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Educide amid conflict: the struggle of
the Palestinian education system
Dalal Iriqat
Faculty of Graduate Studies, Arab American University,
Ramallah, Palestinian Authority
Rula Alousi
USS School of Business and Law, University of East London, London, UK
Tahani Z. Aldahdouh and Alaa AlDahdouh
Faculty of Education and Culture, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
Iman Dankar
Department of Liberal Education, Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
Dima Alburai
Faculty of Law, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Mohamed Buheji
Socioeconomic Institute for Advanced Studies (SIAS), Kigali, Rwanda, and
Abdo Hassoun
Sustainable AgriFoodtech Innovation and Research (SAFIR), Arras, France and
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, University of Aleppo,
Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic
Abstract
Purpose –This paper aims to examine the devastating effects of the ongoing conflict in Gaza on its education
system, a phenomenon termed “Educide”. The study documents the systematic destruction of educational
infrastructure, including schools and universities, aswell as the targeted killing of students and educators, which
impedes current and future access to education. The paper argues that this deliberate dismantling of Gaza’s
educational institutions aims to erase Palestinian culture, identity and resilience, thus hindering any prospects
for SDG4. The authors emphasize the urgent need for international accountabilityand support to rebuild Gaza’s
education sector, preserving its role in societal development, identity preservationand human rights.
Design/methodology/approach –This research paper uses a qualitative design, using data gathered
through a comprehensive review of both grey and scholarly literature to assess the impact of the ongoing
conflict on Gaza’s education system. By analyzing official reports, working papers and conference abstracts,
© Dalal Iriqat, Rula Alousi, Tahani Z. Aldahdouh, Alaa AlDahdouh, Iman Dankar, Dima Alburai,
Mohamed Buheji and Abdo Hassoun. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is
published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce,
distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-
commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms
of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
Quality Education
for All
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Received 25 Octobe r 2024
Revised 24 Novem ber 2024
Accepted 6 December 2024
Quality Education for All
Vol.2 No. 1, 2025
pp. 81-99
Emerald Publishing Limited
2976-9310
DOI 10.1108/QEA-10-2024-0120
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
https://www.emerald.com/insight/2976-9310.htm
the study compiles evidence of the systematic targeting and destruction of educational infrastructure in Gaza.
This approach allows for an in-depth understanding of the conflict’s immediate and long-term effects on
educational access, infrastructure and cultural preservation. The methodology underscores the critical
implications of these findings and calls for urgent international intervention and accountability to protect
education in conflict zones.
Findings –The paper’sfindings reveal severe, systematic destruction of Gaza’s educational infrastructure,
including schools and universities, with extensive loss of life among students and educators. The research
shows that this “Educide”disrupts educational access for current and future generations, stifles intellectual
growth and threatens the preservation of Palestinian identity and heritage. