Content uploaded by Lenilton Soares
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Lenilton Soares on Jan 13, 2025
Content may be subject to copyright.
Academic Editor: Giuseppina Adiletta
Received: 26 November 2024
Revised: 16 December 2024
Accepted: 9 January 2025
Published: 11 January 2025
Citation: Klaric, S.V.; Galvão Maciel,
A.; Arend, G.D.; Tres, M.V.; de Lima,
M.; Soares, L.S. Application of Plant
Extracts Rich in Anthocyanins in
the Development of Intelligent
Biodegradable Packaging: An
Overview. Processes 2025,13, 191.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
pr13010191
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Review
Application of Plant Extracts Rich in Anthocyanins in the
Development of Intelligent Biodegradable Packaging:
An Overview
Stephany Vasconcellos Klaric
1
, Amanda Galvão Maciel
2
, Giordana Demaman Arend
2
, Marcus Vinícius Tres
3,
* ,
Marieli de Lima 4and Lenilton Santos Soares 1, 5, *
1Food Science Department, Federal University of Lavras, Lavras 37200-000, MG, Brazil;
svasconcellosk@hotmail.com
2Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis
88040-900, SC, Brazil; amanda.galvao@posgrad.ufsc.br (A.G.M.); giordana.darend@gmail.com (G.D.A.)
3Laboratory of Agroindustrial Processes Engineering (LAPE), Federal University of Santa Maria,
Cachoeira Do Sul 96503-205, RS, Brazil
4School of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Patos de Minas 38700-103, MG, Brazil;
marieli@ufu.br
5Barra Multidisciplinary Center, Federal University of Western Bahia, Barra 47100-000, BA, Brazil
*Correspondence: marcus.tres@ufsm.br (M.V.T.); lenilton.soares@ufob.edu.br (L.S.S.)
Abstract: Consumers are increasingly opting for food with high quality, in addition to prac-
ticality, as there are changes in time, habits and preferences, demanding that the food and
packaging industries adapt to a new lifestyle. Intelligent packaging provides consumers
with real-time information about the quality and safety of packaged products. A critical
analysis of the processes used to develop these packages was carried out. In this context,
this review aims to analyze the concept of intelligent packaging, emphasizing the incor-
poration of extracts rich in anthocyanins, verifying its relationship with the development
of new technologies and discussing current aspects of the scientific production process of
the packaging. It was also highlighted that anthocyanin compounds are susceptible to pH
variations. As an indicator of pH variation, a plant extract was necessary to incorporate
into a solid matrix to immobilize the dye. The pH indicator film represents a simple and
visual method to detect changes in food products. In this sense, technological processes and
resources have been gaining prominence with the premise of offering quality, convenience
and safety for consumers and companies.
Keywords: pH indicator; bioactive compounds; natural pigments; colorants
1. Introduction
Due to changes in consumer demand for food quality and their concern about environ-
mental changes, new food packaging approaches have been designed. Although traditional
foods contribute to distribution logistics, maintenance and preservation of distribution,
they are not enough to guarantee safety. Food safety is one of the major concerns on the
food chain due to food spoilage, which can also result in high indices of food loss [
1
]. Thus,
one of the main objectives of food engineering and technology is to provide products of
better quality and better development for their useful life [2,3].
The dissemination of this idea was possible due to the discovery of the properties of
some compounds with biological activity and their interaction with different polymeric
materials. A new trend in food packaging is intelligent and biodegradable packaging,
Processes 2025,13, 191 https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010191
Processes 2025,13, 191 2 of 26
which can detect environmental changes inside the food packaging during storage. This
new packaging can provide adequate information about the quality and safety of a product
before its consumption and it can be easily degraded when discharged into the environment.
This type of film uses response factors to monitor, track and provide feedback on important
changes within or around the packaging system, providing information relevant to quality
and safety [4].
Food packages classified as intelligent indicators include three main components: (a) it
is capable of displaying qualitative information through rapid visual changes (e.g., a color
change or an increase in color intensity); (b) it has sensors that provide quantitative results
to users, usually by emitting physical or chemical signals; or/and (c) it has data carriers,
such as barcodes and radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, which are intended for
data storage and traceability [
5
,
6
]. Among the indicators incorporated into packaging,
colorimetric indicators have stood out for their simplicity of the process and ease of com-
munication with the consumer. Colorimetric indicators can be produced by combining
natural colorants, such as anthocyanins, which are natural pigments that are non-toxic,
soluble in water and sensitive to changes in pH. Anthocyanins are found abundantly in
fruits and flowers and have a basic structure of three carbon rings with a central ring of
flavonoid cations [7,8].
Several packages with pH indicators were developed using anthocyanins derived
from various sources, such as red cabbage [
9
], purple sweet potato [
10
], blueberry [
11
],
eggplant [
12
] and black carrot [
13
]. Regardless of the anthocyanin source used, the packages
developed can provide immediate qualitative information through visual colorimetric
changes caused by the structural alteration of the pigment and, consequently, indicate the
freshness and the stage of deterioration of the food, presenting itself as a convenient, fast
and nondestructive packaging [14].
Anthocyanins have an enormous potential to be applied as a pH indicator. To produce
intelligent packaging, anthocyanin extract can be incorporated into a biodegradable poly-
mer base to ensure consumer safety and environmental preservation. Unlike commercially
used synthetic dyes, which are often harmful to human health and the environment, antho-
cyanins offer numerous advantages. Furthermore, the literature presents several papers
supporting the importance of anthocyanins as an important compound, with various bene-
ficial effects on human health [
15
]. Another important point is related to biodegradability
and feasibility, since polymers derived from natural sources are currently considered poten-
tial substitutes for conventional polymers [
16
]. However, the properties of polymeric films
prepared from natural sources must be improved, aiming to compete with petroleum-based
films, especially regarding mechanical (Young’s modulus, elongation at break and tensile
strength) and barrier (water vapor permeability) properties and those related to the affinity
with water [
17
]. To overcome this limitation, biodegradable polymers can be blended to
match characteristics and provide functionality for applications such as packaging. How-
ever, biodegradable polymer blends need careful post-consumer management and efficient
design to allow biodegradation [
18
]. Starch [
19
], pectin [
20
], gelatin [
21
] and chitosan [
22
]
are examples of biomaterials used to produce food packaging.
In this sense, this study aims to review the incorporation of extracts rich in antho-
cyanins to develop intelligent packaging. Several papers have reviewed the application
of anthocyanins in intelligent packaging. Still, none of them made a complete review
of anthocyanin’s compounds and their degradation, as well as the different sources and
the use of new technologies for extraction. Also, different biodegradable materials are
reviewed, discussing current aspects of the scientific systematization of the production
process. To conclude, the article shows different applications and highlights results, which
vary significantly when applied to different foods.
Processes 2025,13, 191 3 of 26
2. Anthocyanins
The term anthocyanin is of Greek origin, where “anthos” means flower and “kyanos”
means dark blue. After chlorophyll, anthocyanins are the most important group of plant-
derived pigments [
23
]. They are the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant
kingdom and are found in more significant quantities in angiosperms [
24
]. More than
700 different anthocyanins can be found in nature, with the most common being pelargoni-
din, cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvidin [
25
,
26
]. Despite being the
largest group, the content of anthocyanins is significantly affected by the harvest season
and the ripening stage of the plant [
27
]. For example, Lu et al. (2024) [
26
] indicated that
anthocyanins are responsible for the red hue of leaves that can be seen in the autumn.
The functions of anthocyanins in plants are varied: they act as antioxidants, provide
light protection, serve as a defense mechanism and play important biological functions.
The vivid and intense colors they produce play an essential role in several reproductive
mechanisms of plants, such as pollination and seed dispersal [
28
]. Narayan et al. (1999) [
29
]
described anthocyanins as potent antioxidants compared to classical antioxidants, such
as hydroxy anisole butylate, hydroxytoluene butylates and alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E).
Additionally, anthocyanins are highly compatible with biological systems and are non-toxic,
making them a promising alternative as a natural colorant in the food industry [30].
When added to foods as a coloring agent, anthocyanins help prevent auto-oxidation
and lipid peroxidation in biological systems. The primary chemical structure of antho-
cyanins is characterized by a 2-phenylbenzopyrilium (flavylium cation) hydroxylated at the
3, 5 and 7 positions. The variations in anthocyanins arise from differences in the number
and position of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups in the B-ring, as shown in Figure 1. Also,
the wide range of anthocyanins described in the literature is related to the differences
in the number and nature of the sugars attached, as well as their position of attachment.
The number and nature of aliphatic or aromatic acids attached to the sugar residues also
influence the characteristics of anthocyanin [31].
Processes 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 26
discussing current aspects of the scientic systematization of the production process. To
conclude, the article shows dierent applications and highlights results, which vary sig-
nicantly when applied to dierent foods.
2. Anthocyanins
The term anthocyanin is of Greek origin, where “anthos” means ower and “kyanos”
means dark blue. After chlorophyll, anthocyanins are the most important group of plant-
derived pigments [23]. They are the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant
kingdom and are found in more signicant quantities in angiosperms [24]. More than 700
dierent anthocyanins can be found in nature, with the most common being pelargonidin,
cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin and malvidin [25,26]. Despite being the largest
group, the content of anthocyanins is signicantly aected by the harvest season and the
ripening stage of the plant [27]. For example, Lu et al. (2024) [26] indicated that anthocya-
nins are responsible for the red hue of leaves that can be seen in the autumn.
The functions of anthocyanins in plants are varied: they act as antioxidants, provide
light protection, serve as a defense mechanism and play important biological functions.
The vivid and intense colors they produce play an essential role in several reproductive
mechanisms of plants, such as pollination and seed dispersal [28]. Narayan et al. (1999)
[29] described anthocyanins as potent antioxidants compared to classical antioxidants,
such as hydroxy anisole butylate, hydroxytoluene butylates and alpha-tocopherol (vita-
min E). Additionally, anthocyanins are highly compatible with biological systems and are
non-toxic, making them a promising alternative as a natural colorant in the food industry
[30].
When added to foods as a coloring agent, anthocyanins help prevent auto-oxidation
and lipid peroxidation in biological systems. The primary chemical structure of anthocy-
anins is characterized by a 2-phenylbenzopyrilium (avylium cation) hydroxylated at the
3, 5 and 7 positions. The variations in anthocyanins arise from dierences in the number
and position of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups in the B-ring, as shown in Figure 1. Also,
the wide range of anthocyanins described in the literature is related to the dierences in
the number and nature of the sugars aached, as well as their position of aachment. The
number and nature of aliphatic or aromatic acids aached to the sugar residues also in-
uence the characteristics of anthocyanin [31].
Figure 1. Basic anthocyanin structure and structure of the most common anthocyanins found in
nature. Adapted from Lu et al. (2024) [26].
Figure 1. Basic anthocyanin structure and structure of the most common anthocyanins found in
nature. Adapted from Lu et al. (2024) [26].
Anthocyanins are responsible for numerous shades of color in flowers, fruits and
leaves [
32
,
33
]. The increase in hue results from a bathochromic change, characterized by
the absorption band of light in the visible spectrum range changing from a shorter to a
longer wavelength. This shift causes a change in color from orange/red to purple at acidic
pH. The opposite shift is called a hypsochromic shift [34].
