth equipped with a dynamic power conversion system. The preliminary design study theoretically estimates the reference performance such as a thrust of 19,500 N, a thrust-to-weight ratio of 5.1, a specific impulse of 944.5 s, and an electric power output of about 15 kWe with a radiator size of 3.4 m2/kWe. In addition, the small and compact engine with relatively low power can be applied to various space missions by clustered arrangements enhancing total thrust and system redundancy for the survivability of a spacecraft.
The feasibility of rebuilding and testing a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR)
for the Mars mission was investigted. Calculations indicate that an NTR
would substantially reduce the Earth-orbit assemble mass compared to
LOX/LH2 systems. The mass savings were 36 and 65% for the cases of total
aerobraking and of total propulsive braking respectively. Consequently,
the cost savings for a single mission of using an NTR, if aerobraking is
feasible, are probably insufficient to warrant the NTR development. If
multiple missions are planned or if propulsive braking is desired at
Mars and/or at Earth, then the savings of about 4 to 5 billion. The concept of developing a full-power test stand at
Johnston Atoll in the Pacific appears very feasible. The added expense
of building facilities on the island should be less than $1.4 billion.
Efficient electric plasma engines are propelling the next generation of space probes to the outer solar system
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) has emerged as a promising technology for enhancing the capabilities of robotic missions in space exploration. This paper aims to investigate and analyze the trade-offs and sensitivity associated with utilizing NTP systems for robotic missions to the outer planets. The engine trade results for Jupiter and Neptune rendezvous mission using expendable configuration has demonstrated that the thrust range of 12.5 klbf to 15 klbf can enable flagship class missions with minimum IMLEO. The specific impulse sensitivity analysis has shown that using a 13 klbf engine with as low was 850 s can enable flagship class missions to the Gas giants in a direct transfer trajectory.
Recently, NASA has pushed for returning humans to the moon sustainably with In situ resource utilization being the central focus. In its permanently shadowed regions, the moon has an abundance of water and ammonia, which are two potential alternative propellants to hydrogen in nuclear thermal propulsion (NTP) engines. Using Aerojet Rocketdyne Mars mission architectures and University of Alabama in Huntsville NTP engine models, this research analyzed the impacts of using water or ammonia as propellants on mission architectures. For a human mission to Mars originating in the lunar distant retrograde parking orbit, when comparing the baseline hydrogen vehicles to vehicles using water or ammonia, the effects of increased propellant density by an order of magnitude despite a 62% decrease in specific impulse will still require an average of 53% of the launches for vehicle assembly, 59% of the dry mass, 25% of the propellant volume for the conjunction-class mission, and 50% of the propellant volume for the opposition-class mission when comparing against the baseline hydrogen vehicle. Due to the oxidative nature of water, which results in 29% of the engine life compared with that of hydrogen and ammonia, ammonia outperforms water in terms of the total number of missions per engine block by an average factor of 6.8. Because ammonia’s specific impulse is 40.6% that of hydrogen, the propellant mass is increased by a factor of 2.9 and longer burn times result in an average of a 10% decrease in the total number of missions that the hydrogen system can achieve. Since the changes to the vehicle architecture are more extreme and in favor of ammonia than the total mission capability, for reusable vehicles using NTP technology ferrying humans to Mars while utilizing in situ propellants from the moon, this research recommends ammonia as the propellant of choice.
Seeding hydrogen is the process of adding a heavy noble gas (the seed) such as argon, krypton, or xenon to the hydrogen propellant. This is done to reduce pressure losses, improve convective heat transfer, and densify the propellant at the expense of specific impulse and wetted vehicle mass. A numerical study was conducted which predicted and examined the effects of varying the seed concentrations within the hydrogen propellant. The numerical model for pure hydrogen propellant was validated against the power balance model of an actual nuclear thermal propulsion engine currently under development and also the PEWEE-1 engine developed and tested by NASA in the 1960s. The next step is to analyze the effects of seeded hydrogen on Mars Transfer Vehicles and the capabilities of available and future launch vehicles. This study has shown that seeded hydrogen increases the ΔV of this vehicle at the expense of the vehicle having higher mass.
Using the NASA Design Reference Architecture, an Aerojet Rocketdyne vehicle architecture, and a University of Alabama in Huntsville nuclear thermal propulsion engine model, the performance of a Mars transfer vehicle using hydrogen propellant seeded with argon was analyzed. Seeded hydrogen, up to a maximum seed mass concentration of 55.85%, increased engine and vehicle performance by reducing pressure losses, decreasing reactor power, and increasing the overall ΔV while assuming constant propellant volume and vehicle dry mass. The tradeoff for using seeded hydrogen was lowered specific impulse and increased net propellant mass, resulting in increased vehicle wetted mass. Vehicle performance monotonically increased with seed mass concentration and provided a best-case 32-day reduction in round-trip transit time to Mars versus pure hydrogen.
The high specific impulse (Isp) and engine thrust‐to‐weight ratio of liquid hydrogen (LH2)‐cooled nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) engines makes them ideal for upper stage applications to difficult robotic planetary science missions. A small 15 thousand pound force (klbf) NTR engine using a uranium‐niobium ‘‘ternary carbide’’ fuel (Isp ∼960 seconds at ∼3025 K) developed in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is examined and its use on an expendable injection stage is shown to provide major increases in payload delivered to the outer planets (Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto). Using a single ‘‘Titan IV‐class’’ launch vehicle, with a lift capability to low earth orbit (LEO) of ∼20 metric tons (t), an expendable NTR upper stage can inject two Pluto ‘‘Fast Flyby’’ spacecraft (PFF/SC) plus support equipment—combined mass of ∼508 kg—on high energy, ‘‘6.5–9.2 year’’ direct trajectory missions to Pluto. A conventional chemical propulsion mission would use a liquid oxygen (LOX/LH2 ‘‘Centaur’’ upper stage and two solid rocket ‘‘kick motors’’ to inject a single PFF/SC on the same Titan IV launch vehicle.
For follow on Pluto missions, the NTR injection stage would utilize a Jupiter ‘‘gravity assist’’ (JGA) maneuver to launch a LOX/liquid methane (CH4) capture stage (Isp ∼375 seconds) and a Pluto ‘‘orbiter’’ spacecraft weighting between ∼167–312 kg—with chemical propulsion, a Pluto orbiter missin is not a viable option because of inadequate delivered mass. Using a ‘‘standardized’’ NTR injection stage and the same single Titan IV launch scenario, ‘‘direct flight’’ (no gravity assist) orbiter missions to Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are also enabled with transit times of 2.3, 6.6, and 12.6 years, respectively. Injected mass includes a storable, nitrogen tetroxide/monomethyl hydrazine (N2O4/MMH) capture stage (Isp ∼330 seconds and orbiter payloads 340 to 820% larger than that achievable using a LOX/LH2‐fueled injection stage. The paper discusses NTR technology and mission characteristics, shows NTR stage and payload accommodations within the 26.2 m long Titan IV payload fairing, and discusses NTR stage performance as a function of assumed cryogenic tank technology.
A “bi‐modal” nuclear propulsion and power system based on the United States Air Force's (USAF's)* Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (SNTP) technology is applied to a set of high energy
Solar system exploration missions. Performance comparisons are made to a baseline mission set developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory utilizing a nuclear electric propulsion system based on the SP‐100 space power system. Orbiters and probes of Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto, a Grand Tour of the Galilean moons of Jupiter, a Comet Nucleus Sample Return, and a Multiple Mainbelt Asteroid Rendezvous mission are analyzed. The first five missions utilizing SP‐ 100 required a Shuttle‐C or equivalent heavy lift launcher. With the bi‐modal PBR system, the payload goals are deliverable in the same transit times, but on the smaller, existing Titan IV launcher. Furthermore, all optional payloads originally available only at increased transit time are accommodated. Available mass margins for these missions are 20%–85% of the power/propulsion system mass, providing significant robustness. The same missions were analyzed on a Titan III launcher in order to pursue further cost reductions. Substantial payload masses (1000 kg or more) were found to be available in all cases with reasonable transit times, coinciding well with the current “lighter, faster, cheaper” NASA philosophy.
