Effect of traditional and novel processing technologies on the thermo-pasting, microstructural, nutritional, and antioxidant properties of finger millet and Bambara groundnut flours

Abstract

This study examined the impact of traditional (fermentation, malting) and novel (ultrasonication) processing technologies on the thermo-pasting, microstructural, nutritional, and antioxidant properties of finger millet (FM) and Bambara groundnut (BGN) flours. Fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication enhanced the water/oil absorption capacity (WAC/OAC) of FM, while in BGN samples, only malting decreased the WAC and OAC. The processing techniques enhanced the onset temperature (TO), peak temperature (TP), and conclusion temperature (TC) in FM while decreasing the gelatinisation enthalpy (ΔH). An increase in protein and fiber content was observed in all processed samples. The ash content increased in fermented/malted FM flour (FFM/MFM) and fermented BGN flour (FBGN) while a decrease was observed in ultrasonicated FM/BGN flour (UFM/UBGN) and malted BGN flour (MBGN). In terms of antioxidant activity, processing techniques enhanced the ABTS content of FM, with UFM having antioxidant activity (1.93 mg TEAC/g), followed by FFM (1.62 mg TEAC/g), and MFM (1.46 mg TEAC/g). Among BGN samples, UBGN had higher ABTS content followed by FBGN. An increase in FRAP was also observed in FFM (22.69 mol TE/g), FBGN (37.40 mol TE/g), and UBGN (49.90 mol TE/g). Considering these findings, future studies should focus more on developing functional foods such as weaning foods, jelly foods, and confectionaries from FFM and FBGN.

Full text

Received: 11 September 2024. Accepted: 21 November 2024
© The Author(s) 2025. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Institute of Food Science and Technology.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, 60(1), vvae037
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijfood/vvae037
Advance access publication 8 January 2025
Original Article
Effect of traditional and novel processing technologies
on the thermo-pasting, microstructural, nutritional, and
antioxidant properties of finger millet and Bambara
groundnut flours
Masala Mudau and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo *
Centre for Innovative Food Research (CIFR), Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg,
South Africa
*Corresponding author: Centre for Innovative Food Research (CIFR), Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Universityof
Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Doornfontein 2094, Johannesburg, South Africa. Email: oaadebo@gmail.com; oadebo@uj.ac.za
Abstract
This study examined the impact of traditional (fermentation and malting) and novel (ultrasonication) processing technologies on the
thermo-pasting, microstructural, nutritional, and antioxidant properties of finger millet (FM) and Bambara groundnut (BGN) flours.
Fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication enhanced the water/oil absorption capacity (WAC/OAC) of FM, while in the BGN samples,
only malting decreased the WAC and OAC. An increase in protein and fibre content was observed in all processed samples. The
ash content increased in fermented/malted FM flour (FFM/MFM) and fermented BGN f lour (FBGN), while a decrease was observed
in ultrasonicated FM/BGN flour (UFM/UBGN) and malted BGN f lour (MBGN). In terms of antioxidant activity, an increase in the ferric
reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) was observed in FFM (22.69 mol TE/g), FBGN (37.40 mol TE/g), and UBGN (49.90 mol TE/g) compared
to their respective control samples. Considering these findings, future studies should focus more on developing functional foods such
as weaning foods, jelly foods, and confectionaries from FFM and FBGN.
Keywords: millet, fermentation, legume, malting, ultrasonication
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

2|Mudau and Adebo
Graphical abstract
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |3
Introduction
Finger millet (FM; Eleusine coracana) is a cultivated crop of African
origin that has spread worldwide. This cereal grain belongs to the
family Poaceae and is the third most cultivated millet after pearl
millet and foxtail millet (Kumar et al., 2024). FM is considered a
staple food in underdeveloped countries and is utilised as animal
feed in some industrialised countries. Over 4 million tonnes of FM
are produced yearly, of which about 2.5 million tonnes are pro-
duced in India and 1.2 million tonnes in Africa (Ceasar et al., 2023).
FM is also gluten-free and contains high levels of carbohydrates,
dietary fibre, some essential amino acids, and phytochemicals
(Dhanushkodi et al., 2023). When compared to other cereals, this
grain has the largest calcium content and is also a richer source
of iron and zinc (Chandra et al., 2024; Dhanushkodi et al., 2023;
Ganesh et al., 2024; Megha et al., 2023). FM further contains
health-promoting compounds, such as polyphenols (Kalsi et al.,
2023). However, FM is still underutilised and under-researched
despite its beneficial qualities and ability to reduce hidden hunger
and food insecurity.
Bambara (Vigna subterranea) is another underutilised and
under-researched food source belonging to the Fabaceae family
and the Faboidea subfamily (Ramatsetse et al., 2023). This legume
grain is indigenous to Africa and is thought to have originated
in a Bambara in central Mali, West Africa (Chelangat et al.,
2023; Siwale et al., 2023). In Africa, Bambara groundnut (BGN)
is the most significant legume crop after peanuts and cowpeas
(Esan et al., 2023; Sobowale et al., 2024). However, it is still
not included in the global trading scheme owing to its low
production percentage. Annually, the production of BGN is
estimated at 0.3 million tonnes, of which 0.2 million tonnes
are produced in African countries, such as Nigeria, Burkina
Faso, Niger, and Cameroon (Esan et al., 2023). Like FM, BGN
can potentially alleviate hidden hunger and food security in
developing countries. It is rich in protein, fibre, fat, carbohydrates,
and essential amino acids like methionine and lysine; hence, it
is considered a “complete food” (Isibor et al., 2023; Ramatsetse
et al., 2023). However, antinutrients in BGN, like in FM, reduce
their nutritional quality. According to Egedigwe-Ekeleme et al.
(2023), BGN contains antinutrients, such as phytic acid and
trypsin inhibitor. Therefore, BGN and FM require preprocessing
treatments to reduce antinutrients and improve their nutritional
value, palatability, and health-promoting properties.
Various traditional and emerging technologies are employed to
improve the palatability and food use of cereals and legumes. Tra-
ditional technologies include fermentation, malting, and roasting,
among others, while emerging technologies include ultrasound
and cold plasma. Fermentation is an ancient method of trans-
forming food products through the action of microorganisms.
Different types of fermentation methods, including spontaneous
fermentation, back-slopping fermentation, and controlled fer-
mentation, are applied to cereals and legumes (Adebo et al., 2022).
On the other hand, malting is a controlled germination of seeds
followed by drying (Kaur & Prasad, 2022a). This processing pro-
cedure breaks down starch into simple sugars, increases enzyme
activity, and develops flavour and colour while increasing protein
solubility (Adetokunboh et al., 2022). Fermentation and malting
have been proven to improve the thermo-pasting properties,
nutritional quality, and health-promoting compounds of cereals
(Gwekwe et al., 2024; Kaur et al., 2023a; Mudau et al., 2022; Ojo
et al., 2023) and legumes (Onwurafor et al., 2020; Sobowale et al.,
2024).
Ultrasound, generally known as ultrasonication/ultrasonics,
is a novel technology that has been gaining interest from
researchers due to its environmentally friendly and low-cost
advantages and the ability to reduce adverse effects on food
properties. This method is based on the cavitation phenomenon
(formation and collapse of bubbles), arising from pressure waves
transmitted through the material in expansion and compression
cycles (Ratnika et al., 2022). In cereals, ultrasonication has been
reported to improve functional and bioactive properties and
structural morphology (Dubey & Tripathy, 2024; Ratnika et al.,
2022; Yadav et al., 2021). It has also demonstrated effectiveness in
reducing antinutrients (Dubey & Tripathy, 2024;Ya d av et al., 2021).
It has been reported that ultrasonication improves functional
properties in pseudocereals such as buckwheat (Harasym et al.,
2020).
Despite these desirable changes that occur in various proper-
ties of food because of fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication,
these methods have rarely been used in FM and BGN, particularly
the latter technique. Hence, this study compares the effects of fer-
mentation, malting, and ultrasonication on the thermo-pasting,
microstructural, nutritional, and phytochemical properties of FM
and BGN. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study
reporting on the effects of ultrasonication on the aforementioned
properties of FM and BGN. The findings of this study might
not only contribute to the body of knowledge, especially on the
functionality of both grains, but also help advance the utilisation
of FM and BGN in the food industry, which might help achieve food
security in developing countries. The different impacts of these
food processing methods employed in this study might also offer
vital information to the food industry regarding which processing
method is better.
Materials and methods
Raw materials and chemicals
Finger millet (FM) and Bambara groundnut (BGN) grains were
procured at a grain store (Sai Wholesaler) in Newtown, South
Africa. The analytical-grade chemicals used in this study were
procured from Merk Chemicals (Pty) Ltd., Germiston, South Africa.
Sample preparation
Brown FM and BGN grains were cleaned with distilled water to
remove unwanted impurities. The cleaned grains were then dried
in an oven dryer at 40 ◦C for 24 hr. A miller (Platinum dry miller
KJ-1250, Castelfranco Veneto, Italy) was used to reduce the grains
to flours, which were subsequently filtered via a 500 μmsieve
(Analysette 3 Spartan; Fritsch GmbH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany).
The collected native flours were utilised as a control.
Fermentation
Approximately 100 g of FM and BGN native flours were sepa-
rately blended with 0.4 g of lactic acid bacteria starter culture
(Lactococcus lactis subsp. Lactis, CHN-22, CHR Hansen, Denmark)
in a container. Distilled water (100 ml) was then added into the
container, stirred with a spoon, and left to ferment for 48 hr at
35 ◦C in an incubator (Incotherm, Labotec, Johannesburg, South
Africa). Following fermentation, the samples were transferred to
centrifuge tubes, frozen, and then freeze-dried (LyoQuest labora-
tory freeze dryer, Telstar, Barcelona, Spain) for 48 hr at −56 ◦C.
Following freeze-drying,the samples were reduced into flours and
filtered using a 500 μm mesh sieve (Analysette 3 Spartan; Fritsch
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

4|Mudau and Adebo
GmbH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany). The fermented FM/BGN flours
were kept in the refrigerator (4 ◦C) for further analysis.
Malting
Bambara and FM grains were steeped in distilled water at 28 ◦C
for 24 hr. Following 24 hr of steeping, the distilled water was
discarded, and the grains were spread onto a tray and germinated
at 28 ◦C for 48 hr. While germinating, the grains were sprinkled
once a day to keep them moist. After germination, the tray with
the germinated grains was transferred into an oven dryer to dry
at 40 ◦C for 24 hr. The dried grains were then pulverised (Platinum
dry miller KJ-1250, Castelfranco Veneto, Italy), and the obtained
flour was passed through a 500 μm mesh sieve. The malted flour
was placed in a ziplock bag and kept in the refrigerator at 4 ◦C.
Ultrasonication
Using a Misonix Ultrasonic Liquid Processor (FB705, Fisher Sci-
entific, Pittsburgh, USA) running at 50 kHz, the ultrasonicated
flour was prepared following a method by Mudau et al. (2024).
Separately, 30 g of FM and BGN f lour were combined with 100 ml of
distilled water in a 500 ml beaker. This beaker was held and placed
inside a 1,000 ml beaker filled with crushed ice resting on a stand
within the sound enclosure. A titanium probe was placed 20 mm
from the bottom of the sample-containing beaker. Following a 15-
min ultrasonication, the mixture was put into centrifuged tubes
and frozen. A miller was used to reduce the frozen samples to
flour after they had been freeze-dried (LyoQuest laboratory freeze
dryer, Telstar,Barcelona, Spain) for 48 hr.The pulverised flour was
sieved using a 500 μm mesh sieve, placed in a ziplock bag, and
refrigerated (4 ◦C) until further analysis.
Functional properties
Oil/water absorption capacity
The oil/water absorption capacity of the samples was analysed
using a method outlined by Adebiyi et al. (2016). A known-weight
centrifuge tube containing approximately 1 g of flour was filled,
combined with 10 ml of vegetable oil and distilled water, vortexed,
and allowed to stand at an ambient temperature for 30 min. After
30 min, the combination was centrifuged (Eppendorf 5702R, Sigma
Aldrich, Johannesburg, South Africa) at 3,000 rpm for 25 min.
Following centrifugation, the unabsorbed oil/water in a centrifuge
tube was discarded, and the sediment-filled centrifuge tube was
weighed. Oil/water absorption capacity was calculated as follows:
Oil absorption capacity g/g= w3 −w2
w1
Water absoption capacity g/g= w3 − w2
w1
where: W1 = weight of the sample; W2 = weight of the centrifuge
tube without sample; and W3=weightof thecentrifugetubewith
sample.
Bulk density
Bulk density (BD) was analysed using a procedure outlined by
Mudau et al. (2022), in which 10 g of the sample was weighed on
a weighing boat and then put into a measuring cylinder (25 ml).
Several taps of the measuring cylinder against the table were
made until the volume remained constant. The packed BD was
determined by dividing the flour weight by the volume.
Swelling capacity
The SC of the samples was examined by filling a 100 ml graduated
cylinder up to the 10 ml mark volume.The flours were mixed with
distilled water up to the 50 ml mark on the graduated cylinder.
The top of the graduated cylinder was then snugly covered with
a foil and inverted several times to ensure that the suspension
was fully mixed. After 2 min, the mixture was inverted again to
ensure that all contents were well-blended. The sample stood for
30 min to allow the suspension to settle. When the suspension had
settled, the volume occupied by the swollen sample was measured
(Mudau et al., 2022).
Thermal properties
The thermal properties of the flour samples were analysed using
the DSC 3 STARe System (CH-8606, Mettler Toledo, Greifensee,
Switzerland) following a slightly modified method by Kewuyemi
et al. (2024). Approximately 30 μl of distilled water was added to an
aluminium pan containing about 10 mg of each flour sample. The
samples were equilibrated for 24 hr at an ambient temperature.
The samples were then placed into the DSC sample holder and
heated together with a reference sample (empty pan) from 25 to
140 ◦Cata10
◦C/min rate. The gelatinisation temperatures (onset
temperature, peak temperature, and conclusion temperature) and
gelatinisation enthalpy (H in J/g) were subsequently obtained.
Pasting properties
The pasting properties of the samples were measured using a
Rheometer (Anton Paar MCR 72, Ostfildern, Austria) following
a slightly modified method by Kewuyemi et al. (2024). Approxi-
mately 3.4 g of flour was weighed into a sample canister, which
was adjusted to 34 g using distilled water. The pasting cycle
started with an initial stirring speed of 960 rpm at 50 ◦Cfor
10 min and then stirred at 160 rpm for the remaining period. The
temperature was ramped up at a rate of 5.5 ◦C/min to 95 ◦C, and
this temperature was held for 15 min. The pastes were allowed to
cool for 15 min at a rate of 5.5 ◦C/min.
Fourier transmission infrared analysis
The functional groups of flours were investigated using an fourier
transmission infrared analysis (FTIR) spectrometer Nicolet 8700
(Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., CA, USA), with wavelengths rang-
ing from 400 to 4,000 cm−1. The sample was placed on the
instrument and examined; the sample spectra were acquired, and
peaks were processed.
Scanning electron microscopy
The scanning electron micrographs of the samples were obtained
following a method described by Adebiyi et al. (2016).The flours
were mounted onto the aluminium stabs and coated with carbon
thin film. Following coating, the samples were transferred into the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) chamber and analysed using
a scanning electron microscope (Vega 3 XMU, TESCAN VEGA,
Brno, Czech Republic). The SEM images were obtained at 1.00 KX
magnification.
Proximate composition
The moisture content, ash, crude fat, crude fibre, and crude
protein of FM/BGN flours were analysed using the AOAC (2006)
method 934.01, 923.03, 920.39, 990.03, and 978.10, respectively.
The carbohydrate content was determined by difference (AOAC,
2006), while total energy content was determined using the gen-
eral Atwater factors method (FAO, 2003).
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |5
Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity
Extraction
The traditional and novel processed FM/BGN flours were
extracted following a method used by Arouna et al. (2020). About
0.25 g of each flour was mixed with 5 ml of methanolic acid
(1% hydrochloric acid in 80% methanol) in a 50 ml centrifuge tube.
The centrifuge tubes were transferred into an ultrasonic bath (AU
220, Argo Lab, Carpi, Italy) and agitated for 2 hr before being
centrifuged (Eppendorf 5702R, Sigma Aldrich, Johannesburg,
South Africa) at 4,000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was
filtered into 15 ml centrifuge tubes and subsequently used for
analysis.
Total phenolic content
The total phenolic content (TPC) of the samples was assessed
following a method described by Kewuyemi et al. (2022). Approxi-
mately 10 μl of the extract was transferred into 96-well microplate
followed by adding 50 μl of Folin–Ciocalteu phenol reagent and
50 μl of 7.5% Na2CO3. After that, the aluminium foil–covered
microplate wells were left to incubate in the dark for 30 min.
The microplate-containing mixture was read at 750 nm using
an Accuris SmartReader 96 (model: MR9600, Jersey City, USA),
and the absorbance values were recorded. The TPC values were
reported as a milligram of gallic acid equivalent per gram of
the sample (mg GAE/g), based on the gallic acid standard curve
(0–0.2 mg/ml).
Total flavonoid content
Amethodby Kewuyemi et al. (2022) was used to analyse the
total flavonoid content (TFC) of the samples. A volume of approx-
imately 10 μl of the extract was transferred into 96 pipetted
microplate wells. Subsequently, 30 μl of 2.5% NaNO2,30 μlof
1.25% AlCl3, and 100 μl of 2% NaOH were added. An Accuris
SmartReader 96 (model: MR9600, Jersey City, USA) was used to
read the combined solution and quercetin standard curve (0–
2.0 mg/ml) at 450 nm (iMark; Bio-Rad Laboratories, Johannesburg,
South Africa). The TFC was obtained using the quercetin standard
curve and expressed as milligrams of quercetin equivalent per
gram sample (mg QE/g).
2,2-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
The antioxidant activity of the samples using ABTS assay was
obtained by adopting a method by Sadh et al. (2017).An ABTS
solution was prepared by mixing 7.6 mM ABTS (19 mg/5 ml) with
2.6 mM potassium persulphate solutions (3.5 mg/5 ml) and 5 ml
distilled water. The solution was incubated for 16 hr before 1 ml
of it was mixed with 60 ml of distilled water. Thereafter, 20 μlof
the extract was mixed with 200 μl of the working solution and
incubated for 1 min at an ambient temperature. The absorbance
was read using Accuris SmartReader 96 (model: MR9600, Jersey
City, USA) at the wavelength of 734 nm. The ABTS values obtained
were reported as milligrams of Trolox equivalent antioxidant
capacity per gram of flour (mg TEAC/g).
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
The antioxidant capacity of the flour samples was also deter-
mined using the FRAP assay following a method outlined by
Kewuyemi and Adebo (2024). Ten microliters of extract were
mixed with 240 μl of the FRAP working solution and 10 μlof
the 0–1 mM Trolox solution (standard) in a 96-well microplate.
A solution containing 75% ethanol was used as a blank. The
microplate was incubated at 30 ◦C in the dark for 30 min. After
30 min, the absorbance of the mixtures was read at 593 nm using
Accuris SmartReader 96 (model: MR9600, Jersey City,USA), and the
FRAP values were reported as a millimolar of Trolox equivalent per
gram (mM TE/g).
Statistical analysis
The study used IBM SPSS statistics (version 27, New York, USA)
was used to perform a one-way analysis of variance on the data
gathered from all analyses conducted. The Duncan multiple range
test was used to differentiate the mean value at a 95% confidence
level (p <.05).
Results and discussion
Functional properties
The functional properties of FM and BGN flours as affected by
traditional and novel technologies are presented in Table 1.The
amount of water available for gelatinisation depends on the rate
of water absorption by flour and the presence of hydrophilic
groups that bind water molecules (Arzoo et al., 2024). Among FM
samples, fermented finger flour (FFM), malted FM flour (MFM),
and ultrasonicated flour (UFM) had an enhanced water absorp-
tion capacity (WAC) compared to the control sample (RFM). Higher
WAC was observed in FFM (2.40 g/g) followed by MFM, UFM,
and RBGN with 2.26, 2.18, and 2.08 g/g, respectively. This out-
come implies that FFM, MFM, and UFM have more hydrophilic
groups to bind water molecules than RFM. This increase in the
WAC of processed flours could be due to the degradation of
starch polymers, which caused the higher WAC of the flour, as
reported by Adebiyi et al. (2016). In UFM particularly, the increase
of WAC could be due to exposure of amino acid hydrophobic
regions and the thiol group, which led to increased ability to hold
water (Choudhary & Rawson, 2021; Loushigam & Shanmugam,
2023). The WAC results for FFM and MFM flours obtained in this
study correlate with those of fermented and malted millet flours
(Mudau et al., 2022; Murungweni et al., 2023). In the BGN samples,
fermentation and ultrasonication only increased the WAC of BGN,
while malting decreased it. This increasing trend for fermented
and ultrasonicated legumes has also been observed in several
studies (Loushigam & Shanmugam, 2023; Sobowale et al., 2024).
The high WAC observed in all processed FM flours, FBGN, and
UBGN points to the possible application of the flour in baked
goods, with which the flour’s ability to stay hydrated is crucial.
In terms of the oil absorption capacity (OAC) of FM, FFM
(1.89 g/g), MFM (1.82 g/g), and UFM (2.33 g/g) had signifi-
cantly (p < .05) higher values than the RFM (1.58 g/g). For
BGN samples, only UBGN with the OAC value of 1.95 g/g was
significantly higher than the RBGN (1.87 g/g). This could be
due to the exposure of proteins to the outside environment
after ultrasonication, particularly their hydrophobic regions,
which enhances their ability to trap oil physically (Loushigam
& Shanmugam, 2023). The enhancement of OAC in the processed
flours (FFM, MFM, UFM, and UBGN) shows that these flours
have more hydrophobic proteins and better lipid-binding capa-
bilities. Flours with good lipid-binding capabilities are known
for retaining flavour and improving the mouthfeel of food
products, especially baked products when used as ingredients
(Mudau et al., 2022).
The swelling capacity (SC) of flour measures how much it
expands when soaked in water compared to its starting volume
(Adebiyi et al., 2017). Among FM samples, higher SC was observed
in FFM (17.10 ml) followed by MFM (15.33 ml) compared to the
control (14.00 ml). However, there was no significant difference
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

6|Mudau and Adebo
Tab l e 1 . Functional properties of finger millet and Bambara groundnut flours as affected by different processing methods.
Sample WAC (g/g) OAC (g/g) SC (ml) BD (g/ml)
RFM 2.08 ±0.33a1.58 ± 0.24a14.00 ± 1.20a0.81 ± 0.04c
FFM 2.40 ±0.21c1.89 ± 0.21b17.10 ± 0.58c0.48 ± 0.00a
MFM 2.26 ±0.62b1.82 ± 0.33ab 15.33 ± 0.29b0.64 ± 0.03b
UFM 2.18 ±0.60b2.33 ± 0.33c14.56 ± 0.25a0.66 ± 0.03b
RBGN 1.82 ±0.22b1.87 ± 0.22b13.77 ± 0.25b0.69 ± 0.03d
FBGN 2.45 ±0.51c1.89 ± 0.13b19.50 ± 1.17d0.57 ± 0.04a
MBGN 1.77 ±0.71a1.81 ± 0.21a12.00 ± 0.50a0.64 ± 0.01c
UBGN 1.85 ±0.22b1.95 ± 0.32c18.00 ± 0.45c0.60 ± 0.03b
Note. Value represents the mean of replicate analysis ± SD. Different superscript letters on SD across each row indicate significant differences (p <.05).
WAC/OAC= water/oil absorption capacity; SC = swelling capacity; BD = bulk density; RFM = raw finger millet flour; MFM = malted finger millet f lour;
FFM = fermented finger millet f lour; UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet f lour; RBGN = raw Bambara groundnut flour; MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut flour;
FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut flour; UBGN = ultrasonicated Bambara groundnut flour.
between the SC of control and that of UFM. With the BGN samples,
higher SC was observed in FBGN (19.50 ml) and UBGN (18.00 ml),
while lower SC was observed in MBGN (12.00 ml) compared to
RBGN (13.77 ml). It is important to note that a higher SC of flour
as shown in FFM, MFM, FBGN, and UBGN indicates a stronger
affinity for water, which would lead to a higher-quality product.
A similar increase in the SC of flours after fermentation was
also recorded for fermented pearl millet and African yam bean
flour (
Adebiyi et al., 2016; Chinma et al., 2020). The BD of flour is
generally influenced by particle size, and it is a critical component
that dictates the need for handling, processing, and packaging
in the food industry (Arzoo et al., 2024). Among FM and BGN
samples, higher BD was observed in RFM (0.81 g/ml) and RBGN
(0.69 g/ml) than in processed samples. The lower BD observed
in all processed samples could be due to the disintegration of
carbohydrates and protein to simpler forms during fermentation,
malting, and ultrasonication. The reduced BD of all processed FM
and BGN samples would be useful in food formulations requiring
low BD. According to Mudau et al. (2022), lower BD suggests
the possibility of using such flours in formulating reduced bulk
weaning foods for babies.
Thermal properties
The impacts of malting, fermentation, and ultrasonication
on the thermal properties of FM and BGN are presented in
Figure 1A and B. The onset temperature (TO), peak temperature
(TP), and conclusion temperature (TC) increased in traditional
and novel processed FM compared to the control sample (RFM).
The increment in the TO, TP,and TC could be attributed to the
alterations in proteins during fermentation, germination, and
ultrasonication that produced more amino acids. According
to Azeez et al. (2022), some amino acids form a complex
with starch/amylose, thus increasing starch gelatinisation.
Previous studies (Azeez et al., 2022; Hou et al., 2023; Kaur &
Prasad, 2022b; Mudau et al., 2022) obtained similar results
whereby fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication increased
the gelatinisation temperatures of flours. It is noteworthy that the
high gelatinisation temperatures obtained in all traditional and
novel processed FM imply that more energy was needed to initiate
the process of starch gelatinisation. Similar higher gelatinisation
temperatures were also noted in a study by Gupta and Gaur
(2024). This observation could be attributed to a combination
of factors including structural differences between FM and BGN,
particularly the starch granules (SGs) and amylose–amylopectin
content as well as the protein–starch matrices in the samples. The
varying responses to the treatments as observed in this current
study could have also contributed to this observation.
Figure 1. Thermograms of traditional and novel processed finger millet
(FM) (A) and Bambara groundnut (B) flours. RFM = raw finger millet
flour; MFM = malted finger millet flour; FFM = fermented finger millet
flour; UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet flour; RBGN = raw Bambara
groundnut flour; MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut f lour;
FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut flour; UBGN = ultrasonicated
Bambara groundnut flour.
For BGN samples, malting, fermentation, and ultrasonication
decreased the TO, TP, and gelatinisation enthalpy ( H)offlours,
while they increased the TC. This outcome contrasts with the
findings by Chinma et al. (2021), who noted an increase in TO and
TP of germinated BGN. However, low-gelatinisation-temperature
starches, such as those observed in traditional and novel pro-
cessed BGN, are renowned for good cooking quality. Compared to
control samples (RFM and RBGN), the H value decreased in all
traditional and novel processed FM and BGN. The reduction in H
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |7
Figure 2. Pasting curve of traditional and novel processed FM (A) and
Bambara groundnut (B) flours. RFM = raw finger millet flour;
MFM = malted finger millet flour; FFM = fermented finger millet f lour;
UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet flour; RBGN = raw Bambara
groundnut flour; MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut f lour;
FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut flour; UBGN = ultrasonicated
Bambara groundnut flour.
value after fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication of FM and
BGN suggests that these processing methods disrupt the struc-
tural organisation of crystallite and amorphous regions. It also
implies that less energy would be required to disintegrate the SGs
intermolecular hydrogen bonds of traditional and novel processed
FM and BGN (
Chinma et al., 2021; Mudau et al., 2022). Similar
decreases in H value following different traditional and novel
processing have been reported (Cui & Zhu, 2020; Gupta & Gaur,
2024;Vel a et al., 2021). The differences in the thermal properties of
FM and BGN suggest that the overall starch structure organisation
was quite affected by traditional and novel processing.
Pasting properties
The pasting viscosities (peak, trough, holding strength, break-
down, setback, and final viscosity), peak time, and peak tempera-
ture of traditional and novel-processed FM and BGN are presented
in Figure 2A and B. In terms of the peak viscosity (PV) of FM, there
was a significant decrease observed, with RFM having higher PV
(1,305 cP) than UFM (1,020 cP), FFM (835.20 cP), and MFM (18.40 cP).
However, for the BGN samples, FBGN had higher PV, followed
by RBGN (293.20 cP), MBGN (315.70 cP), and UBGN (220 cP). The
higher PV observed in RFM and FBGN could be due to the flour
having higher starch content as compared to other FM and BGN
samples, respectively. This also means that RFM and FBGN have
more thickening power than other FM and BGN samples.
The trough viscosity (TV) was high in RFM (805.50 cP) and RBGN
(416 cP) compared to traditional and novel-processed FM and BGN
samples. According to Mudau et al. (2022), this TV represents the
gel or viscous paste-forming capacity of the flour following heat
treatment, as well as its ability to withstand stress caused by
stirring. This means that the lower TV noted in traditional and
novel processed flours, especially in MFM and FBGN, where the
lowest TV was observed, had swollen granules that are shear-
resistant. HS is defined as the lowest viscosity attained during
the holding stage (Balet et al., 2019). In this study, fermenta-
tion, malting, and ultrasonication reduced the HS of the FM and
BGN samples. Higher HS was found in RFM (1,064 cP) and RBGN
(293.20 cP) compared to the HS of traditional and novel-processed
samples.
The breakdown viscosity (an indicator of how easily the swollen
SGs can be broken) also follows a similar decrease trend in FM,
where RFM had a higher breakdown viscosity (BV) than the pro-
cessed FM samples. However, for BGN samples, the FBGN had
higher BV (271.80 cP), followed by MBGN, UBGN, and RBGN with
5.89, 3.10, and 0.77 cP, respectively. Since the BV of flour is related
to the rupture of swelling SGs (Balet et al., 2019), the lower BV
seen in processed FM samples compared to the control, and seen
in MBGN, UBGN, and RBGN compared to FBGN could be linked to a
reduction in the breaking down rate of the swollen SGs. This also
indicates that starches in flour samples with lower BV can remain
stable in temperate conditions.
Setback viscosity (SV) is a retrogradation index associated with
amylose concentration (Mudau et al., 2022). Flours with a higher
SV imply a higher possibility of amylose retrograding and creating
a gel structure when the polymer molecules, particularly amylose
chains, reorient themselves (Farasara et al., 2014). The findings in
this study show that fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication
decrease the SV values of the FM flours from 805.50 to 567.80 cP,
805.50 to −10.76 cP, and 805.50 to 732.90 cP, respectively. How-
ever, for the BGN samples, fermentation increased the SV, while
malting and ultrasonication decreased it. This implies that all
the traditional and novel processed FM have less capability to
retrograde than RFM. However, among BGN samples, FBGN has
more capability to retrograde compared to other BGN samples.
According to Mudau et al. (2022), flours like FBGN with SV can be
useful in preparing jelly foods and noodles.
The final viscosity (FV) value of RFM (1011.14 cP) was higher
than that of FFM (664.10 cP), MFM (7.60 cP), and UFM (8.47 cP). The
decreased FV values reported in traditional and novel processed
FM and BGN imply a reduction of flour’s capacity to make a
viscous paste. Nazni and Devi (2016) stated that FV represents
the starch’s ability to form a viscous paste. In this study, it
is worthy of note that except for the PV of FBGN, the overall
PVs were significantly decreased by fermentation, malting, and
ultrasonication. This significant decrease in the PVs in fermented
and malted flours might be due to the enzymatic breakdown
of starch into smaller molecules (sugar) (Olawoye & Gbadamosi,
2020) and the molecular disintegration of other biomolecules
(Sharma et al., 2021). Notably, the pasting properties of flours are
usually affected by amylase activity, protein, fat, starch content,
and amylose/amylopectin ratio (Cui & Zhu, 2020,), which could be
responsible for variations among the pasting profile parameters
of traditional and novel processed flours. The findings of this
study agree with those obtained by Oseguera-Toledo et al. (2020)
for starch extracted from malted sorghum, where low PVs were
also observed. Furthermore, since traditional and novel process-
ing increased the protein of FM and BGN flours, it might have also
led to the accumulation of the adhering starch–protein complex
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

8|Mudau and Adebo
network and the limited ability of the SGs to swell, thereby lower-
ing their PVs. Badia-Olmos et al. (2024) observed a similar decrease
in PVs of fermented lentil and quinoa flours.
Concerning the ultrasonicated FM and BGN (UFM and UBGN)
flours, cavitation caused by ultrasound might be responsible for
a notable decrease in PVs. According to Vela et al. (2023),the cav-
itation process breaks long chains of amylopectin and decreases
SGs interactions, which lowers viscosity. This phenomenon was
also observed by Cui and Zhu (2020), who linked it to the cavi-
tation process during ultrasonication. The authors further assert
that ultrasound-induced cavitation creates defects in the SGs,
allowing water penetration and decreasing PVs. A few studies
have reported a similar effect on ultrasonicated rice (Vela et al.,
2021)and teffflour(Vel a et al., 2023). The decrease in the PVs
of all processed flours caused by malting, fermentation, and
ultrasound treatment could be beneficial for preparing weaning
foods for babies (Sharma et al., 2021).
As for the Pt, there was no significant difference between the Pt
of RFM and all processed FM samples (FFM, MFM, and UFM). How-
ever, for the BGN samples, only the Pt of FBGN was significantly
lower than that of RBGN, MBGN, and UBGN. This suggests that
FBGN requires less cooking time compared to other BGN samples.
In terms of the peak temperature (PT), there were no significant
differences (p <.05) observed among the traditional and novel
processed FM and BGN samples compared to the control samples
(RFM and RBGN).
Fourier transform infrared analysis
Different FTIR spectra regions from the O–H stretch region to the
C–Br stretch region are shown in Figure 3. The food processing
techniques also affected the functional groups present in FM and
BGN flours as formations of bands were observed in different FTIR
spectra regions. In the O–H stretch region of traditional and novel
processed FM and BGN, absorption peaks were observed around
3,328 and 3,286 cm−1, respectively, which could be linked to O–H
stretching vibrations. This also indicates the presence of alcohol,
carboxylic acids,and phenols in traditional and processed FM and
BGN. In FFM, an increase in the peak value was observed, which
could be linked to the production of alcohols and maybe acids
during fermentation. Interestingly, major starch-related bands
were observed near 3,328 and 3,286 cm−1 in the UFM and UBGN
spectra, respectively. This is also possibly due to the liberation of
carboxylic acids during ultrasonication, as observed in another
study (Mudau et al., 2024). According to Liu et al. (2024), cavitation
during the ultrasonication process breaks down the cell wall of
flour, resulting in the liberation of intracellular contents, includ-
ing acids. Besides the different concentrations of alcohol, car-
boxylic acids, and phenols that could have been impacted by the
processing techniques, the sample’s varying moisture contents
could also be the cause of the peak disparities observed. Moisture
content is known for being responsible for the absorption peaks
in the O–H stretch region (Mudau et al., 2022).
In the C–H region, notable absorption peaks were noted near
2,931 and 2,927 cm−1 in FM and BGN, respectively. The observed
peaks suggest the presence of an alkene functional group (stretch-
ing vibrations of alkanes C–H bonds) in traditional and novel
processed FM and BGN. The variation in absorption peaks among
traditional and novel processed flours could be attributed to the
disparities in their fat content. Some peaks were observed near
the 2,360 cm−1 in the C≡Nand –C≡C– stretch regions, indicating
the presence of nitriles and alkyne functional groups, respectively,
among traditional and novel processed FM and BGN. This same
peak intensity was observed in all FM and BGN samples, as was
Figure 3. Fourier-transform infrared spectra of traditional and novel
processed FM (A) and Bambara groundnut (B) flours. RFM = raw finger
millet flour; MFM = malted finger millet flour; FFM = fermented finger
millet flour; UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet flour; RBGN = raw
Bambara groundnut flour; MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut flour;
FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut flour; UBGN = ultrasonicated
Bambara groundnut flour.
observed by Oladimeji and Adebo (2024) for differently processed
BGN. There were also absorption peaks observed at wavelength
1,650, 1,527, 1,349, and 1,149 cm−1, indicating the presence of
alkenes (stretching vibrations of –C=C– bonds), nitro compounds
(stretching and bending vibrations of N–O bonds), and aliphatic
amines (stretching vibrations of C–N bonds) in FM.
In BGN, some notable peaks were observed at 1,747, 1,643,
1,547, and 1,407 cm−1, suggesting that BGN samples contained
C=O (esters and saturated aliphatic), –C=C– (alkenes), N–O (nitro
compounds), and C–C (aromantics) functional groups, respec-
tively. Other notable peaks were observed at the wavelength of
1,006, 860, and 574 cm−1, suggesting the presence of carboxylic
acids (stretching vibrations of C–O bonds), alkynes (stretching
bonds of –C≡C–H and C–H bonds), and alkyl halides (stretching
vibration of C–Br bonds) in FM. At wavelength 1,018 cm−1, which
is a C–O stretching region, a peak was observed in all BGN samples,
denoting the presence of alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, and
ethers. There were also absorption peaks observed at 678 and
528 cm−1 in the BGN samples, which could be attributed to the
bending of =C–H bond and stretching vibrations of C–Br bonds,
respectively.
Scanning electron microscopy
Food microstructure refers to the spatial organisation of cells
and intercellular gaps in food components (Karim et al., 2018).
Understanding the microstructure of grains is important because
it can explain the changes in physical qualities and chemical
composition of flour during processing (Oyeyinka et al., 2021). In
this study, the microstructural properties of FM and BGN affected
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |9
Figure 4. Scanning electron micrographs of traditional and novel processed FM flours: (A) raw finger millet flour (RFM); (B) fermented finger millet
flour (FFM); (C) malted finger millet flour; (D) ultrasonicated finger millet flour (UFM). PB = protein bodies; SG = starch granules.
by traditional and novel processing were investigated as shown
in Figures 4 and 5. In the FM samples, a large protein body (PB)
was observed in RFM, which was disintegrated in the subsequent
processed samples. The starch granules (SGs) in FFM, MFM, and
UFM seemed to be small and disintegrated compared to those of
RFM, which were round and oval entrapped in a large PB structure.
This could be due to the breakdown of large molecules into
small molecules during fermentation, malting, and ultrasonica-
tion. Similar observations were also made by Mudau et al. (2022) in
spontaneous fermented FM flour. Among BGN samples, SGs were
not clearly visible as most of them appeared to be covered by what
seems to be a protein film, especially in RBGN. The SGs observed
in MBGN and UBGN seemed to be oval. The results obtained in
this study suggest that FM and BGN flours behave differently
during malting, fermentation, and ultrasonication. These unit
operations are necessary in the production of cereal and legume
food products.
Proximate compositions
The effect of fermentation, malting, and ultrasonication on the
proximate compositions of FM and BGN is shown in Table 2.
The moisture content results of processed FM and BGN show a
decrease compared to raw samples. The decrease in moisture
content of all processed samples could be due to compact poly-
mers becoming simpler, making it difficult for them to bind water
during drying. The processed samples’ lower moisture level sug-
gests that the flour would be less prone to microbial deterioration
(Kewuyemi et al., 2022). In terms of protein content,fermentation,
malting, and ultrasonication caused an increase in FM and BGN
f lours. Among FM samples, the highest protein content was found
in FFM (85.60 g/kg), while the lowest protein content was found
in RFM (70.80 g/kg). In BGN samples, the highest protein content
was observed in UBGN (224.30 g/kg), while the lowest protein
content was found in RBGN (199.40 g/kg). The protein increase
in fermented and malted samples could be due to enzymatic
degradation of peptides into free amino acids. The increased
protein levels in all ultrasonicated samples might be due to the
mechanical effect of the ultrasonication process. This process
breaks down the food matrix into smaller particles that form
microspores within the food material, increasing surface area,
facilitating protein liberation, and increasing yield as reported
by Wod ajo Bekele and Admassu (2022) for ultrasound-treated
pumpkin flour. The increased trend of protein levels noted in this
study is similar to that noted in previous studies (Azeez et al.,
2022; Kaur & Prasad, 2022a; Wodajo Bekele & Admassu, 2022).
The fat content results of FM increased after fermentation
and malting and decreased after ultrasonication. The highest fat
content was obtained in MFM (10.00 g/kg), while the lowest was
obtained in UFM (5.20 g/kg). The increment in the fat content
of fermented and malted FM could be due to the synthesis of
metabolites of fatty acids, such as oleic acid and linoleic acid,
through the hydrolysis process, as observed in another study by
Mudau et al. (2024). This could also be the reason for the increase
in fat content in FBGN. A similar increase in fat content due to
fermentation was also observed by Calvo-Lerma et al. (2022), for
fermented chia and sesame. While the reduction in fat content
in malted samples could be linked to the enzymes hydrolysing
triacylglycerol to liberate free fatty acids, the decrease in fat
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

10 |Mudau and Adebo
Figure 5. Scanning electron micrographs of traditional and novel processed Bambara groundnut flours: (A) raw Bambara groundnut flour (RBGN); (B)
fermented Bambara groundnut flour (FBGN); (C) malted Bambara groundnut flour (MBGN); (D) ultrasonicated Bambara groundnut flour (UBGN).
CW = cell wall; PB = protein bodies; SG = starch granules.
Tab l e 2 . Proximate compositions of traditional and novel processed finger millet and Bambara groundnut flours.
Sample Moisture (g/kg) Protein (g/kg) Fat (g/ kg) Fibre (g/kg) Ash (g/kg) Carbohydrate
(g/kg)
Energy
(kcal/100 g)
RFM 94.00 ± 1.00d70.80 ± 1.60a6.50 ± 1.20b27.10 ± 2.10a15.50 ± 1.10b786.20 ± 11.90b348.59 ± 1.75a
FFM 65.80 ± 1.50b74.80 ± 1.80b9.70 ± 1.80c49.40 ± 4.90d16.60 ± 0.50c783.60 ± 11.20b352.11 ± 1.43b
MFM 74.30 ± 1.30c85.60 ± 1.60d10.00 ± 1.50c39.50 ± 3.10b17.80 ± 1.20d772.90 ± 15.20a352.11 ± 1.23b
UFM 60.90 ± 3.60a83.50 ± 5.60c5.20 ± 1.00a42.00 ± 3.40c14.50 ± 1.10a797.30 ± 16.10c357.02 ± 1.70c
RBGN 88.80 ± 3.50c199.40 ± 5.20a69.00 ± 2.00c35.60 ± 5.40a33.00 ± 3.10b564.20 ± 15.10ab 371.60 ± 1.29b
FBGN 71.30 ± 1.00b212.40 ± 5.40b71.00 ± 3.10d56.50 ± 2.70b36.10 ± 1.50c553.80 ± 13.10a369.94 ± 1.54b
MBGN 68.10 ± 1.60a214.00 ± 2.70b64.70 ± 2.20b51.10 ± 11.80b31.70 ± 2.00a570.10 ± 14.00c371.84 ± 1.90b
UBGN 74.10 ± 6.70b224.30 ± 4.00c54.10 ± 3.50a54.70 ± 6.80b32.60 ± 1.50ab 560.00 ± 12.10ab 362.45 ± 1.41a
Note. Value represents the mean of replicate analysis ± SD. Different superscript letters on SD across each row indicate significant differences (p <.05).
RFM = raw finger millet flour; MFM = malted f inger millet flour; FFM = fermented finger millet f lour; UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet f lour; RBGN = raw
Bambara groundnut flour; MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut flour; FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut f lour; UBGN = ultrasonicated Bambara groundnut
flour.
content in ultrasonicated FM and BGN samples could be linked
to the cavitation process that might have broken down the cell
walls of flours to release free fatty acids. Regarding fibre content,
an increase was observed in all processed FM and BGN samples.
The highest fibre content in FM and BGN samples was obtained
in FFM (49.40 g/kg) and FBGN (56.50 g/kg), respectively, while
the lowest was obtained in control samples (RFM and RBGN). A
similar increase in the fibre content of millet and legume after
fermentation was also reported in previous studies (
Adebiyi et al.,
2017; Sobowale et al., 2024). The increase in the fibre content of
MFM and MBGN could be attributable to the increased utilisation
of other components like starch during germination and the
milling of rootlets and shoots of germinated grains, which have
been reported to boost fibre content (Asuk et al., 2020). High
fibre content is known for many health benefits, including the
avoidance or reduction of gastrointestinal issues and a minimised
risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease (Blanco-Pérez
et al., 2021; Snauwaert et al., 2022).
In the FM samples, MFM had the highest ash level (17.80 g/kg),
followed by FFM (16.60 g/kg), and UFM had the lowest ash content
(14.50 g/kg) when compared to the control sample (RFM). In the
BGN samples, fermentation increased the ash content from 33
to 36.10 g/kg, while malting and ultrasonication decreased the
ash level from 33 to 31.70 g/kg and 33 to 32.60 g/kg, respectively.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |11
Figure 6. Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of traditional and novel processed FM and Bambara groundnut flours. RFM = raw finger millet flour;
MFM = malted finger millet flour; FFM = fermented finger millet f lour; UFM = ultrasonicated finger millet f lour; RBGN = raw Bambara groundnut flour;
MBGN = malted Bambara groundnut flour; FBGN = fermented Bambara groundnut flour; UBGN = ultrasonicated Bambara groundnut flour. Error bars
with different subscripts indicate that the mean values are significantly different (p <.05).
The hydrolysis of complex organic compounds or antinutritional
factors during fermentation could be the reason for an increase
in the ash content of fermented samples (FFM and FBGN). The
reduction in the ash content of MBGN could be linked to the leach-
ing of water-soluble minerals during grain steeping (
Kewuyemi
et al., 2022). A similar trend was observed by Kunle et al. (2023),
for malted sorghum and maize.
Concerning the carbohydrate content of FM, UFM contained
the highest carbohydrate content level compared to the control
sample. The increase in the carbohydrate content of UFM could
be linked to the significant decrease in its moisture content as
observed in Table 2. Malting reduced the carbohydrate of FM,
which could be linked to the hydrolytic enzyme activities that
breaking down starch granules (SGs). This correlates with PVs’
results for MFM which displayed low PVs due to the breakdown
of SGs into smaller molecules (sugar). A similar observation of
lower carbohydrate after malting was also made by Banwo et al.
(2021), in malted koko millet gruel fermented with Lb. fermentum
KL4 + C. Among the BGN samples, fermentation decreased the
carbohydrate content, while malting increased it. The increase in
carbohydrates of MBGN could be due to the activation of the gly-
oxylate pathway, with a preference for converting fatty acids into
four-carbon dicarboxylic acids and incorporating them into the
gluconeogenesis pathway, leading to the synthesis of more car-
bohydrates. Okafor and Umeh (2021) also noted this in sorghum–
soy composite flour. Furthermore, the increase could also be due
to the significant decrease in the moisture content of MBGN,
as displayed in Tab l e 2. There were no significant differences
between the carbohydrate content of RFM and FFM. Regarding the
calculated total energy content of the FM samples (using Atwater
factors), all processed samples had higher total energy content
compared to the control sample. Among the BGN samples, only
ultrasonication decreased the total energy content; no significant
difference was found between the traditional processed (FBGN
and MBGN) BGN and the unprocessed samples (RBGN).
Phytochemical and antioxidant properties
The phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of traditional and
novel processed FM and BGN flours are shown in Figure 6.All the
processing methods employed in this study increased the TPC of
FM, with higher TPC observed in FFM (2.53 mg GAE/g), followed
by UFM (2.18 mg GAE/g) and MFM (1.84 mg GAE/g). For BGN
samples, only fermentation increased the TPC, while malting and
ultrasonication decreased it. It is well known that the increase in
antioxidant properties of fermented food is linked to the liberation
of simpler and more biologically active compounds from bound
phenolics by microbial enzymes during fermentation (Sáez et al.,
2022). In this study, the LAB starter culture used might have
contained a diverse set of enzymes, including hydrolases, decar-
boxylases, and reductases, thereby allowing them to metabolise
phenolics in FM and BGN for energy generation or detoxification.
A similar trend of an increase in TPC after fermentation was also
observed by Alves Magro and de Castro (2020) in fermented lentils.
Since UFM also displayed a higher TPC compared to the control
sample (RFM), it could be related to the release of phenolics by
cavitation (formation and collapse), which disintegrated the cell
wall of flours during ultrasonication. Banura and Singh (2023)
also noted an increased TPC in ultrasonicated mung beans and
lentils. The increase in the TPC of MFM could be ascribed to the
enzymatic release of bound phenolics (Owheruo et al., 2019). The
observed reduction in TPC of MBGN could be linked to dynamic
shifts brought forth by the steeping and germination processes: (i)
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

12 |Mudau and Adebo
leaching of biosynthesised polyphenolics into a steeping medium
due to cellular breakdown of grains and softening of membrane
tissues (Kewuyemi et al., 2022) and (ii) polyphenol oxidase’s use of
produced polyphenols as a substrate during germination. A sim-
ilar trend of decreased TPC after germination was also observed
for germinated millet, which was attributed to the degradation of
phenol compounds by polyphenol oxidase enzyme during steep-
ing and germination (Arzoo et al., 2024).
Fermentation and ultrasonication increased TFC content in FM,
while malting decreased it. In the BGN samples, fermentation,
malting, and ultrasonication increased the TFC. As with the
increase in TPC, microbial enzymes during fermentation,
enzymes produced during the steeping part of the malting
process, and the cavitation phenomenon, respectively, may be
responsible for the increase in the TFC of fermented, malted,
and ultrasonicated flours. A similar increase in TFC was also
observed for fermented pearl millet flour (Choudhary et al.,2023),
germinated sorghum (Singh et al., 2024), and ultrasonicated mung
beans and lentils (Banura & Singh, 2023). Many illnesses including
cancer, immunological disorders, and cardiovascular problems
can be effectively treated with flavonoids (Mir et al., 2023).
Regarding antioxidant activity, fermentation, malting, and
ultrasonication significantly (p<.05) increased the ABTS content
of FM. The highest ABTS content was observed in UFM (1.93 mg
TEAC/g), followed by FFM (1.62 mg TEAC/g) and MFM (1.46 mg
TEAC/g). The increase in ABTS of UFM and FFM could be linked
to the release of polyphenols by the cavitation process and
microbial enzymes during ultrasonication and fermentation,
respectively. The increase in the ABTS level of MFM flour could
be related to the development of new antioxidants, continued
synthesis of metabolites during malting, and the liberation of
phenolic compounds (Murungweni et al., 2023). With the BGN
samples, only fermentation increased the ABTS content, while
malting and ultrasonication decreased it. This reduction was
most likely due to the combined action of temperature and
pressure rise, formation and collapse of bubbles, and shock
waves induced by ultrasound, which leads to the generation of
free radicals and the decrease of antioxidants (Grgi´
c et al., 2023).
Regarding the FRAP content of FM, a higher FRAP level was noted
in FFM, which might have been the consequence of cell walls
disintegrating during fermentation, releasing various bioactive
compounds (Srivastava et al., 2024). Among BGN samples, only
fermentation increased the FRAP content BGN while malting and
ultrasonication decreased it. According to Kewuyemi et al. (2022),
antioxidant-rich diets as observed in UFM, MFM, FFM, FBGN, and
UBGN, might reduce oxidative stress and the risk of illnesses, such
as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.
Conclusion
This study investigated the impact of traditional and novel tech-
nology on the functional, thermal, pasting, microstructural, nutri-
tional, and phytochemical properties. Fermentation, malting, and
ultrasonication enhanced the WAC and OAC of FM, while in the
BGN samples, only malting decreased the WAC and OAC. The
improved WAC/OAC of all processed FM flours, FBGN, and UBGN
make them suitable for producing thickening food, bakery prod-
ucts, and jelly foods. Furthermore the reduction in BD and PVs
of processed flours makes the f lours suitable for manufacturing
weaning foods. Traditional and novel processing also altered the
microstructural properties of FM and BGN flours. In terms of
nutritional properties, fermentation, malting, and ultrasonica-
tion improved the protein and fibre content of all processed FM
and BGN samples. Fermentation also enhanced the ash content
of both FM and BGN samples. The improved protein and fibre
content of all processed FM and BGN, especially FFM and FBGN
with improved ash content, have the potential to make nutrient-
dense food products. Malting and ultrasonication reduced TPC
content in BGN samples, while, in FM samples, fermentation,
malting, and ultrasonication enhanced it. Fermentation, malting,
and ultrasonication also improved TFC content in FM, with the
former also improving TFC in BGN. The improvement in FRAP
content after the fermentation of FM and BGN, as well as after
the ultrasonication of BGN, was observed. An increase in ABTS
was also observed in FFM, FBGN, and UBGN. These improvements
highlight the potential health benefits of fermented and ultrason-
icated FM and BGN due to their improved ability to neutralise free
radicals. In light of these findings, future research should focus on
creating functional food products using both traditional and novel
processed flours, particularly fermented FM and BGN flours.
Data availability
The data supporting the findings of this study is available upon
request from the corresponding author.
Author contributions
Masala Mudau (Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Vali-
dation, Writing—original draft, Writing—review & editing) and
Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo (Conceptualization, Methodology,
Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Valida-
tion, Supervision, Visualization, Writing—review & editing)
Funding
The authors acknowledge the National Research Foundation
(NRF) of South Africa Doctoral Scholarship (Grant number:
140784), NRF of South Africa Support for Rated and Unrated
Researchers (Grant number: SRUG2204285188), and the Univer-
sity of Johannesburg and Faculty of Science Research Committee
Grant awarded to O.A.A. This study was also supported through
the European Union Erasmus + Key Action 107 International
Credit Mobility Project.
Conflicts of interest
None declared.
Acknowledgements
None declared.
References
Adebiyi, J. A., Obadina, A. O., Adebo, O. A., & Kayitesi, E. (2017).
Comparison of nutritional quality and sensory acceptability of
biscuits obtained from native, fermented, and malted pearl millet
(Pennisetum glaucum) flour. Food Chemistry, 232, 210–217. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.020
Adebiyi, J. A., Obadina, A. O., Mulaba-Bafubiandi, A. F., Adebo, O.
A.,& Kayitesi, E. (2016). Effect of fermentation and malting on
the microstructure and selected physicochemical properties of
pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) f lour and biscuit. Journal of Cereal
Science, 70, 132–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2016.05.026
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |13
Adebo, J. A., Njobeh, P. B., Gbashi, S., Oyedeji, A. B., Ogundele, O.
M., Oyeyinka, S. A.,& Adebo, O. A. (2022). Fermentation of cere-
als and legumes: Impact on nutritional constituents and nutri-
ent bioavailability. Fermentation, 8, 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/
fermentation8020063
Adetokunboh, A. H., Obilana, A. O.,& Jideani, V. A. (2022). Physic-
ochemical characteristics of Bambara groundnut speciality
malts and extract. Molecules, 27, 4332. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules27144332
Alves Magro, A. E.,& de Castro, R. J. S. (2020). Effects of solid-
state fermentation and extraction solvents on the antioxidant
properties of lentils. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 28,
101753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101753
AOAC (2006). Official methods of analysis. Proximate analysis (17th ed.).
Gaithersburg, MD: Association of Analytical Communities.
Arouna, N., Gabriele, M., & Pucci, L. (2020). The impact of germination
on sorghum nutraceutical properties. Foods, 9, 1218. https://doi.
org/10.3390/foods9091218
Arzoo, N., Shukla, A. K., Panwar, S.,& Kumar, A. (2024). Effect
of processing techniques on functional, antioxidants, and
structural properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana)
flour. Food and Humanity, 2, 100305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foohum.2024.100305
Asuk, A. A., Nnaemeka Ugwu, M., & Idole, B. (2020). The effect
of different malting periods on the nutritional composition
of malted sorghum-soy composite flour. Journal of Food Sci-
ence and Nutrition Research, 3, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.26502/
jfsnr.2642-11000051
Azeez, S. O., Chinma, C. E., Bassey, S. O., Eze, U. R., Makinde, A.
F., Sakariyah, A. A., Okubanjo, S. S., Danbaba, N.,& Adebo, O.
A. (2022). Impact of germination alone or in combination with
solid-state fermentation on the physicochemical, antioxidant, in
vitro digestibility, functional, and thermal properties of brown
finger millet flours. LWT, 154, 112734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2021.112734
Badia-Olmos, C., Sánchez-García, J., Laguna, L., Zúñiga, E., Haros,
C. M., Andrés,A.M.,& Tarrega, A. (2024). Flours from fer-
mented lentil and quinoa grains as ingredients with new techno-
functional properties. Food Research International, 177, 113915.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113915
Balet, S., Guelpa, A., Fox, G.,& Manley, M. (2019). Rapid visco
analyser (RVA) as a tool for measuring starch-related phys-
iochemical properties in cereals: A review. Food Analytical
Methods, 12, 2344–2360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-019-01
581-w
Banura, S.,& Singh, N. (2023). Effect of ultrasonication on physico-
chemical, amino-acids, sugar profile, antioxidant, pasting, and
dynamic rheological properties of malted mung beans and
lentils. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 58,
2476–2488. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16388
Banwo, K., Asogwa,F.C., Ogunremi, O. R., Adesulu-Dahunsi, A.,
& Sanni, A. (2021). Nutritional profile and antioxidant capaci-
ties of fermented millet and sorghum gruels using lactic acid
bacteria and yeasts. Food Biotechnology, 35, 199–220. https://doi.
org/10.1080/08905436.2021.1940197
Blanco-Pérez, F., Steigerwald, H., Schülke, S., Vieths, S., Tod a , M . ,&
Scheurer, S. (2021). The dietary fiber pectin: Health benefits and
potential for the treatment of allergies by modulation of gut
microbiota. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 21, 43. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11882-021-01020-z
Calvo-Lerma, J., Asensio-Grau, A., García-Hernández, J., Heredia, A.,
& Andrés, A. (2022). Exploring the impact of solid-state fermen-
tation on macronutrient profile and digestibility in chia (Salvia
hispanica) and sesame (Sesamum indicum) seeds. Foods, 11, 410.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030410
Ceasar, S. A., Maharajan, T., Krishna, T. A., & Ignacimuthu, S. (2023).
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn). In M. Farooq, & K. H.
M. Siddique, (Eds.), Neglected and underutilized crops (pp. 137–149).
New York: Academic Press.
Chandra, A. K., Pandey, D., Sood, S., Joshi, D. C., Tiwari, A., Sharma,
D.,& Kumar, A. (2024). Uncovering the genomic regions underly-
ing grain iron and zinc content using genome-wide association
mapping in finger millet. 3Biotech,14, 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s13205-023-03889-1
Chelangat, M., Muturi, P., Gichimu, B., Gitari, J.,& Mukono, S.
(2023). Nutritional and phytochemical composition of Bam-
bara groundnut (Vigna subterranea [L.] Verdc) landraces in
Kenya. International Journal of Agronomy, 2023,1–11. https://doi.
org/10.1155/2023/9881028
Chinma, C. E., Abu, J. O., Asikwe, B. N., Sunday, T.,& Adebo, O. A.
(2021). Effect of germination on the physicochemical, nutritional,
functional, thermal properties and in vitro digestibility of Bam-
bara groundnut flours. LW T ,140, 110749. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.lwt.2020.110749
Chinma, C. E., Azeez, S. O., Sulayman, H. T., Alhassan, K., Alozie,
S. N., Gbadamosi, H. D., Danbaba, N., Oboh, H. A., Anuonye, J.
C.,& Adebo, O. A. (2020). Evaluation of fermented African yam
bean flour composition and influence of substitution levels on
properties of wheat bread. Journal of Food Science, 85, 4281–4289.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15527
Choudhary, C., Vignesh, S., Chidanand, D. V., & Baskaran, N. (2023).
Effect of different processing methods on nutritional composi-
tion and microbial quality of pearl millet. Research Square.https://
doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3614114/v1
Choudhary, P.,& Rawson, A. (2021). Impact of power ultrasound
on the quality attributes of curd and its fermentation/gelation
kinetics. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 44, e13698. https://doi.
org/10.1111/jfpe.13698
Cui, R.,& Zhu, F. (2020). Effect of ultrasound on structural and
physicochemical properties of sweet potato and wheat flours.
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 66, 105118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ultsonch.2020.105118
Dhanushkodi, V., Hemavathy, A. T., Shenbagavalli, S., Sangeetha, S.,
Anitha, R.,& UmaMaheshwari, T. (2023). A review on nutritional
properties and health benefits of finger millet. International Jour-
nal of Plant and Soil Science, 35, 753–761. https://doi.org/10.9734/
ijpss/2023/v35i183342
Dubey, A.,& Tri p a t hy, P. P. (2024). Ultrasound-mediated hydra-
tion of finger millet: Effects on antinutrients, techno-functional
and bioactive properties, with evaluation of ANN-PSO and RSM
optimization methods. Food Chemistry, 435, 137516. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137516
Egedigwe-Ekeleme, C. A., Famurewa, A. C., Egedigwe, U. O., Onyeabo,
C., Kanu,S.C., Ogunwa, S. C., Onuora,C.A.,& Agbo, A. O. (2023).
Comparative studies on the amino acids, pesticide residue con-
tent, biogenic and toxic elements in an underutilized nut: Bam-
bara groundnut (Vigna subterranea). Journal of Trace Elements and
Minerals, 3, 100051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemin.2023.100051
Esan, V. I., Oke, G. O.,& Ogunbode, T. O. (2023). Genetic variation and
characterization of Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.)
verdc.] accessions under multi-environments considering yield
and yield components performance. Scientific Reports, 13, 1498.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28794-8
FAO (2003). Food energy: Methods of analysis and conversion factors. FAO
food and nutrition paper 77 - report of a technical workshop.Rome:
FAO.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

14 |Mudau and Adebo
Farasara, R., Hariyadi, P., Fardiaz, D.,& Dewanti-Hariyadi, R. (2014).
Pasting properties of white corn flours of Anoman 1 and
Pulut Harapan varieties as affected by fementation process.
Food and Nutrition Sciences, 05, 2038–2047. https://doi.org/10.4236/
fns.2014.521215
Ganesh, B. T., Dilipbhai, K. A., Ragi, S., & Katral, A. (2024). Breeding
finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn) for improvement of qual-
ity characters and yield. In S. Mashra,S.Kumar,R.C.Srivastava,
(Eds.), Genetic improvement of small millets (pp. 213–224). Singapore:
Springer.
Grgi´
c, T., Paviˇ
si´
c, Z., Maltar-Strmeˇ
cki, N., Vou ˇ
cko, B., ˇ
Cukelj Mustaˇ
c,
N., ´
Curi´
c, D., Le-Bail, A.,& Novotni, D. (2023). Ultrasound-
assisted modification of enzymatic and antioxidant activities,
functional and rheological properties of oat and barley bran. Food
and Bioprocess Technology, 16, 2416–2429. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11947-023-03074-5
Gupta, R.,& Gaur, S. (2024). Investigating the effect of natural fer-
mentation in modifying the physico-functional, structural, and
thermal characteristics of pearl and finger millet starch. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 104, 2440–2448. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jsfa.13129
Gwekwe, B. N., Chopera, P., Matsungo, T. M., Chidewe, C., Mukan-
ganyama, S., Nyakudya, E.,& Nyanga, L. K. (2024). Effect of
dehulling, fermentation, and roasting on the nutrient and anti-
nutrient content of sorghum and pearl millet flour. International
Journal on Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources,5,1–7.https://doi.
org/10.46676/ij-fanres.v5i1.221
Harasym, J., Satta, E., & Kaim, U. (2020). Ultrasound treatment
of buckwheat grains impacts important functional properties
of resulting flour. Molecules, 25, 3012. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules25133012
Hou, X., Li, X., Li, J., Cong, J., Jiang, L., Shen, G., Chen, A.,& Zhang,
Z. (2023). Changes in the structural and physicochemical char-
acteristics of sonicated potato flour. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 99,
106573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106573
Isibor, A. O. P., Iyegbu, R. U., Joy, E. O., & Godwin, H. (2023). Evaluation
of properties, proximate composition and sensory attributes of
complementary food made from fermented sorghum, Bambara
groundnut and banana. International Journal of Organic and Medic-
inal Development Research, 2. https://mediterraneanpublications.
com/mejomdr/article/view/124
Kalsi, R., Bhasin, J., Goksen, G.,& Kashyap, P. (2023). Exploration of
nutritional, pharmacological, and the processing trends for val-
orization of finger millet (Eleusine coracana): A review. Food Science
& Nutrition, 11, 6802–6819. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3659
Karim, M. A., Rahman, M. M., Pham, N. D., & Fawzia, S. (2018). Food
microstructure as affected by processing and its effect on quality
and stability. In S. Devahastin, (Ed.), Food microstructure and its
relationship with quality and stability (pp. 43–57). Hanoi: Woodhead
Publishing.
Kaur, H.,Oberoi, H. K.,Ganapathy, K. N.,& Bhardwaj, R. (2023a). Effect
of popping and malting processing techniques on physiochem-
ical, antinutrients and antioxidant properties of millets flour.