Processes 2025,13, 191 4 of 26
One example of this behavior is described by Tang et al. (2023) [
35
] when evaluating
the anthocyanins of red cabbage. These authors describe that, when the pH value is below
3.0, the red cationic flavilium is the main form of anthocyanins. However, when the pH is
raised to 6.0, the anthocyanins undergo structural changes to a neutral quinonoidal base,
changing the color from red to purple. As the pH increases to 7.0, the color changes to blue,
due to the presence of anionic and natural quinonoidal bases, changing to green when
the pH goes beyond 7.0. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2023) [
36
] evaluated the anthocyanins in
purple sweet potato and verified that under pH 1.0, these compounds were red, changing
to red-pink until pH 6.0 and reddish-purple at pH 7.0. Between pH 9.0 and 11.0, the
anthocyanins exhibited a blue-green color. This color evaluation can be seen in Figure 2.
Processes 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 26
Anthocyanins are responsible for numerous shades of color in owers, fruits and
leaves [32,33]. The increase in hue results from a bathochromic change, characterized by
the absorption band of light in the visible spectrum range changing from a shorter to a
longer wavelength. This shift causes a change in color from orange/red to purple at acidic
pH. The opposite shift is called a hypsochromic shift [34].
One example of this behavior is described by Tang et al. (2023) [35] when evaluating
the anthocyanins of red cabbage. These authors describe that, when the pH value is below
3.0, the red cationic avilium is the main form of anthocyanins. However, when the pH is
raised to 6.0, the anthocyanins undergo structural changes to a neutral quinonoidal base,
changing the color from red to purple. As the pH increases to 7.0, the color changes to
blue, due to the presence of anionic and natural quinonoidal bases, changing to green
when the pH goes beyond 7.0. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2023) [36] evaluated the anthocya-
nins in purple sweet potato and veried that under pH 1.0, these compounds were red,
changing to red-pink until pH 6.0 and reddish-purple at pH 7.0. Between pH 9.0 and 11.0,
the anthocyanins exhibited a blue-green color. This color evaluation can be seen in Figure
2.
Figure 2. Color response of anthocyanins due to structural changes. Adapted from Xu et al. (2024)
[37].
2.1. Sources
Several plants have been proposed as sources of anthocyanin-based colorants. Ac-
cording to various studies performed over the years, there are at least 73 genera from 27
families that contain anthocyanins [38]. However, their utilization has been restricted by
challenges, such as pigment stability, availability and economic factors [39].
Anthocyanins are responsible for the vibrant color of several plants, like red radish,
red grape, red cabbage, purple potatoes, purple corn, black chokeberry, black carrot,
blackcurrant, blackberry, elderberry, raspberry, strawberry and others [35,40]. These com-
pounds, classied as secondary plant metabolites, are synthesized in the cytoplasm and
stored in the cytosol. The most common types of anthocyanins are (a) cyanidin, which
accounts for approximately 50% of anthocyanins and is responsible for magenta and crim-
son colors, (b) pelargonidin, which accounts for 12% of anthocyanins and is responsible
for orange and salmon colors, (c) peonidin, which accounts for 12% of anthocyanins and
is responsible for magenta color, (d) delphinidin, which accounts for 7% of anthocyanins
and is responsible for the purple color and (e) petunidin and malvidin, which together
account for 7% of anthocyanins and are responsible for the colors mauve and blue and
purple, respectively [40,41].
It is widely known that there are several natural sources of anthocyanins available in
nature. One plant that must be highlighted is the red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capi-
tata rubra) where the number of anthocyanins is higher than other substances [42]. More
than 30 anthocyanins can be found in red cabbage, with the major content being non-
Figure 2. Color response of anthocyanins due to structural changes. Adapted from Xu et al.
(2024) [37].
2.1. Sources
Several plants have been proposed as sources of anthocyanin-based colorants. Accord-
ing to various studies performed over the years, there are at least 73 genera from 27 families
that contain anthocyanins [
38
]. However, their utilization has been restricted by challenges,
such as pigment stability, availability and economic factors [39].
Anthocyanins are responsible for the vibrant color of several plants, like red radish,
red grape, red cabbage, purple potatoes, purple corn, black chokeberry, black carrot, black-
currant, blackberry, elderberry, raspberry, strawberry and others [
35
,
40
]. These compounds,
classified as secondary plant metabolites, are synthesized in the cytoplasm and stored in
the cytosol. The most common types of anthocyanins are (a) cyanidin, which accounts for
approximately 50% of anthocyanins and is responsible for magenta and crimson colors,
(b) pelargonidin, which accounts for 12% of anthocyanins and is responsible for orange
and salmon colors, (c) peonidin, which accounts for 12% of anthocyanins and is respon-
sible for magenta color, (d) delphinidin, which accounts for 7% of anthocyanins and is
responsible for the purple color and (e) petunidin and malvidin, which together account
for 7% of anthocyanins and are responsible for the colors mauve and blue and purple,
respectively [40,41].
It is widely known that there are several natural sources of anthocyanins available in
nature. One plant that must be highlighted is the red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata
rubra) where the number of anthocyanins is higher than other substances [42]. More than
30 anthocyanins can be found in red cabbage, with the major content being non-acylated
or acylated forms derived from cyanidin-3-diglucoside-5-glucoside [
43
,
44
]. The extract
obtained from red cabbage was already applied to film production and presented high
sensitivity to mushroom freshness detection, having a stability of 50 days, when stored at
4◦C [45].
Another important plant, which is rich in anthocyanins and widely studied, is the
grape (Vitis vinifera). According to Nogueira et al. [
46
] the main anthocyanin profile consists
of derivatives of 3-glucoside and 3,5-diglucoside and trace amounts of pelargonidin. This
Processes 2025,13, 191 5 of 26
author also applied the grape pomace extract (20 and 40%) to the production of arrowroot
starch film and indicated that the final product has colors varying from pink for acidic
pH, gray for neutral pH and green to yellow to basic pH, which is in accordance with the
behavior described above.
Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), according to Hu et al. (2024) [
47
] and Lu et al. (2024) [
26
],
is considered the king of anthocyanins, due to the high content of these compounds,
with major constituents comprising malvidins, petunidins, peonidins, delphinidins and
cyanidins. Hu et al. (2024) [
47
] also indicated that the natural extract of this fruit has a
high sensitivity to volatile nitrogenous compounds, making it an excellent indicator for
intelligent packaging. The main highlight of this work was the evaluation of the stability of
the produced film, which lasted 15 days under all the tested conditions.
Finally, another vegetable that is an excellent source of anthocyanins is eggplant
(Solanum melongena). In this vegetable, the anthocyanins are concentrated in the skin,
consisting of delphinidins, petunidins and malvidins [
26
]. Yong et al. (2019) [
48
] added
eggplant extracts to a chitosan film and indicated that the addition improved the film
thickness, light barrier and mechanical properties. The authors also indicated that, due to
the high anthocyanin content, the films could be used to monitor milk degradation.
In this sense, we can state that anthocyanins, regardless of the source used, have
proven to be an excellent natural dye, which can be used as a pH indicator in smart
packaging. Furthermore, few studies have evaluated the stability of these compounds
when applied in these packages, since in the studies evaluated, stability ranged from 15 to
50 days.
2.2. Anthocyanins Stability
According to Giusti and Wrolstad (2003) [
39
], the use of natural colorants in food
systems is restricted due to their low stability in processing, formulation and storage
conditions. In this context, Chen and Stephen Inbaraj (2019) [
49
] and Zhang and Jing
(2020) [
50
] defined anthocyanin stability as the incapability of flavylium cations to change
their structures into colorless forms of carbinol pseudobases and chalcones. The formation
of these structures is the primary stage in the deterioration of anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins are highly unstable compounds and their stability can be influenced by
several factors, like pH, temperature, light, the presence of oxygen, the presence of metal
ions, enzymes and proteins. Also, they can be affected by ascorbic acid, sugar and sulfur
dioxide [
35
,
41
,
51
]. But the anthocyanins’ stability can also be related to the structure of
the molecule, as the stability increases with the number of methoxyls in the B ring and
decreases as hydroxyls increase. Among the most common anthocyanins, the most stable
is malvidin, followed by peonidin, petunidin, cyanidin and delphinidin. Changes in the
structure, such as glycosylation and acylation of the sugars, also increase the stability; for
example, the diglycosides are more stable than the monoglycosides [31].
According to Lima et al. (2011) [
52
], the structure of anthocyanins is another factor that
influences their stability. The presence of sugars, acylated sugars, methoxyl and hydroxyl
groups has a significant effect on these compounds. Anthocyanins with a greater number of
hydroxyls are less stable than those with a greater number of methoxyls. Also, the degree of
glycosylation is another structural characteristic that favors the stability of these molecules,
with diglycosylated molecules being more stable than monoglycosylated molecules.
When considering external factors, the pH is one of the main ones that affects an-
thocyanin stability. At weakly acidic or neutral pH, these compounds are converted into
colorless ionized quinoidal bases, which are less stable [
35
,
53
]. To explain the degradation
of the anthocyanins, Chen et al. (2020) [
54
] proposed two possible routes: (a) the C-O bound
present on the pyridine ring is opened, forming the intermediate chalcone-3-glycoside,
Processes 2025,13, 191 6 of 26
which loses a sugar group forming a chalcone and then into a protocatechuic acid, or
(b) the cyanidin-3-O-sophoroside (Cy-3-soph) suffers a successive loss of sugars, producing
cyanogenic glycosides and these are then broken into photocatechuic acid. These changes
in the structure result in different colors depending on the pH and is believed that these
compounds are more stable in acidic environments [55].
Another factor that can influence the anthocyanin degradation is the temperature.
These compounds are known to be highly stable in temperatures between 4 and 65
◦
C, as
the color is accented at higher temperatures. However, when processed in temperatures
higher than 70
◦
C, there is an acceleration in the degradation rate of the anthocyanins [
56
,
57
].
According to Zhang et al. (2022) [
58
] the temperature must be evaluated for anthocyanin
stability, as during the heating, it is possible to visualize a logarithmic destruction of
pigments. The thermal degradation mechanism involves the deglycosylation and reactions
that open the ring to form chalcones [
55
]. The less stable chalcone structure of anthocyanins
is formed at a temperature of 60
◦
C. These unstable chalcones eventually can be transformed
into brown degradation products [58–60].
When evaluating the light influence, it is known that the exposure to light provides
energy to the extract, passing it from a stationary or stable state to an excited or unstable
state. When this happens, photochemical reactions arise that destroy the molecules. The
oxygen turns this degradation even worse, Enaru et al. (2021) [
40
] indicated that oxygen can
cause the degradation of anthocyanins through indirect oxidation, oxidizing constituents of
the medium, or by the action of oxidizing enzymes, which can produce dark decomposition
compounds or depigmented compounds. Chen et al. (2023 and 2018) [
55
,
60
] studied
the photo-stability of red cabbage anthocyanin. They indicated that exposure to 72 h
of simulated solar light has a significant negative effect, while samples maintained in
the dark were more stable. One alternative to reduce the degradation of anthocyanins
is the complexation of these compounds with another molecule. Liu et al. (2020) [
61
]
indicated in their work that the use of proteins to enhance the stability of anthocyanins is
a good method to enhance stability. On the other hand, the presence of sugar can either
improve or degrade the anthocyanins. According to Akther et al. (2020) [
62
] and Slavu et al.