We have conducted studies of a revolutionary new concept for conducting
a Europa Sample Return Mission. Robotic spacecraft exploration of the
Solar System has been severely constrained by the large energy
requirements of interplanetary trajectories and the inherent delta V
limitations of chemical rockets. Current missions use gravitational
assists from intermediate planets to achieve these high-energy
trajectories restricting payload size and increasing flight times. We
propose a 6-year Europa Sample Return mission with very modest launch
requirements enabled by MITEE. A new nuclear thermal propulsion engine
design, termed MITEE (MIniature reacTor EnginE), has over twice the
delta V capability of H2/O2 rockets (and much greater when refueled with
H2 propellant from indigenous extraterrestrial resources) enabling
unique missions that are not feasible with chemical propulsion. The
MITEE engine is a compact, ultra-lightweight, thermal nuclear rocket
that uses hydrogen as the propellant. MITEE, with its small size (50 cm
O.D.), low mass (200 kg), and high specific impulse (~1000 sec), can
provide a quantum leap in the capability for space science and
exploration missions. The Robotic Europa Explorer (REE) spacecraft has a
two-year outbound direct trajectory and lands on the satellite surface
for an approximate 9 month stay. During this time, the vehicle is
refueled with H2 propellant derived from Europa ice by the Autonomous
Propellant Producer (APP), while collecting samples and searching for
life. A small nuclear-heated submarine probe, the Autonomous Submarine
Vehicle (ASV), based on MITEE technology, would melt through the ice and
explore the undersea realm. The spacecraft has approximately a three
year return to Earth after departure from Europa with samples onboard.
Spacecraft payload is 430 kg at the start of the mission and can be
launched with a single, conventional medium-sized Delta III booster. The
spacecraft can bring back 25 kg of samples from Europa. Europa, in the
Jovian system, is a high priority target for an outer Solar System
exploration mission. More than a decade ago the Voyager spacecraft
revealed Europa as a world swathed in ice and geologically young. NASA's
Galileo spacecraft passed approximately 500 miles above the surface and
provided detailed images of Europa's terrain marked by a dynamic
topology that appeared to be remnants of ice volcanoes or geysers. The
surface temperature averages a chilly -200° C. The pictures appear
to show a relatively young surface of ice, possibly only 1 km thick in
some places. Internal heating of Europa from Jupiter's tidal pull could
form an ocean of liquid water beneath the surface. More recently,
Ganymede and Callisto are believed to be ocean-bearing Jovian moons
based on magnetometer measurements from the Galileo spacecraft. If
liquid water exists, life may also. NASA plans to send an orbiting
spacecraft to Europa to measure the thickness of the ice and to detect
if an underlying liquid ocean exists. This mission would precede the
proposed Europa Sample Return mission, which includes dispatching an
autonomous submarine-like vehicle that could melt through the ice and
explore the undersea realm. Because of the large energy requirements
typical of these ambitious solar system science missions, use of
chemical rockets results in interplanetary spacecraft that are
prohibitive in terms of Initial Mass in Low- Earth Orbit (IMLEO) and
cost. For example, using chemical rockets to return samples from Europa
appears to be technically impractical, as it would require large delta V
and launch vehicle capabilities. On the other hand, use of nuclear
thermal rockets will significantly reduce IMLEO and, subsequently,
costs. Moreover, nuclear thermal rockets can utilize extraterrestrial
resources as propellants, an option not practical with chemical rockets.
This "refueling" capability would enable nuclear rockets to carry out
very high-energy missions, such as the return of large amounts of
extraterrestrial material to Earth. The Europa missions considered in
this proposal will be restricted to starting from LEO only after being
placed in a stable orbit by a launch vehicle. This simplifies and eases
the safety issues and mitigates political concerns. High propulsive
efficiency of the MITEE engine yields the benefits of reduced transit
time and a smaller launch vehicle.
In 2007 a JPL rapid mission architecture (RMA) analysis team identified and evaluated a broad set of mission architecture options for a suite of scientific exploration objectives targeting the Saturnian moon Enceladus. Primary science objectives were largely focused on examination of the driving mechanisms and extent of interactions by the plumes of Enceladus recently discovered by Cassini mission science teams. Investigation of the architectural trade space spanned a wide range of options, from high-energy flybys of Enceladus as a re-instrumented expansion on the Cassini mission, to more complex, multi-element combinations of Enceladus orbiters carrying multiple variants of in-situ deployable systems. Trajectory design emerged as a critical element of the mission concepts, enabling challenging missions on Atlas V and Delta IV-Heavy class launch vehicles. Various Enceladus Flagship-class mission concepts identified were analyzed and compared against several first-order figures of merit, including mass, cost, risk, mission timeline, and associated science value with respect to accomplishment of the full set of science objectives. Results are presented for these comparative analyses and the characterization of the explored trade space.