Journal of Food Science and Technology, 60, 2370–2384. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s13197-023-05758-4
Kaur, R.,& Prasad, K. (2022a). Effect of malting and roasting of
chickpea on functional and nutritional qualities of its protein
fractions. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 57,
3990–4000. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15769
Kaur, R., & Prasad, K. (2022b). Elucidation of chickpea hydration,
effect of soaking temperature, and extent of germination on char-
acteristics of malted flour. Journal of Food Science, 87, 2197–2210.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.16147
Kewuyemi, Y. O.,&
Adebo, O. A. (2024). Complementary nutritional
and health promoting constituents in germinated and probiotic
fermented flours from cowpea, sorghum and orange fleshed
sweet potato. Scientific Reports, 14,1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41598-024-52149-6
Kewuyemi, Y. O., Chinma, C. E., Kesa, H., Alabi, O., Amonsou, E. O.,
& Adebo, O. A. (2024). Rheological, thermal and physicochemi-
cal properties of bioprocessed flour from cowpea, sorghum and
orange fleshed sweet potato. Journal of Food Process Engineering,47,
e14777. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.14777
Kewuyemi, Y. O., Kesa, H.,& Adebo, O. A. (2022). Biochemical prop-
erties, nutritional quality, colour profile and techno-functional
properties of whole grain sourdough and malted cowpea and
quinoa flours. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
57, 1527–1543. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.15512
Kumar, B., Singh, M., Kumar, A., Kumar, D., Singh, A. K., Kumar, R., &
Kumar, S. (2024). Finger millet scientific cultivation and its uses
in India. In L. Yadav & U. Upasana, (Eds.), Millets-rediscover ancient
grains. Uttar Pradesh: IntechOpen.
Kunle, O. L., Alamuoye, N. O., Ajatta, M. A.,& Ogundari, A. A. (2023).
Effects of malting on physicochemical composition of maize and
sorghum. Plant Biology Soil Health Journal, 1, 27–33
Liu, Z., Sun, T., Liu, J., Liang, N.,& Zhao, L. (2024). Natural deep
eutectic solvent as a green extraction medium for the ultrasonic-
assisted extraction of sinapine thiocyanate from black mustard
seeds. Microchemical Journal, 201, 110549. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.microc.2024.110549
Loushigam, G.,& Shanmugam, A. (2023). Modifications to func-
tional and biological properties of proteins of cowpea pulse crop
by ultrasound-assisted extraction. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 97,
106448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2023.106448
Megha, K. C., Nanja Reddy, Y. A.,& Hanumanthappa, D. C. (2023).
Yield improvement compensates the grain nutrient concentra-
tion in finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.): Analysis using varieties
released over years. Plant Physiology Reports, 28, 199–208. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s40502-023-00719-7
Mir, S. A.,Dar, A.,Hamid, L.,Nisar, N.,Malik, J. A.,Ali, T.,& Bader, G. N.
(2023). Flavonoids as promising molecules in the cancer therapy:
An insight. Current Research in Pharmacology and Drug Discovery, 6,
100167
Mudau, M., Chinma, C. E., Ledbetter, M., Wilkin, J.,& Adebo, O.
A. (2024). Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of
metabolites in finger millet and Bambara groundnut as affected
by traditional and novel food processing. Journal of Food Science,89,
6394–6412. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.17337
Mudau, M., Ramashia, S. E.,& Mashau, M. E. (2022). Mineral content,
functional, thermo-pasting, and microstructural properties of
spontaneously fermented finger millet flours. Food, 11, 2474.
https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162474
Murungweni, K. T., Ramashia, S. E., & Mashau, M. E. (2023). Effect
of malting on physicochemical, antioxidant, and microstructural
properties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) flours. Food Science &
Nutrition, 12, 547–563. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3790
Nazni, P.,& Devi, R. S. (2016). Effect of processing on the charac-
teristics changes in barnyard and foxtail millet. Journal of Food
Processing and Technology, 7, 566
Ojo, O. A., Oshin, A., Obadina, O. A.,& Oke, E. K. (2023). Mineral
and anti-nutritional properties of pearl millet and pumpkin
leaf flour as affected by fermentation. Acta Universitatis Sapi-
entiae, Alimentaria, 16, 75–89. https://doi.org/10.2478/ausal-2023-
0006
Okafor, J. I.,& Umeh, S. O. (2021). Comparison of the proximate
and anti-nutritional composition of malted and un-malted seeds
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025

International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, Vol. 60, No. 1 |15
of three indigenous seeds for use as weaning food. Interna-
tional Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 6,
600
Oladimeji, B. M., & Adebo, O. A. (2024). Properties and metabolite pro-
filing of Bambara groundnut flour as affected by different food
processing conditions. Applied Food Research,4, 100389. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.afres.2024.100389
Olawoye, B.,& Gbadamosi, S. O. (2020). Inf luence of processing
on the physiochemical functional and pasting properties of
Nigerian Amaranthus viridis seed flour: A multivariate analy-
sis approach. SN Applied Sciences, 2, 607. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s42452-020-2418-8
Onwurafor, E., Uzodinma, E., Uchegbu, N., Ani, J., Umunnakwe, I.,&
Ziegler, G. (2020). Effect of malting periods on the nutrient compo-
sition, antinutrient content and pasting properties of mungbean
flour. Agro-Science, 19, 18. https://doi.org/10.4314/as.v19i1.3
Oseguera-Toledo, M. E., Contreras-Jiménez, B., Hernández-Becerra,
E.,& Rodriguez-Garcia, M. E. (2020). Physicochemical changes
of starch during malting process of sorghum grain. Journal
of Cereal Science, 95, 103069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2020.
103069
Owheruo, J. O., Ifesan, B. O.,& Kolawole, A. O. (2019). Physicochemical
properties of malted finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and pearl
millet (Pennisetum glaucum). Food Science & Nutrition, 7, 476–482.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.816
Oyeyinka, S. A.,Falade, K. O.,Ajayi,O. M.,Amonsou, E. O.,Njobeh, P. B.,
& Adebo, O. A. (2021). Physical, nutritional, and microstructural
properties of Bambara groundnut. In S. A. Oyeyinka & B. I. O. Ade-
Omowaye (Eds.), Food and potential industrial applications of Bambara
groundnut (pp. 43–60). Cham: Springer.
Ramatsetse, K. E., Ramashia, S. E.,& Mashau, M. E. (2023). A review
on health benefits, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties
of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean). International Journal
of Food Properties, 26, 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.
2022.2153864
Ratnika, S., Priyanka, R., Singh, P., Sanjeev, K., & Gupta, P. (2022).
Statistical optimization of ultrasound assisted extraction of free
and bound phenolic acids, antioxidant and antibacterial activ-
ities and UPLC–MS/MS characterization from two varieties of
Eleusine coracana. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization,
16, 2086–2103
Sadh, P. K., Saharan, P., Duhan, S.,& Duhan, J. S. (2017). Bio-
enrichment of phenolics and antioxidant activity of combination
of Oryza sativa and Lablab purpureus fermented with GRAS fil-
amentous fungi. Resource-Efficient Technologies, 3, 347–352. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.reffit.2017.02.008
Sáez, G. D., Sabater, C., Fara, A.,& Zárate, G. (2022). Fermentation of
chickpea flour with selected lactic acid bacteria for improving its
nutritional and functional properties. Journal of Applied Microbiol-
ogy, 133, 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.15401
Sharma, S., Jan, R., Riar,C.S.,& Bansal vikas. (2021). Analyzing the
effect of germination on the pasting rheological morphological
and in-vitro antioxidant characteristics of kodo millet flour and
extracts. Food Chemistry, 361, 130073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodchem.2021.130073
Singh, S., Habib, M., Mondal, D., Thakur, M., Kumar, Y., Bashir, K., Jan,
S.,& Jan, K. (2024). Effects of germination on the physicochem-
ical, thermal, in vitro protein digestibility, Antinutrients, and
antioxidant properties of sorghum flour. International Journal of
Food Science and Technology,59, 6513–6521. https://doi.org/10.1111/
ijfs.17399
Siwale, J., Labuschagne, M., Gerrano, A. S., Paterne, A.,& Mbuma,
N. W. (2023). Variation in protein content, starch components,
selected minerals and their bioavailability in Bambara groundnut
accessions. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 115, 104991.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2022.104991
Snauwaert, E., Paglialonga, F., Vande Walle, J., Wan, M ., Desloo-
vere, A., Polderman, N., Renken-Terhaerdt, J., Shaw, V.,& Shroff,
R. (2022). The benefits of dietary fiber: The gastrointestinal
tract and beyond. Pediatric Nephrology, 38, 2929–2938. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s00467-022-05837-2
Sobowale, S. S.,Bamidele, O. P.,& Adebo, J. A. (2024). Physicochemical,
functional, and antinutritional properties of fermented Bambara
groundnut and sorghum flours at different times. Food Chemistry
Advances, 4, 100729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2024.100729
Srivastava, U., Saini, P., Ahmed, M., & Singh, A. (2024). Enhancing
antioxidant activity in barnyard millet fermentation through
RSM optimization. Food and Humanity, 2, 100254. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100254
Vela,A. J.,Villanueva, M.,Ozturk,O.K.,Hamaker, B.,&Ronda, F. (2023).
Modification of the microstructure of tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.)
trotter] flour ultrasonicated at different temperatures. Impact on
its techno-functional and rheological properties. Current Research
in Food Science, 6, 100456
Vela, A. J., Villanueva, M., Solaesa, Á. G., & Ronda, F. (2021). Impact of
high-intensity ultrasound waves on structural, functional, ther-
mal and rheological properties of rice flour and its biopolymers
structural features. Food Hydrocolloids, 113, 106480.
Wodajo Bekele, D., & Admassu, S. (2022). Pumpkin flour qualities
as affected by ultrasound and microwave pre-drying treatment.
International Journal of Food Properties, 25, 2409–2424. https://doi.
org/10.1080/10942912.2022.2135536
Yad av, S., Mishra, S.,& Pradhan, R. C. (2021). Ultrasound-assisted
hydration of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and its effects on
starch isolates and antinutrients. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry, 73,
105542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2021.105542
© The Author(s) 2025. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Institute of Food Science and Technology. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2025, 60(1), vvae037
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijfood/vvae037
Original Article
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ijfst/article/60/1/vvae037/7943313 by guest on 15 February 2025