(2020) [
63
], moderate sugar concentrations are effective in maintaining the anthocyanins,
but increasing the sugar concentration may decrease stability and result in the formation of
brown pigments.
Also, metal complexation is an alternative for stabilizing anthocyanins derived from
fruits, but this phenomenon can result in diverse color variation, as metal copigmentation
can alter the absorption spectrum [
40
,
64
]. Another alternative is copigmentation, which
is the most promising technological process until now. Macromolecules, like gum arabic,
xanthan gum, alginate, pectin, chitosan and modified starch, can serve as copigmentation
agents to improve the stability of anthocyanins [60].
All these factors must be considered when developing intelligent packaging. Ac-
cording to Calva-Estrada et al. (2022) [
65
], light, heat, oxygen and high humidity in food
packaging tend to reduce the stability of natural compounds and these factors can also
cause conformational changes and affect film efficacy.
2.3. Anthocyanins Extraction
The extraction processes used in the industry involve methods such as maceration,
solvent extraction, steam, cold pressing and compression [
66
,
67
]. However, the high cost
of the processes and the environmental problems generated have made the development
of emerging technologies attractive. Consequently, new extraction techniques have been
developed to address these deficiencies, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and
high-pressure extraction [66,68,69].
Processes 2025,13, 191 7 of 26
Due to the low thermal stability of anthocyanins, non-thermal extraction methods or
those using low temperatures become interesting to avoid their degradation and bioavail-
ability. Table 1shows the advantages and disadvantages of conventional and emerging
extraction methods.
Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of anthocyanins extraction methods.
Method Advantage Disadvantage Reference
Solvent extraction
This is an extraction method of easy
operation. Also, it is possible to use
several solvents, such as deep eutectic
solvents. Also, this extraction method
has been related to good values of
anthocyanin recovery.
The main disadvantage of this
method is related to the high amount
of waste generated. Also, it has a long
time of reaction and low yield.
[70–72]
Ultrasound-assisted extraction
This method has as its main
advantages faster mass transfer, the
usage of reduced temperature, low
solvent consumption, low installation
cost and ease of operation.
The main disadvantage is the
potential for inhomogeneous heating
in the extraction process. Also, the
intensity of the bubbles generated can
affect the cells, enhancing the
temperature and causing an
enhancement of the temperature.
[73–75]
Microwave-assisted extraction
This method uses low amounts of
solvent and sample, as well as short
treatment times. Also, it has easy
adaptation to industrial scale and low
operating costs.
Some factors as the time, extraction
power and effect of temperature on
the sample must be carefully
considered to avoid anthocyanin
degradation due to excessive heat.
[76–78]
Pressurized liquid extraction
The use of high pressure allows
working at high temperatures. These
conditions increase the solubility of
the anthocyanins.
The main disadvantages are related
to the high cost of the equipment and
the necessity of optimization of
extraction parameters, such as
temperature and pressure.
[79–82]
Supercritical fluid extraction
This method results in an extract of
elevated quality, with high purity.
Also, this method is considered more
sustainable and
environmentally friendly.
This method has a substantial initial
investment. Also, it is a process that
demands a high amount of energy
due to supercritical conditions.
[83]
Enzyme-assisted extraction
The extraction is performed under
relatively mild conditions. Also, this
method has presented a higher yield
and quality extract.
The major disadvantage is the long
extraction time. Also, it is well known
that the presence of enzymes can
reduce the stability of anthocyanins,
so stability evaluation must
be performed.
[84–86]
As can be seen above, each method has advantages and disadvantages that must be
carefully evaluated according to the application of the extract, as well as the raw material
selected. Also, it is necessary to evaluate the cost of implementation and processing and
assess whether this is offset by the sales value of the product. More details of each method
and some applications for anthocyanin extraction are described below.
2.3.1. Solvent Extraction (SE) and Deep Eutectic Solvent Extraction (DES)
The solvent extraction process is generally applied at high temperatures. However,
it can also be performed at milder and room temperatures, having these characteristics
as an advantage over anthocyanins. Despite this, the method is very time-consuming,
lasting between three hours and three weeks. It is also unfeasible due to low yield, a large
amount of plant material, high solvent consumption and environmental impact [
70
,
71
].
This technique uses solvents according to their polarity to extract the compounds of interest.
Processes 2025,13, 191 8 of 26
In general, there is a saturation of the extraction solvent or a diffusion equilibrium between
the solvent and the plant cell.
It is important to note that, even though presenting several disadvantages, this tech-
nique is one of the most used extraction methods due to its suitability for different scales,
simplicity and low cost compared to other methods [67].
In general, extracting a solute from porous particles to a solvent during a diffusion
process involves several steps, such as diffusion of the solvent into the porous solid,
dissolution of the solute in the solvent, diffusion of dissolved solute to the surface of the
particle and diffusion of dissolved solute from the particle surface to the solvent [87].
In addition to the extraction method, the choice of solvent is crucial for a better and
faster extraction. With that in mind, green and efficient alternatives, such as using deep
eutectic solvents (DESs) in extraction, have been emerging, showing favorable results
compared to conventional solvents. A study by Bubalo et al. (2016) [
88
] demonstrated that
the yields of phenolic compounds from the grape seed coat obtained with DES were higher
than those obtained with water and conventional solvent using the maceration process.
A crescent number of studies have been performed using solvents for the extraction
of anthocyanins. It is important to highlight three papers that elucidate the usage of deep
eutectic solvents for anthocyanins extraction. Airouyuwa et al. (2024) [
89
] reviewed recent
developments in the use of DES for sustainable green extraction and concluded that the use
of DES is used as a more biocompatible and efficient alternative to conventional solvents.
They indicated that the anthocyanins extracted using DES have clearly shown increased
stability towards time-dependent degradation and are considered promising solvents for
the extraction of anthocyanins. But it is important to highlight that, even being considered
eco-friendly, ecotoxicity studies have shown that the eutectic mixtures are toxic to a certain
extent for both aquatic and terrestrial so they cannot be labeled as “readily biodegradable”.
Also, Foroutani et al. (2024) [
72
] evaluated the stability, bioavailability and antioxidant
properties of anthocyanins extracted by DES. These authors indicated that using these
solvents improved the extraction efficiency of anthocyanins. They also indicated that these
compounds presented higher stability, bioavailability and antioxidant activity. They also
defined that among the solvents evaluated, the choline chloride-oxalic acid is the most
efficient for anthocyanin extraction. The major problem indicated by these authors is the
difficult separation of the target compounds from the solvent.
Kurek et al. (2024) [
90
] evaluated the impact of the extraction with deep eutectic
solvent on anthocyanin degradation. They indicated that it is of critical importance to select
the appropriate solvent and storage conditions to preserve the anthocyanin content and
indicated that the combination of choline chloride and malic acid exhibited the highest
browning index, while the combination of choline chloride and xylitol was the most
effective solvent in preserving anthocyanins and minimizing browning.
So, based on these results, it is possible to conclude that the use of DES can be an
efficient alternative for anthocyanin extraction, but the solvent selection must be carefully
evaluated, as they can reduce the anthocyanin content or present separation problems.
2.3.2. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) has been widely applied for the extraction of
bioactive compounds from plant extracts. Many reported applications have shown that
ultrasound-assisted extraction is a green and economically viable alternative to conven-
tional food and natural product techniques. It offers several benefits, such as faster mass
transfer, thus decreasing extraction time, reduced temperature, selective extraction, low
solvent consumption, low installation cost and ease of operation [73,74].
Processes 2025,13, 191 9 of 26
However, one disadvantage is the potential for inhomogeneous heating in the ex-
traction [
91
]. It is also important to highlight that the mechanism of cell disruption by
ultrasonic waves is associated with the phenomenon of cavitation. This phenomenon
results in the release of highly energetic shock waves, which cause the appearance of me-
chanical stresses, causing damage to the affected surface. The ultrasonic wave may cause
an internal structural change in plant matrices due to the produced cavitation bubbles.
This bubble breakage of cell walls releases anthocyanins into the solvent medium through
diffusion and/or dissolution [92].
On the other hand, when the bubbles are smaller than the cells, they can generate
disruptive shear stress without the need for cell movement. In this way, larger cells feel the
turmoil of rupture more than smaller cells [
93
]. Much of the ultrasonic energy absorbed
by the cell suspension is transformed into heat, so temperature control is necessary [
75
],
otherwise, there may be a significant degradation of the thermolabile compounds.
The frequency of ultrasound in the extraction is effective because it breaks the micelle
or matrices of the sample, facilitating the access of the solvent to the contained compounds.
Furthermore, the power of ultrasound agitates the extraction solvent, thus increasing the
contact between the solvent and the targeted compounds, significantly improving this
extraction efficiency [69].
Heat and ultrasound-assisted extraction methods were applied to recover antho-
cyanins from Hibiscus sabdariffa. The extraction using ultrasound was approximately
2.5 times more efficient, allowing the recovery of higher values of anthocyanins when
compared to the literature. These results can be used as a viable source of anthocyanins to
produce bio-based colorants [94].
To establish environmentally friendly extraction methods for anthocyanins, DES was
investigated as a green alternative to conventional solvents, along with high-efficiency
ultrasound-assisted extraction. This approach utilizes DES as a green solvent and ul-
trasound as an alternative representing a good choice to design eco-friendly extraction
methods for phenolic compounds from various sources [95].
To enhance extraction efficiency, combined approaches are being explored, such as
unconventional technologies such as ultrasound and alternative solvents, aiming to obtain
better extraction values and reduce environmental damage [
96
]. However, the generated
extracts can still present problems of light stability, thermal stability, water solubility
and bioavailability. Devi et al. (2024) [
97
] evaluated the ultrasound-assisted extraction of
anthocyanin from black rice bran. Acidified ethanol and methanol were tested for extraction
at different intervals of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 min and the ultrasound power of
50–350 W. The study concluded that ultrasound-assisted extraction is an effective method
for the extraction of anthocyanins and that prolonged extraction time and ultrasound power
can lead to the decomposition of anthocyanins.
Albuquerque et al. (2024) [
98
] compared the heat-assisted and ultrasound-assisted
extraction methods for the extraction of anthocyanins from Eugenia spp. peel and indi-
cated that the usage of ultrasound resulted in higher extract yields. Although the higher
yields, the extracts produced with the heat-assisted extraction were more concentrated
in anthocyanins.
Using ultrasound extraction can be an alternative to enhance extraction yield, but it is
important to perform more studies, as even when presenting a higher yield, it can present
low selectivity for the desired compound. Additionally, more studies must be performed
to evaluate the stability of these compounds and their ability to detect pH changes when
applied in intelligent packaging.
Processes 2025,13, 191 10 of 26
2.3.3. Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
MAE is a promising emerging technique that has been used for the extraction of bioac-
tive compounds, utilizing low amounts of solvent and sample, as well as short treatment
times [
76
]. It aims to use heating by electromagnetic waves through an electric and mag-
netic field, with heating and cooling in short periods and under controlled conditions [
99
].