A new compact ultra light nuclear reactor engine design termed MITEE (MIniature Reac Tor EnginE) is described. MITEE heats hydrogen propellant to 3000 K, achieving a specific impulse of 1000 seconds and a thrust-to-weight of 10. Total engine mass is 200 kg, including reactor, pump, auxiliaries and a 30% contingency. MITEE enables many types of new and unique missions to the outer solar system not possible with chemical engines. Examples include missions to 100 A.U. in less than 10 years, flybys of Pluto in 5 years, sample return from Pluto and the moons of the outer planets, unlimited ramjet flight in planetary atmospheres, etc. Much of the necessary technology for MITEE already exists as a result of previous nuclear rocket development programs. With some additional development, initial MITEE missions could begin in only 6 years.
The Cassini mission to Saturn will start a second phase in the exploration of the Saturnian system, after the historical Voyager flybys of Saturn in 1980 and 1981. The Cassini primary mission is scheduled to be launched in October 1997 by the Titan IV/Centaur. Cassini uses four planetary gravity-assist flybys to gain the energy necessary to reach Saturn in July 2004. This arrival date at Saturn provides a unique opportunity for a flyby of Saturn's outer satellite Phoebe on the final approach. This paper provides an overview of the processes involved in the interplanetary trajectory design and analysis of the Cassini mission to Saturn.
The detection of a sub-surface present-day ocean on Europa is of considerable interest. One possible method of detecting an ocean is by an orbiting radar sounder. The effects of a range of possible Europan ice chemistries on radar attenuation are investigated, using plausible Europa ice temperature profiles. Ice chemistries are derived from geochemical models of Europa predicting a sulfate-dominated ocean, a chloride-dominated ocean scaled from the Earth, and on experimental data on marine ice formed beneath ice shelves on Earth, on low-salinity sea ice and models of rock and ice mixtures. Chloride ions are expected to dominate the radar absorption because they are incorporated into the ice lattice, though if freezing rates are rapid or similar to sea ice, then brine pockets will dominate losses. In the case of an ocean being present underneath the ice, the range of attenuation found in the models is from about 5 dB/km for rock/ice mixtures up to 80 dB/km for sea ice models. However, perhaps the best model at present is for ice formed from a plausible sulfate-dominated ocean with the fraction of chloride incorporated into the ice set to the same as for low accretion rate Ronne Ice Shelf marine ice. This has a radar absorption of 9–16 dB/km for surface temperatures of 50–100 K. In the case of a convecting isothermal ice layer beneath a conducting ice lid, absorption in the conducting lid is lower for all the models than it is over an ocean as the convecting ice is modeled to be 250–260 K. Absorption in the isothermal layers is very high, but the interface between conducting and convecting ice may be marked by a reflection coefficient that enables it to be imaged. It is concluded that realistic ice-penetrating radars are likely to be able to penetrate some kilometers into the ice, though problems of interpretation caused by scattering are not considered here.
Advanced propulsion concepts are evaluated for unmanned exploration class missions to the outer planets. Spacecraft propulsion requirements for these missions are compared with those for previous missions. A major improvement in performance above that offered by current systems is needed to deliver the payloads required by these missions in an acceptable trip time. Advanced pump-fed space-storable and cryogenic propulsion systems are evaluated. Nuclear propulsion options considered include the solid core, particle bed, gaseous core, nuclear pulse, and nuclear electric concepts. The results of this study reaffirm the superiority of nuclear electric propulsion for this mission category. © American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1982, All rights reserved.
Beyond Earth: A chronicle of deep space exploration
- A A Siddiqi
Siddiqi, A. A., Beyond Earth: A chronicle of deep space exploration, 1958-2016, Vol. 4041, National Aeronautics & Space
Administration, 2018.