Other advantages of MAE are its easy adaptation to industrial scale and low operating
costs [77].
The principle of this technique is based on the direct heating of molecules by ionic con-
duction and dipole rotation. The frequencies vary from 0.3 to 300 GHz, which correspond to
wavelengths from 1 cm to 1 m [
100
]. Several factors can influence the quality of extraction
by this method, such as time and extraction power, the effect of temperature on the sample,
solvent composition, pre-leaching time, pH, particle size and sample moisture [78].
For successful MAE extraction, it is essential to choose a good solvent, which must
have microwave absorption properties, such as permanent dipoles [
101
]. Samples and
solvents with different polarities result in no heating of the sample and, consequently, the
desired extraction is not obtained. Conversely, using a solvent with a very high microwave
absorption capacity, we can heat the sample in seconds and thus degrade the compounds
of interest. Therefore, several works study different solvents in different proportions to
obtain the best performance [102].
For the extraction of anthocyanins in different raw materials, MAE has proven to be
a viable alternative to conventional extractions. Elez Garofuli´c et al. (2013) [
103
] studied
the isolation of anthocyanins and phenolic acids from marasca cherries (Prunus cerasus var.
Marasca) and obtained greater efficiency in MAE compared to conventional extraction,
with higher concentrations of anthocyanins and shorter extraction times in all solvents
used. Furthermore, for extracting anthocyanins, the best results were at lower temperatures
(60 ◦C) and shorter treatment times (6–9 min).
In another study, Gamage and Choo (2023) [
104
] evaluated the microwave extraction
of black goji berries and compared it with hot water, ultrasound and pectinase-assisted
extraction. The same authors indicated that pectinase-assisted has the best extraction
yield, but all the techniques tested were equally effective in obtaining an extract with high
anthocyanin content. These same authors evaluated hot water, ultrasound, microwave and
pectinase-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from blue pea flowers and in these studies,
microwave-assisted extraction was the best method to obtain an anthocyanin extract with a
high extraction yield.
It is important to emphasize the different results when comparing extraction methods
from different sources. A complete study must be performed to ensure that the compounds
extracted will be able to show the pH differences in the intelligent packaging and if the
compounds will be stable when used.
2.3.4. Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) is an environmentally friendly alternative to con-
ventional extraction methods, such as Soxhlet solvent maceration. PLE can extract bioactive
compounds from solid and semi-solid matrices, making it suitable for thermolabile com-
pounds such as anthocyanins. A major advantage of PLE over low-pressure extraction
methods is that high-pressure solvents remain liquid even when subjected to temperatures
well above their boiling points, thus allowing work at high temperatures. These conditions
increase the solubility of target compounds in the solvent and the kinetics of desorption of
solid matrices [79–81].
The efficiency of PLE is influenced by diffusion and solubility. When the process
is managed by diffusion, strong interactions between the matrix and analytes may hin-
Processes 2025,13, 191 11 of 26
der extraction due to long diffusion paths. The most important process parameters are
solvent temperature and particle size. However, if the PLE is solubility controlled, the
analyte-matrix interactions are quite weak and the extraction rate mainly depends on the
compartmentalization of the analyte between the matrix and the extraction fluid. In both
cases, the pressure is fundamental, as it facilitates the penetration of the solvent into the
pores of the matrix and increases the yield [105–107].
Factors such as ethanol concentration, number of extraction cycles and temperature
significantly impact the extraction process of anthocyanins present in jambolan. The
increase in ethanol concentration (60–80%) increased the anthocyanin extraction due to
the increase in medium polarity [
108
]. However, temperature control must be strict, as
anthocyanins are thermolabile compounds, which can lead to their degradation. Also,
there is a synergistic effect between solvent concentration and temperature, where higher
temperatures lead to a reduction in the viscosity of the solvent, having a positive impact on
the diffusion process and the solubilization of anthocyanins [109,110].
Bombana (2023) [
111
] evaluated maceration, ultrasound and pressurized liquid extrac-
tion for obtaining the anthocyanins present in the peel of guabiju (Myrcianthes pungens).
In this study, the ultrasound-assisted extraction method obtained the highest amount of
anthocyanins and the final by the PLE method was approximately 2.4 times more expensive
than the other methods. It is important to note that, even having good results, PLE has
several disadvantages, like its high cost. The PLE method presented lower extraction
efficiency, yield and productivity, which could have been caused by the combination of the
pressure and high temperature. Also, the color obtained in the PLE extract is different from
the other extracts, that are next to red, which can influence the pH detection when applied
in intelligent packaging.
2.3.5. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a process that utilizes a fluid at pressures and
temperatures beyond its critical point, modifying its capabilities as a solvent. Supercritical
fluids have properties between liquids and gases; for example, the viscosity of the fluid is
similar to a gas, but on the other hand, the density of the fluid is next to those found for
liquids. Additionally, the diffusivity is intermediate between liquids and gases [112].
Most SFE applications developed nowadays seek to gain advantage of the mild critical
temperature and pressure values of carbon dioxide (CO
2
), which is a green solvent and
is cheap and easily available. Also, it is a non-toxic, non-explosive and readily available
solvent and does not lead to large chemical changes in biocompounds, preserving their
biological properties. It is well known that the final product must be free of the extraction
solvent, which is another advantage of CO
2
, which is a gas at room temperature. This
means that when the pressure of the system is relieved, the CO
2
evaporates, leaving
the product solvent-free. Also, using the supercritical extraction with CO
2
can disrupt
intracellular electrolyte balance by modifying cell membranes and removing essential cell
constituents [112–114].
However, a primary disadvantage of using CO
2
as an extraction solvent is related to
its very low polarity, which results in a very low extraction of high- or medium-polarity
compounds [
114
]. To overcome this limitation, co-solvents like ethanol or water can
increase the solvating power of the CO
2
, allowing the extraction of polar compounds, like
anthocyanins [112,113].
Numerous studies have reported that the usage of ethanol-water co-solvent enhanced
the yield extraction of anthocyanins. This happens because the water of the co-solvent reacts
with the CO
2
, generating carbonic acid, which reduces the pH facilitating the penetration
Processes 2025,13, 191 12 of 26
of the solvent and the removal of the anthocyanins from the vacuole and resulting in a
highly stable extract [113].
Idham et al. (2022) [
113
] evaluated the extraction of anthocyanins from roselle calyces
using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and indicated that the co-solvent selection
and the operation pressure were the most significant factors in the extraction. Also, when
evaluating the stability of the extracts, the SFE is effective in protecting the anthocyanins
and maintaining color stability.
Jiao and Pour (2018) [
115
] evaluated the extraction of anthocyanins from haskap berry
pulp, which presented a high potential to be used as a green technology but relies on the
use of a combination of water and supercritical CO
2
. They also indicated that parameters
such as pressure, temperature, time and co-solvent to biomass ratio have an influence on
the extraction yield and must be evaluated to optimize the process.
Based on these findings, it is possible to conclude that, even with the use of a co-solvent,
supercritical extraction can be a viable process to obtain extracts rich in anthocyanins. Also,
some papers indicated that the use of this technique maintained color stability. But, even
presenting all these advantages, it is necessary for further studies to evaluate the application
of these extracts in intelligent packaging, ensuring the response of the compounds to the
pH changes.
2.3.6. Enzyme-Assisted Extraction (EAE)
Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) has recently emerged as an innovative method for
the extraction of anthocyanins from different plants. The EAE is performed under relatively
mild conditions and, as its principal mechanism, the cell is ruptured through enzymatic
hydrolysis, but it requires a long extraction time when performed at 40–50 ◦C [84,85].
The EAE process focuses on the breakdown of the cell wall and the release of the
compounds from the interior of the cell. To make the cell rupture, enzymes, like cellulases,
hemicellulases, xylanases, proteases,
α
–amylases,
β
–glucosidases and pectinases, can be
used [86,116].
Domínguez-Rodríguez et al. (2021) [
86
] indicated that the extraction performed with
enzymes has presented a higher yield and extract quality. Also, they indicated that the main
advantages of this method are the reduced extraction time and lower solvent consumption.
However, it is well known that better results for extraction depend on several factors, such
as the type and concentration of the enzyme, the temperature and the pH [116].
Given these variables, it is important to evaluate the optimal conditions for each plant
and enzyme studied, aiming to obtain a higher yield and quality of extract. Amulya and
Islam [
117
] studied the enzyme-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from eggplant peel.
The enzyme used in the process is cellulase and factors such as temperature, enzyme
concentration and time were evaluated, showing that the process is an effective way to
extract bioactives from eggplant peel.
Domínguez-Rodríguez et al. (2021) [
86
] also evaluated the enzyme-assisted extraction
of non-extractable polyphenols from sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) pomace. Three different
enzymes were tested: Depol, Promod and Pectinase. The optimal extraction condition was
obtained at a temperature of 70
◦
C and a pH of 10, but the reaction time varied from 40
min for Depol and Promod to 18.4 min for Pectinase. These optimal conditions allowed the
extraction of higher content of proanthocyanidins.
González et al. (2022) [
118
] evaluated the comparison between ultrasound-assisted
and enzyme-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from blackcurrant. Their results indicated
that the composition of the extraction solvent has been the most influential variable. Also,
no differences have been observed in anthocyanin yield with both methodologies.
Processes 2025,13, 191 13 of 26
Despite the promising results of EAE for extracting these compounds, further studies
must be performed to evaluate the usage of these extracts in intelligent packages. It is
well known that the presence of enzymes can reduce the stability of anthocyanins, so it is
important to evaluate if the long storage of an extract containing enzymes and anthocyanins
can result in reduced stability of the extract and if it is suitable to be used as a color change
indicator in the packaging.
3. Intelligent Food Packaging
People’s lifestyles have become increasingly complex, leading consumers to eat more
conveniently and quickly. Thus, for this reason, food industries have developed convenient
packaging that meets this demand, without forgetting the basic function of food protection
and the ease of communication between packaging and the final consumer [119].
Two new trends that stand out in packaging development: active and intelligent
packaging. Active packaging has active agents (antioxidant compounds, oxygen and
moisture absorbers, for example) that intentionally interact with the product, with the
purpose of protecting, prolonging shelf life, preserving sensory properties, maintaining
product quality and ensuring food safety [120].
Intelligent packaging, on the other hand, aims to facilitate the communication of
the freshness state of the food to the consumer, that is, providing dynamic feedback on
the real quality of the product. In this way, to inform the consumer about the current
situation of the food, devices, such as indicators, sensors, or data carriers, are inserted or
incorporated into the body of the package, so that they can interact with the internal and
external components of the food and the environment in which it is located and provide,
as a result, an immediate response (color change, for example) that correlates with the
physical, chemical and biological properties of the food [121].
Several devices and equipment have been developed to inform the state of conserva-
tion of food, such as radiofrequency identity tags, time-temperature indicators, electrochem-
ical sensors and electronic tongues and noses; however, these systems are complex and
expensive [
122
]. Simpler devices can be used for this control, without any difficulty; one
of them being the use of an indicator that shows the change in food pH [
3
,
123
]. Indicator
packaging transmits to the consumer information related to the presence or absence of a
substance, qualitatively or semi-quantitatively, through immediate visual changes. Indi-
cator packages are divided into three categories—time-temperature indicators, freshness
indicators and gas indicators—and usually appear in the form of an indicator card (label)
and indicator film [124].
Freshness indicators are designed to monitor changes in characteristics related to
the quality of the food and inform consumers [
122
]. The action principle of a freshness
indicator is based on the detection of alterations in the concentration of substances inside
the package. The appearance of these substances is related to microbial growth and
colorimetric changes in this indicator allow the consumer to be informed of this behavior.
Changes in the concentration of volatile nitrogen compounds, carbon dioxide, sulfide
compounds and glucose can result in colorimetric changes in freshness indicators [
5
]. This
measurement helps inform consumers about the quality of the food before consumption,
making consumers aware of the safety of the food consumption [15].
For the development and implementation of indicator packaging in the food indus-
try, this packaging must have a good colorimetric representation of changes inside the
packaging, good sensitivity and speed of response to these changes. Colorants, such as
chlorophenol red and bromophenol blue, have been used as sensors in commercial intel-
ligent packaging due to their good responses to pH changes. However, these colorants
are categorized as toxic and potentially harmful to human health, as they can migrate
Processes 2025,13, 191 14 of 26
into the food during the monitoring time and result in toxicity and carcinogenicity prob-
lems [15,125,126].
In this sense, natural colorants can be an alternative to dyes, as they have properties
such as biocompatibility, renewability, non-toxicity and ease of implementation and can be
safely disposed of in natural environments [15,127,128].
Applications
There are about 600 million cases of gastrointestinal diseases due to the consumption
of spoiled foods, with deaths from food poisoning reaching 420,000 per year [
129
]. In this
sense, intelligent packaging has been developed for assessing the freshness of the products.
Several studies that apply anthocyanin extracts from different plant origins in polymer
matrices are being developed as potential smart devices [
16
,
130
,
131
]. According to studies,
the range of concentrations of the anthocyanin extract varies from 0.1% to 66% (w/w) added
on a polymer basis [27].
Another important variable is the polymer used, with polysaccharides being studied
as a natural alternative to conventional synthetic plastics. Studies are performed using
starch, gelatin, cellulose and algae [27,123,130,132–137].
The selection of the polymer is crucial for intelligent packaging, as color variation is
dependent on these compounds. For example, for the detection in aqueous matrices, the
substrate should not be soluble in water and for gas samples, must have the permeability of
the analytes. In this sense, high porosity and large surface area can improve the sensitivity
due to the high adsorption and diffusion of the compounds [
138
]. Neves et al. (2022) [
27
]
reviewed several manuscripts and concluded that the pH change from acidic (2–3) to
neutral or alkaline (7–11) is detected by the color change from red to blue when using starch
films, red to green or pink to yellow when using films made of starch, polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) or carboxymethyl cellulose.
One application of this innovative packaging is for products that have their freshness
considerably declined over time due to the incidence of food spoilage. This behavior
is unable to be discerned with the naked eye by the consumers and some conventional
packages make it challenging to identify changes in the food [
139
]. In the typical food
degradation, the proteins are broken down into peptides and amino acids followed by
their conversion into CO
2
and ammonia gases, resulting in a dramatic pH drop, which
is detected by the colorimetric indicator and alerts consumers that food is unsafe for
consumption [18,140,141].
Following these conditions, Wei et al. (2017) [
142
] produced films based on gellan
gum incorporated with powdered purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.). In this case,
colorimetric responses to pH changes were observed, and the packaging showed high
antioxidant activity. In addition, the devices were efficient in the colorimetric transition
due to pH changes caused by volatile basic compounds produced by Escherichia coli when
this microorganism metabolized proteins in vitro.
Pourjavaher et al. (2017) [
143
] developed a film using cellulose nanofibers of bacterial
origin incorporated with red cabbage extract (Brassica oleraceae L. var. Capitata f. rubra)
to serve as an intelligent pH indicator device. In addition to determining the effect of
incorporating the cabbage extract on thermal, mechanical, microscopic, structural and
interaction properties with the polymeric matrix, the developed indicator was efficient
in detecting pH variations
in vitro
, showing potential application in monitoring the food
preservation conditions throughout its storage.
Processes 2025,13, 191 15 of 26
Ma et al. (2018) [
16
] developed films based on a blend composed of poly (vinyl alcohol)
(PVOH) and chitosan nanoparticles incorporated with blackberry extract aiming to detect
pH variations in solutions and foods. In addition to the films added with blackberry
extract showing greater resistance compared to the control film, they were able to detect
pH changes in fish samples during storage.
In general, berries, like blackberry and blueberry, are the most common source of
anthocyanin used to produce intelligent packages [
27
,
144
,
145
]. This occurs because these
fruits combine qualities, such as attractiveness and safety, with economic advantages,
as they are easy to cultivate and have a global supply [
27
]. But still, there are some
challenges in applying these compounds in intelligent packaging, which lies in ensuring
the stability of the anthocyanins due to the temperature variation, presence of light and
oxygen exposure [38].
Sani et al. (2021) [
137
] indicated that the increase in the activity of the microorganisms
leads to the temperature of the packaging to increase. This warming, with O
2
present
in the package, is the most important destructive factor of anthocyanins, hydrolyzing
the glycosidic bond and resulting in pigment loss and the malfunction of the intelligent
packaging sensor. Also, it is important to emphasize that it is known that natural colorants
are slightly lower in sensitivity to pH changes, so it is necessary to perform several tests
to ensure their functionality [
126
]. One potential solution to mitigate this issue is the
combination of two anthocyanin indicators, which can help avoid false positives and
negatives, thereby enhancing the accuracy of sensor results [
146
]. Other examples of
innovative materials incorporated with anthocyanins to develop intelligent packaging can
be seen in Table 2.
Processes 2025,13, 191 16 of 26
Table 2. Application of intelligent packaging incorporated with anthocyanins in food freshness.
Source Matrix Food Main Results Reference
Grape peel Rice starch and citrated starch Shrimp
The porous starch matrix provided great mechanical resistance, higher than the
commercial polystyrene foam available. The anthocyanins incorporated into
the foam presented efficient colorimetric changes based on the pH (∆E
approximately 40). Also, both films developed exhibited moderate antioxidant
activity (between 2 and 16%).
[147]
Grape pomace Arrowroot starch Fish meat
The grape pomace extract has colors varying from purple and blue tones.
When added to the arrowroot starch film, it was able to present a color change,
from pink at acidic pH to green at basic pH. All firms presented color
differences with values higher than 3, which is easily detected by the
naked eye.
[46]
Blueberry Wheat gluten proteins Shrimp
The film developed presented improved water vapor barrier, mechanical and
light blocking. Also, it was efficient to monitor shrimp degradation, changing
color according to the pH. Also, this color variation is stable for 15 days.
[47]
Jambolan fruit extract Laponite and montmorillonite
nanoclay Shrimp
Anthocyanins were stabilized into montmorillonite and showed antioxidant
properties. They maintained a stable color for 60 days and allowed us to
monitor the quality of fresh shrimp throughout their shelf life.
[148]
Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
Octenyl
succinic anhydride starch and
polyvinyl alcohol
Pork and Shrimp
The film produced presented good morphology, thermal and color stability, as
well as pH sensitivity, changing from bright red to yellow with increasing pH
from 2.0 to 12.0. The colorimetric changes can be visualized by the naked eye
and represent the freshness loss.
[126]
Rose petal Carrageenan hybridized with
carbon dots Pork and Shrimp
The film produced presented good thermal stability. The loss of freshness was
successfully visualized with a color change from red to yellow, presenting a
high potential for application in food packaging.
[149]
Aronia melanocarpa
anthocyanins Cassava starch and PVA films Milk
Aronia melanocarpa anthocyanins improved the mechanical (from 10 to 25 MPa)
and UV barrier properties of the starch/PVA films (between 60 and 80% at 800
nm). The colorimetric responses of the films to pH changes, combined with a
rancid aroma from the milk, indicated the potential use of the produced
material as intelligent packaging.
[150]
Processes 2025,13, 191 17 of 26
Table 2. Cont.
Source Matrix Food Main Results Reference
Blueberries extract Chitosan films fortified by
cellulose nanocrystal Shrimp
Biodegradable packaging was prepared based on chitosan that was
incorporated with blueberry extract and fortified with cellulose nanocrystals.
Applying 9% cellulose nanocrystals improved the film’s mechanical properties.
However, it showed a negative impact on its barrier properties. The developed
films showed antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and colorimetric
responses to pH variations, showing the potential to indicate shrimp freshness
and delay its deterioration.
[151]
Sweet potato peel extract Carrageenan films integrated
with TiO2carbon dots Shrimp
Films manufactured with carrageenan and incorporating carbon dots doped
with TiO2and anthocyanins from sweet potato peel showed 100% UV
protection, high antioxidant activity and antibacterial activity against strains of
L. monocytogenes and E. coli. Due to their sensitivity to pH variations, the films
produced showed the ability to monitor shrimp freshness in real time, serving
as a good indicator and helping to provide safe food.
[152]
Grape skin Soybean polysaccharide,
glycerol and graphene oxide Salmon
The film, added with anthocyanins, presented a reduction in the mechanical
(from 27.2 to 2.7 MPa) and thermal properties and presented an increase in the
MC (15.1 to 25.1%). The film exhibited a recognizable color alteration when the
environment changed to alkaline, being a suitable option to indicate
freshness changes.
[153]
Hyacinth bean (Lablab
purpureus (L.)
Films based on guar gum (GG)
and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Shrimp and pork
GG/PVA-based films incorporated with hyacinth bean anthocyanins (HBAs)
were developed to monitor the quality of meat products, such as shrimp and
pork. HBA improved the uniformity and compactness of the films by forming
hydrogen bonds with the film matrix. The application of 2% HBA enhanced
the films’ mechanical, thermal, barrier properties and antioxidant activity. The
developed films showed responses to pH variations during refrigerated
storage of shrimp and pork, making them suitable for application in the
intelligent packaging field.
[154]
Processes 2025,13, 191 18 of 26
Table 2. Cont.
Source Matrix Food Main Results Reference
Red grape Cellulose/Salep-based
intelligent aerogel Beef
Aerogel based on cellulose/Salep incorporated with anthocyanins was
developed to monitor the freshness of beef. The aerogel produced by
freeze-drying showed high porosity (90.22–91.13%) and low density
(13.55–16.08 mg/cm3), which influenced the sensitivity and stability of the
color. During meat storage, the aerogels showed high sensitivity to pH
variations due to the chemical breakdown of proteins and the release of
volatile bases.
[155]
Black wolfberry, Roselle,
Morning glory, purple potato,
Rose, Carnation, Mulberry,
Red cabbage and Grapes
Agar and polyvinyl alcohol Salmon
Among all the anthocyanin sources, Roselle presented the highest absorption
spectrum value. Also, when added to the hydrogel film, it was an effective
freshness indicator, changing from red to green.