Russian planetary exploration: history, development, legacy and prospects
- B Harvey
Harvey, B., Russian planetary exploration: history, development, legacy and prospects, Springer Science & Business Media,
2007.
State of the Art In-Space Propulsion
- Nasa Sti
NASA STI, "State of the Art In-Space Propulsion, NASA/TP-2022-0018058," Tech. rep., NASA Ames Research Center, 2022.
Radioisotope Power Systems Program
- J F Zakrajsek
Zakrajsek, J. F., "Radioisotope Power Systems Program," Outer Planet Assessment Group (OPAG) Technology Forum, NASA,
2018.
Rocket propulsion elements
- G P Sutton
- O Biblarz
Sutton, G. P., and Biblarz, O., Rocket propulsion elements, John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion for Advanced Space Exploration
- M Houts
- S Borowski
- J George
- T Kim
- W Emrich
- R Hickman
- J Broadway
- H Gerrish
- M Rb
Houts, M., Borowski, S., George, J., Kim, T., Emrich, W., Hickman, R., Broadway, J., Gerrish, H., and Adams, M., RB,
"Nuclear Thermal Propulsion for Advanced Space Exploration," Tech. rep., NASA, 2012.
Raising Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) Technology Readiness Above 3
- H P Gerrish
Gerrish Jr, H. P., "Raising Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) Technology Readiness Above 3," Advanced Space Propulsion
Workshop, 2014.
Nuclear Space Power and Propulsion Systems
- C Bruno
Bruno, C., Nuclear Space Power and Propulsion Systems, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2008.
The role of compact nuclear rockets in expanding the capability for solar system science and explorationp
- J Powell
- J C Paniagua
- H Ludewig
- M Todosowp
Powell, J., Paniagua, J. C., Ludewig, H., and Todosowp, M., "The role of compact nuclear rockets in expanding the capability
for solar system science and explorationp," Tech. rep., Stony Brook, NY: State University of New York at Stony Brook, College
of..., 1997.
Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) and Power A New Capability for Outer Planet Science and Exploration
- C L Johnson
- M G Houts
- M A Rodriguez
- H P Gerrish
Johnson, C. L., Houts, M. G., Rodriguez, M. A., and Gerrish, H. P., "Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (NTP) and Power A New
Capability for Outer Planet Science and Exploration," Tech. rep., NASA MSFC, 2018.
Review of nuclear thermal propulsion technology for deep space missions
- S Kumar
- L Thomas
- J T Cassibry
- R A Frederick
Kumar, S., Thomas, L., Cassibry, J. T., and Frederick, R. A., "Review of nuclear thermal propulsion technology for deep space
missions," AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2020 Forum, 2020, p. 3915.
Evaluating advanced propulsion systems for the Titan explorer mission
- M Noca
- R Frisbee
- L Johnson
- L Kos
- L Gefert
- L Dudzinski
Noca, M., Frisbee, R., Johnson, L., Kos, L., Gefert, L., and Dudzinski, L., "Evaluating advanced propulsion systems for the
Titan explorer mission," 27th International Electric Propulsion Conference, 2001, pp. 15-19.
Enabling outer planet exploration: performance and feasibility of nuclear thermal propulsion for rendezvous missions
- S Kumar
Kumar, S., "Enabling outer planet exploration: performance and feasibility of nuclear thermal propulsion for rendezvous missions,"
Dissertation.397, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL, 2024. Https://louis.uah.edu/uah-dissertations/397.
Model-Based Approach for Conceptual Mission Design for NTP Enabled Robotic Missions
- S Kumar
- L Thomas
- J T Cassibry
Kumar, S., Thomas, L., and Cassibry, J. T., "Model-Based Approach for Conceptual Mission Design for NTP Enabled Robotic
Missions," AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2021 Forum, 2021, p. 3598.
The Search for a Habitable Europa: Radar, Water and an Active Ice Shell
- D Blankenship
- B Schmidt
- D Young
- D Schroeder
- J Greenbaum
Blankenship, D., Schmidt, B., Young, D., Schroeder, D., Greenbaum, J., et al., "The Search for a Habitable Europa: Radar,
Water and an Active Ice Shell," EPSC-DPS Joint Meeting 2011, Vol. 2011, 2011, p. 1672.