[156]
Coleus grass (Plectranthus
scutellarioides) leaves Chitosan and Fucoidan Salmon
The addition of anthocyanins improved the antibacterial (from 10 to 25 mm)
and antioxidant activity (from 20 to 80%) of the films. Also, the films produced
are sensitive to ammonia gas produced during food degradation, even with a
few anthocyanins.
[157]
Processes 2025,13, 191 19 of 26
4. Conclusions and Future Scope
The development of intelligent packaging with colorimetric indicators or sensors
depends on selecting raw material sources, formulation composition and manufacturing
processes, requiring production and performance parameters standardization. Therefore,
incorporating advanced processes and technological resources has stood out, addressing
demands for quality, practicality and safety for both consumers and industries.
Among the most promising alternatives are intelligent packaging solutions containing
anthocyanin extracts, which offer significant advantages over traditional packaging. These
solutions enable efficient and practical monitoring of food conditions, facilitating the rapid
detection of spoilage and the tracking of shelf life. In addition to providing economic
benefits, these packages enhance food safety, reducing losses and waste.
Technological advancements are expected to continue improving the effectiveness and
sustainability of these solutions. Moreover, raising awareness about the importance and
potential of these technologies is crucial, particularly regarding public health protection
and the promotion of safer and more sustainable food systems.
Author Contributions: S.V.K.: Investigation, Writing—original draft. A.G.M.: Writing—original
draft. G.D.A.: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing—review and editing. M.V.T.: Writing—review
and editing. M.d.L.: Writing—review and editing. L.S.S.: Writing—review and editing, Supervision,
Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: Authors would like to thank CNPq-Brazil (302593/2023-3) and CAPES-Brazil for re-
search funding.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
1.
Bhowmik, S.; Agyei, D.; Ali, A. Smart chitosan films as intelligent food packaging: An approach to monitoring food freshness
and biomarkers. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2024,46, 101370. [CrossRef]
2.
Alizadeh Sani, M.; Tavassoli, M.; Salim, S.A.; Azizi-lalabadi, M.; McClements, D.J. Development of green halochromic smart
and active packaging materials: TiO
2
nanoparticle- and anthocyanin-loaded gelatin/
κ
-carrageenan films. Food Hydrocoll.
2022,124, 107324. [CrossRef]
3.
Etxabide, A.; Kilmartin, P.A.; Maté, J.I. Color stability and pH-indicator ability of curcumin, anthocyanin and betanin containing
colorants under different storage conditions for intelligent packaging development. Food Control 2021,121, 107645. [CrossRef]
4.
Cheng, H.; Xu, H.; McClements, D.J.; Chen, L.; Jiao, A.; Tian, Y.; Miao, M.; Jin, Z. Recent advances in intelligent food packaging
materials: Principles, preparation and applications. Food Chem. 2022,375, 131738. [CrossRef]
5.
Becerril, R.; Nerín, C.; Silva, F. Bring some colour to your package: Freshness indicators based on anthocyanin extracts. Trends
Food Sci. Technol. 2021,111, 495–505. [CrossRef]
6.
Sohail, M.; Sun, D.W.; Zhu, Z. Recent developments in intelligent packaging for enhancing food quality and safety. Crit. Rev. Food
Sci. Nutr. 2018,58, 2650–2662. [CrossRef]
7.
Bkowska-Barczak, A. Acylated anthocyanins as stable, natural food colorants—A review. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2005,14, 107–116.
8.
Castañeda-Ovando, A.; Pacheco-Hernández, M.L.; Páez-Hernández, M.E.; Rodríguez, J.A.; Galán-Vidal, C.A. Chemical studies of
anthocyanins: A review. Food Chem. 2009,113, 859–871. [CrossRef]
9.
Wu, C.; Li, Y.; Sun, J.; Lu, Y.; Tong, C.; Wang, L.; Yan, Z.; Pang, J. Novel konjac glucomannan films with oxidized chitin nanocrystals
immobilized red cabbage anthocyanins for intelligent food packaging. Food Hydrocoll. 2020,98, 105245. [CrossRef]
10.
Yong, H.; Liu, J.; Kan, J.; Liu, J. Active/intelligent packaging films developed by immobilizing anthocyanins from purple
sweetpotato and purple cabbage in locust bean gum, chitosan and
κ
-carrageenan-based matrices. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2022,211,
238–248. [CrossRef]
11.
Andretta, R.; Luchese, C.L.; Tessaro, I.C.; Spada, J.C. Development and characterization of pH-indicator films based on cassava
starch and blueberry residue by thermocompression. Food Hydrocoll. 2019,93, 317–324. [CrossRef]
Processes 2025,13, 191 20 of 26
12.
Capello, C.; Leandro, G.C.; Campos, C.E.M.; Hotza, D.; Mattar Carciofi, B.A.; Valencia, G.A. Adsorption and desorption of
eggplant peel anthocyanins on a synthetic layered silicate. J. Food Eng. 2019,262, 162–169. [CrossRef]
13.
Goodarzi, M.M.; Moradi, M.; Tajik, H.; Forough, M.; Ezati, P.; Kuswandi, B. Development of an easy-to-use colorimetric pH label
with starch and carrot anthocyanins for milk shelf-life assessment. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020,153, 240–247. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14.
Zhang, X.; Lu, S.; Chen, X. A visual pH sensing film using natural dyes from Bauhinia blakeana Dunn.Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2014,
198, 268–273. [CrossRef]
15.
Oladzadabbasabadi, N.; Nafchi, A.M.; Ghasemlou, M.; Ariffin, F.; Singh, Z.; Al-Hassan, A.A. Natural anthocyanins: Sources,
extraction, characterization, and suitability for smart packaging. Food Packag. Shelf Life 2022,33, 100872. [CrossRef]
16.
Ma, Q.; Liang, T.; Cao, L.; Wang, L. Intelligent poly (vinyl alcohol)-chitosan nanoparticles-mulberry extracts films capable of
monitoring pH variations. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018,108, 576–584. [CrossRef]
17.
Luzi, F.; Torre, L.; Kenny, J.; Puglia, D. Bio- and fossil-based polymeric blends and nanocomposites for packaging: Structure–
property relationship. Materials 2019,12, 471. [CrossRef]
18.
Narancic, T.; Verstichel, S.; Chaganti, S.R.; Morales-Gamez, L.; Kenny, S.T.; Wilde, B.; Padamati, R.B.; O’Connor, K.E. Biodegradable
Plastic Blends Create New Possibilities for End-of-Life Management of Plastics but They Are Not a Panacea for Plastic Pollution.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018,52, 10441–10452. [CrossRef]
19.
Vedove, T.M.A.R.D.; Maniglia, B.C.; Tadini, C.C. Production of sustainable smart packaging based on cassava starch and
anthocyanin by an extrusion process. J. Food Eng. 2021,289, 110274. [CrossRef]
20.
Guo, Z.; Zuo, H.; Ling, H.; Yu, Q.; Gou, Q.; Yang, L. A novel colorimetric indicator film based on watermelon peel pectin and
anthocyanins from purple cabbage for monitoring mutton freshness. Food Chem. 2022,383, 131915. [CrossRef]
21.
Pang, S.; Wang, Y.; Jia, H.; Hao, R.; Jan, M.; Li, S.; Pu, Y.; Dong, X.; Pan, J. The properties of pH-responsive gelatin-based intelligent
film as affected by ultrasound power and purple cabbage anthocyanin dose. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2023,230, 123156. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
22.
Li, Y.; Wu, K.; Wang, B.; Li, X. Colorimetric indicator based on purple tomato anthocyanins and chitosan for application in
intelligent packaging. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021,174, 370–376. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23.
Lysiak, G. Ornamental Flowers Grown in Human Surroundings as a Source of Anthocyanins with High Anti-Inflammatory
Properties. Foods 2022,11, 948. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Bridle, P.; Timberlake, C.F. Anthocyanins as natural food colours—Selected aspects. Food Chem. 1997,58, 103–109. [CrossRef]
25.
Cheng, Y.; Liu, J.; Li, L.; Ren, J.; Lu, J.; Luo, F. Advances in embedding techniques of anthocyanins: Improving stability, bioactivity
and bioavailability. Food Chem. X 2023,20, 100983. [CrossRef]
26.
Lu, Z.; Wang, X.; Lin, X.; Mostafa, S.; Zou, H.; Wang, L.; Jin, B. Plant anthocyanins: Classification, biosynthesis, regulation,
bioactivity, and health benefits. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2024,217, 109268. [CrossRef]
27.
Neves, D.; Andrade, P.B.; Videira, R.A.; Freitas, V.; Cruz, L. Berry anthocyanin-based films in smart food packaging: A mini-review.
Food Hydrocoll. 2022,133, 107885. [CrossRef]
28.
Lopes, T.J.; Xavier, M.F.; Quadri, M.G.N.; Quadri, M.B. Antocianinas: Uma breve revisão das características estruturais e da
estabilidade. Rev. Bras. Agrociência 2007,13, 291–297.
29.
Narayan, M.S.; Naidu, K.A.; Ravishankar, G.A.; Srinivas, L.; Venkataraman, L.V. Antioxidant effect of anthocyanin on enzymatic
and non-enzymatic lipid peroxidation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids (PLEFA) 1999,60, 1–4. [CrossRef]
30.
Farooq, S.; Shah, M.A.; Siddiqui, M.W.; Dar, B.N.; Mir, S.A.; Ali, A. Recent trends in extraction techniques of anthocyanins from
plant materials. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2020,14, 3508–3519. [CrossRef]
31.
Escribano-Bailón, M.T.; Santos-Buelga, C.; Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C. Anthocyanins in cereals. J. Chromatogr. A 2004,1054, 129–141.
[CrossRef]
32. Bobbio, F.O.; Bobbio, P.A. IntroduçãoàQuímica de Alimentos; Varela: São Paulo, Brazil, 1992.
33.
Turturica, M.; Oancea, A.M.; Râpeanu, G.; Bahrim, G. Anthocyanins: Naturally occuring fruit pigments with functional properties.
AUDJG-Food Technol. 2015,39, 9–24.
34. Fennema, O.R.; Damodaran, S.; Parkin, K.L. Química de Alimentos de Fennema; Artmed: Porto Alegre, Brazil, 2010.
35.
Tang, R.; He, Y.; Fan, K. Recent advances in stability improvement of anthocyanins by efficient methods and its application in
food intelligent packaging: A review. Food Biosci. 2023,56, 103164. [CrossRef]
36.
Zhang, R.; Ye, S.; Guo, Y.; Wu, M.; Jiang, S.; He, J. Studies on the interaction between homological proteins and anthocyanins from
purple sweet potato (PSP): Structural characterization, binding mechanism and stability. Food Chem. 2023,400, 134050. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
37.
Xu, M.; Fang, D.; Kimatu, B.M.; Lyu, L.; Wu, W.; Cao, F.; Li, W. Recent advances in anthocyanin-based films and its application in
sustainable intelligent food packaging: A review. Food Control 2024,162, 110431. [CrossRef]
38.
Shao, Z.; Lan, W.; Xie, J. Colorimetric freshness indicators in aquatic products based on natural pigments: A review. Food Biosci.
2024,58, 103624. [CrossRef]
Processes 2025,13, 191 21 of 26
39.
Giusti, M.M.; Wrolstad, R.E. Acylated anthocyanins from edible sources and their applications in food systems. Biochem. Eng. J.
2003,14, 217–225. [CrossRef]
40.
Enaru, B.; Dretcanu, G.; Pop, T.D.; Stanila, A.; Diaconeasa, Z. Anthocyanins: Factors affecting their stability and degradation.
Antioxidants 2021,10, 1967. [CrossRef]
41.
Cai, D.; Li, X.; Chen, J.; Jiang, X.; Ma, X.; Sun, J.; Tian, L.; Vidyarthi, S.K.; Xu, J.; Pan, Z.; et al. A comprehensive review on
innovative and advanced stabilization approaches of anthocyanin by modifying structure and controlling environmental factors.
Food Chem. 2022,366, 130611. [CrossRef]
42.
Pods˛edek, A.; Majewska, I.; Kucharska, A.Z. Inhibitory potential of red cabbage against digestive enzymes linked to obesity and
type 2 diabetes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017,65, 7192–7199. [CrossRef]
43.
Ahmadiani, N.; Sigurdson, G.T.; Robbins, R.J.; Collins, T.M.; Giusti, M.M. Solid phase fractionation techniques for segregation
of red cabbage anthocyanins with different colorimetric and stability properties. Food Res. Int. 2019,120, 688–696. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
44.
Ghareaghajlou, N.; Hallaj-Nezhadi, S.; Ghasempour, Z. Red cabbage anthocyanins: Stability, extraction, biological activities and
applications in food systems. Food Chem. 2021,365, 130482. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45.
Zhan, S.; Yi, F.; Hou, F.; Song, L.; Chen, X.; Jiang, H.; Han, X.; Sun, X.; Liu, Z. Development of pH-freshness smart label based on
gellan gum film incorporated with red cabbage anthocyanins extract and its application in postharvest mushroom. Colloids Surf.
B Biointerfaces 2024,236, 113830. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46.
Nogueira, G.F.; Meneghetti, B.B.; Soares, I.H.B.T.; Soares, C.T.; Bevilaqua, G.; Fakhouri, F.M.; Oliveira, R.A. Multipurpose
arrowroot starch films with anthocyanin-rich grape pomace extract: Color migration for food simulants and monitoring the
freshness of fish meat. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2024,265, 130934. [CrossRef]
47.
Hu, F.; Song, Y.; Thakur, K.; Zhang, J.; Khan, M.R.; Ma, Y.; Wei, Z. Blueberry anthocyanin based active intelligent wheat gluten
protein films: Preparation, characterization, and applications for shrimp freshness monitoring. Food Chem. 2024,453, 139676.
[CrossRef]
48.
Yong, H.; Wang, X.; Zhang, X.; Liu, Y.; Qin, Y.; Liu, J. Effects of anthocyanin-rich purple and black eggplant extracts on the
physical, antioxidant and pH-sensitive properties of chitosan film. Food Hydrocoll. 2019,94, 93–104. [CrossRef]
49.
Chen, B.H.; Stephen Inbaraj, B. Nanoemulsion and nanoliposome based strategies for improving anthocyanin stability and
bioavailability. Nutrients 2019,11, 1052. [CrossRef]
50.
Zhang, N.; Jing, P. Anthocyanins in Brassicaceae: Composition, stability, bioavailability, and potential health benefits. Crit. Rev.
Food Sci. Nutr. 2020,62, 2205–2220. [CrossRef]
51.
Herrera-Balandrano, D.D.; Chai, Z.; Beta, T.; Feng, J.; Huang, W. Blueberry anthocyanins: An updated review on approaches to
enhancing their bioavailability. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021,118, 808–821. [CrossRef]
52.
Lima, A.J.B.; Corrêa, A.D.; Saczk, A.A.; Martins, M.P.; Castilho, R.O. Anthocyanins, pigment stability and antioxidant activity in
jabuticaba [Myrciaria cauliflora (Mart.) O. Berg]. Rev. Bras. Frutic. 2011,33, 877–887. [CrossRef]
53.
Zang, Z.; Tang, S.; Li, Z.; Chou, S.; Shu, C.; Chen, Y.; Chen, W.; Yang, S.; Yang, Y.; Tian, J.; et al. An updated review on the stability
of anthocyanins regarding the interaction with food proteins and polysaccharides. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2022,21,
4378–4401. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54.
Chen, J.; Du, J.; Li, M.; Li, C. Degradation kinetics and pathways of red raspberry anthocyanins in model and juice systems and
their correlation with color and antioxidant changes during storage. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2020,128, 109448. [CrossRef]
55.
Chen, Y.; Belwal, T.; Xu, Y.; Ma, Q.; Li, D.; Li, L.; Xiao, H.; Luo, Z. Updated insights into anthocyanin stability behavior from bases
to cases: Why and why not anthocyanins lose during food processing. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2023,63, 8639–8671. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
56.
Escher, G.B.; Wen, M.; Zhang, L.; Rosso, N.D.; Granato, D. Phenolic composition by UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS and stability of
anthocyanins from Clitoria ternatea L. (butterfly pea) blue petals. Food Chem. 2020,331, 127341. [CrossRef]
57.
Ngamwonglumlert, L.; Devahastin, S.; Chiewchan, N. Natural colorants: Pigment stability and extraction yield enhancement via
utilization of appropriate pretreatment and extraction methods. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017,57, 3243–3259. [CrossRef]
58.
Zhang, P.; Li, Y.; Chong, S.; Yan, S.; Yu, R.; Chen, R.; Si, J.; Zhang, X. Identification and quantitative analysis of anthocyanins
composition and their stability from different strains of Hibiscus syriacus L. flowers. Ind. Crops Prod. 2022,177, 114457. [CrossRef]
59.
Alvarez-Suarez, J.M.; Cuadrado, C.; Redondo, I.B.; Giampieri, F.; González-Paramás, A.M.; Santos-Buelga, C. Novel approaches
in anthocyanin research-Plant fortification and bioavailability issues. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021,117, 92–105. [CrossRef]
60.
Chen, Y.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, H.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, S.; Meng, Q.; Liu, W. Isolation of high purity anthocyanin monomers from red
cabbage with recycling preparative liquid chromatography and their photostability. Molecules 2018,23, 991. [CrossRef]
61.
Liu, P.; Li, W.; Hu, Z.; Qin, X.; Liu, G. Isolation, purification, identification, and stability of anthocyanins from Lycium ruthenicum
Murr. LWT 2020,126, 109334. [CrossRef]
62.
Akther, S.; Sultana, F.; Badsha, M.R.; Sultana, J.; Alim, M.A. Anthocyanin stability profile of mango powder: Temperature, ph,
light, solvent and sugar content effects. Turk. J. Agric.-Food Sci. Technol. 2020,8, 1871–1877. [CrossRef]
Processes 2025,13, 191 22 of 26
63.
Slavu, M.; Aprodu, I.; Milea,
S
,
.A.; Enachi, E.; Rapeanu, G.; Bahrim, G.E.; Stanciuc, N. Thermal degradation kinetics of anthocyanins
extracted from purple maize flour extract and the effect of heating on selected biological functionality. Foods 2020,9, 1593.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
64.
Wijesekara, T.; Xu, B. A critical review on the stability of natural food pigments and stabilization techniques. Food. Res. Int. 2024,
179, 114011. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65.
Calva-Estrada, S.J.; Jiménez-Fernández, M.; Lugo-Cervantes, E. Betalains and their applications in food: The current state of
processing, stability and future opportunities in the industry. Food Chem. Mol. Sci. 2022,4, 100089. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66.
Chemat, F.; Rombaut, N.; Sicaire, A.; Meullemiestre, A.; Fabiano-Tixier, A.; Abert-Vian, M. Ultrasound assisted extraction of food
and natural products. Mechanisms, techniques, combinations, protocols and applications. A review. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2017,34,
540–560. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67.
Silva, S.; Costa, E.M.; Calhau, C.; Morais, R.M.; Pintado, M.E. Anthocyanin extraction from plant tissues: A review. Crit. Rev. Food
Sci. Nutr. 2017,57, 3072–3083. [CrossRef]
68.
Wang, Q.; Qin, X.; Liang, Z.; Li, S.; Cai, J.; Zhu, Z.; Liu, G. HPLC–DAD–ESI–MS
2
analysis of phytochemicals from Sichuan red
orange peel using ultrasound-assisted extraction. Food Biosci. 2018,25, 15–20. [CrossRef]
69.
Chen, Y.; Xie, M.; Gong, X. Microwave-assisted extraction used for the isolation of total triterpenoid saponins from Ganoderma
atrum.J. Food Eng. 2007,81, 162–170. [CrossRef]
70.
Mattos, G.N.; Santiago, M.C.P.A.; Chaves, A.C.S.D.; Rosenthal, A.; Tonon, R.V.; Cabral, L.M.C. Anthocyanin Extraction from
Jaboticaba Skin (Myrciaria cauliflora Berg.) Using Conventional and Non-Conventional Methods. Foods 2022,11, 885. [CrossRef]
71.
Jovanovic, A.; Petrovic, P.; Ðorðevic, V.; Zdunic, G.; Šavikin, K.; Bugarski, B. Polyphenols extraction from plant sources. Lek.
Sirovine 2017,37, 37–39. [CrossRef]
72.
Foroutani, Z.; Mogaddam, M.R.A.; Ghasempour, Z.; Ghareaghajlou, N. Application of deep eutectic solvents in the extraction of
anthocyanins: Stability, bioavailability, and antioxidant property. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2024,144, 104324. [CrossRef]
73.
Chemat, F.; Zill-e-Huma; Khan, M.K. Applications of ultrasound in food technology: Processing, preservation and extraction.
Ultrason. Sonochem. 2011,18, 813–835. [CrossRef]
74.
Chemat, S.; Lagha, A.; AitAmar, H.; Bartels, P.V.; Chemat, F. Comparison of conventional and ultrasound-assisted extraction of
carvone and limonene from caraway seeds. Flavour Fragr. J. 2004,19, 188–195. [CrossRef]
75. Middelberg, A.P.J. Process-scale disruption of microorganisms. Biotechnol. Adv. 1995,13, 491–551. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76.
Sanchez-Reinoso, Z.; Mora-Adames, W.I.; Fuenmayor, C.A.; Darghan-Contreras, A.E.; Gardana, C.; Gutiérrez, L. Microwave-
assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from Sacha Inchi shell: Optimization, physicochemical properties and evaluation of
their antioxidant activity. Chem. Eng. Process.-Process Intensif. 2020,153, 107922. [CrossRef]
77.
Gallo, M.; Ferracane, R.; Graziani, G.; Ritieni, A.; Fogliano, V. Microwave assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from
four different spices. Molecules 2010,15, 6365–6374. [CrossRef]
78.
Kala, H.K.; Mehta, R.; Sen, K.K.; Tandey, R.; Mandal, V. Critical analysis of research trends and issues in microwave assisted
extraction of phenolics: Have we really done enough. TrAC-Trends Anal. Chem. 2016,85, 140–152. [CrossRef]
79.
Gomes, S.V.F.; Portugal, L.A.; Anjos, J.P.; de Jesus, O.N.; de Oliveira, E.J.; David, J.P.; David, J.M. Accelerated solvent extraction of
phenolic compounds exploiting a Box-Behnken design and quantification of five flavonoids by HPLC-DAD in Passiflora species.
Microchem. J. 2017,132, 28–35. [CrossRef]
80.
Paes, J.; Dotta, R.; Barbero, G.F.; Martínez, J. Extraction of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins from blueberry (Vaccinium
myrtillus L.) residues using supercritical CO2and pressurized liquids. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2014,95, 8–16. [CrossRef]
81.
Setyaningsih, W.; Saputro, I.E.; Palma, M.; Barroso, C.G. Optimization of the ultrasound-assisted extraction of tryptophan and its
derivatives from rice (Oryza sativa) grains through a response surface methodology. J. Cereal Sci. 2017,75, 192–197. [CrossRef]
82.
Tena, M.T. Extraction | Pressurized Liquid Extraction. In Encyclopedia of Analytical Science; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
2019; pp. 78–83. [CrossRef]
83.
Herzyk, F.; Pilakowska-Pietras, D.; Korzeniowska, M. Supercritical Extraction Techniques for Obtaining Biologically Active
Substances from a Variety of Plant Byproducts. Foods 2024,13, 1713. [CrossRef]
84.
Gligor, O.; Mocan, A.; Moldovan, C.; Locatelli, M.; Cri
s
,
an, G.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Enzyme-assisted extractions of polyphenols—A
comprehensive review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019,88, 302–315. [CrossRef]
85.
Chen, L.; Zhong, J.; Lin, Y.; Yuan, T.; Huang, J.; Gan, L.; Wang, L.; Lin, C.; Fan, H. Microwave and enzyme co-assisted extraction
of anthocyanins from Pulple-heart Radish: Process optimization, composition analysis and antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol. 2023,187, 115312. [CrossRef]
86.
Domínguez-Rodríguez, M.L.G.; Plaza, M.M. Enzyme-assisted extraction of bioactive non-extractable polyphenols from sweet
cherry (Prunus avium L.) pomace. Food Chem. 2021,339, 128086. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Setford, P.C.; Jeffery, D.W.; Grbin, P.R.; Muhlack, R.A. Factors affecting extraction and evolution of phenolic compounds during
red wine maceration and the role of process modelling. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2017,69, 106–117. [CrossRef]
Processes 2025,13, 191 23 of 26
88.
Bubalo, M.C.; ´
Curko, N.; Tomaševi´c, M.; Gani´c, K.K.; Redovnikovi´c, I.R. Green extraction of grape skin phenolics by using deep
eutectic solvents. Food Chem. 2016,200, 159–166. [CrossRef]
89.
Airouyuwa, J.O.; Sivapragasam, N.; Redha, A.A.; Maqsood, S. Sustainable green extraction of anthocyanins and carotenoids
using deep eutectic solvents (DES): A review of recent developments. Food Chem. 2024,448, 139061. [CrossRef]
90.
Kurek, M.A.; Custodio-Mendoza, J.A.; Aktas, H.; Pokorski, P. Exploring deep eutectic solvent extraction’s impact on anthocyanin
degradation kinetics in various conditions. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2024,198, 115994. [CrossRef]
91.
Zhang, L.; Liu, Z. Optimization and comparison of ultrasound/microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasonic assisted
extraction (UAE) of lycopene from tomatoes. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2008,15, 731–737. [CrossRef]
92.
Gogate, P.R.; Kabadi, A.M. A review of applications of cavitation in biochemical engineering/biotechnology. Biochem. Eng. J.
2009,44, 60–72. [CrossRef]
93.
Geciova, J.; Bury, D.; Jelen, P. Methods for disruption of microbial cells for potential use in the dairy industry: A review. Int. Dairy
J. 2002,12, 541–553. [CrossRef]
94.
Pinela, J.; Prieto, M.A.; Pereira, E.; Jabeur, I.; Barreiro, M.F.; Barros, L.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Optimization of heat- and ultrasound-
assisted extraction of anthocyanins from Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces for natural food colorants. Food Chem. 2019,275, 309–321.
[CrossRef]
95.
Bosiljkov, T.; Dujmi´c, F.; Bubalo, M.C.; Hribar, J.; Vidrih, R.; Brnˇci´c, M.; Zlatic, E.; Redovnikovi´c, I.R.; Joki´c, S. Natural deep eutectic
solvents and ultrasound-assisted extraction: Green approaches for extraction of wine lees anthocyanins. Food Bioprod. Process.
2017,102, 195–203. [CrossRef]
96.
Ivanovi´c, M.; Albreht, A.; Krajnc, P.; Vovk, I.; Razboršek, M.I. Sustainable ultrasound-assisted extraction of valuable phenolics
from inflorescences of Helichrysum arenarium L. using natural deep eutectic solvents. Ind. Crops Prod. 2021,160, 113102. [CrossRef]
97.
Devi, L.M.; Das, A.B.; Badwaik, L.S. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of anthocyanin from black rice bran and its encapsulation by
complex coacervation. Food Hydrocoll. Health 2024,5, 100174. [CrossRef]
98.
Albuquerque, B.R.; Pinela, J.; Pereira, C.; Mandim, F.; Heleno, S.; Oliveira, M.B.P.P.; Barros, L. Recovery of anthocyanins from
Eugenia spp. fruit peels: A comparison between heat- and ultrasound-assisted extraction. Sustain. Food Technol. 2024,2, 189–201.
[CrossRef]
99.
Chan, C.; Yusoff, R.; Ngoh, G.; Kung, F.W. Microwave-assisted extractions of active ingredients from plants. J. Chromatogr. A 2011,
16, 6213–6225. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100.
Lopez-Avila, V.; Luque de Castro, M.D. Microwave-Assisted Extraction. In Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and
Chemical Engineering; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014. [CrossRef]
101.
Llompart, M.; Celeiro, M.; Dagnac, T. Microwave-assisted extraction of pharmaceuticals, personal care products and industrial
contaminants in the environment. TrAC-Trends Anal. Chem. 2019,116, 136–150. [CrossRef]
102.
López-Salazar, H.; Camacho-Díaz, B.H.; Ocampo, M.L.A.; Jiménez-Aparicio, A.R. Microwave-assisted extraction of functional
compounds from plants: A Review. BioResources 2023,18, 6614–6638. [CrossRef]
103. Elez Garofuli´c, I.; Dragovi´c-Uzelac, V.; Režek Jambrak, A.; Juki´c, M. The effect of microwave assisted extraction on the isolation
of anthocyanins and phenolic acids from sour cherry Marasca (Prunus cerasus var. Marasca). J. Food Eng. 2013,117, 437–442.
[CrossRef]
104.
Gamage, G.C.; Choo, W.S. Hot water extraction, ultrasound, microwave and pectinase-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from
blue pea flower. Food Chem. Adv. 2023,2, 100209. [CrossRef]
105.
Alves, T.P.; Triques, C.C.; Palsikowski, P.A.; da Silva, C.; Fiorese, M.L.; da Silva, E.A.; Fagundes-Klen, M.R. Improved extraction
of bioactive compounds from Monteverdia aquifolia leaves by pressurized-liquid and ultrasound-assisted extraction: Yield and
chemical composition. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2022,181, 105468. [CrossRef]
106.
Oliveira, A.M.B.; Viganó, J.; Sanches, V.L.; Rostagno, M.A.; Martínez, J. Extraction of potential bioactive compounds from
industrial Tahiti lime (Citrus latifólia Tan.) by-product using pressurized liquids and ultrasound-assisted extraction. Food Res. Int.
2022,157, 111381. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
107.
Vardanega, R.; Fuentes, F.S.; Palma, J.; Bugueño-Muñoz, W.; Cerezal-Mezquita, P.; Ruiz-Domínguez, M.C. Valorization of
granadilla waste (Passiflora ligularis, Juss.) by sequential green extraction processes based on pressurized fluids to obtain bioactive
compounds. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2023,194, 105833. [CrossRef]
108.
Sabino, L.B.S.; Alves Filho, E.G.; Fernandes, F.A.N.; de Brito, E.S.; da Silva Júnior, I.J. Optimization of pressurized liquid extraction
and ultrasound methods for recovery of anthocyanins present in jambolan fruit (Syzygium cumini L.). Food Bioprod. Process. 2021,
127, 77–89. [CrossRef]
109.
Avhad, D.N.; Rathod, V.K. Ultrasound assisted production of a fibrinolytic enzyme in a bioreactor. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2015,22,
257–264. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
110.
Feuereisen, M.M.; Zimmermann, B.F.; Schulze-Kaysers, N.; Schieber, A. Differentiation of Brazilian Peppertree (Schinus tere-
binthifolius Raddi) and Peruvian Peppertree (Schinus molle L.) Fruits by UHPLC–UV–MS Analysis of Their Anthocyanin and
Biflavonoid Profiles. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2017,65, 5330–5338. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Processes 2025,13, 191 24 of 26
111.
Bombana, V.B.; Nascimento, L.H.; Rigo, D.; Fischer, B.; Colet, R.; Paroul, N.; Dallago, R.M.; Junges, Al.; Cansian, R.L.; Backes,
G.T. Extraction by maceration, ultrasound, and pressurizes liquid methods for the recovery of anthocyanins present in the
peel of guabiju (Myrcianthes pungens): Maximazing the extraction of anthocyanins from peel of guabiju. Sustain. Chem. Pharm.
2023,36, 101264. [CrossRef]
112.
Sánchez-Camargo, A.P.; Mendiola, J.A.; Ibáñez, E.; Herrero, M. Supercritical Fluid Extraction. In Reference Module in Chemistry,
Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014. [CrossRef]
113.
Idham, Z.; Putra, N.R.; Aziz, A.H.A.; Zaini, A.S.; Rasidek, N.A.M.; Mili, N.; Yunus, M.A.C. Improvement of extraction and
stability of anthocyanins, the natural red pigment from roselle calyces using supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. J. CO2 Util.
2022,56, 101839. [CrossRef]
114.
Qu, A.; Du, C.; Wu, Z.; Wu, Y.; Yu, M.; Li, D.; Ruan, X.; Wang, Q. Composing functional food from agro-forest wastes: Selectively
extracting bioactive compounds using supercritical fluid extraction. Food Chem. 2024,455, 139848. [CrossRef]
115.
Jiao, G.; Pour, A.K. Extraction of anthocyanins from haskap berry pulp using supercritical carbon dioxide: Influence of co-solvent
composition and pretreatment. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2018,98, 237–244. [CrossRef]
116.
Nadar, S.S.; Rao, P.; Rathod, V.K. Enzyme assisted extraction of biomolecules as an approach to novel extraction technology: A
review. Food Res. Int. 2018,108, 309–330. [CrossRef]
117.
Amulya, P.R.; Islam, R. Optimization of enzyme-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) peel.
Food Chem. X 2023,18, 100643. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118.
González, M.J.A.; Carrera, C.; Barbero, G.F.; Palma, M. A comparison study between ultrasound–assisted and enzyme–assisted
extraction of anthocyanins from blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.). Food Chem. X 2022,13, 100192. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119.
Mihindukulasuriya, S.D.F.; Lim, L.T. Nanotechnology development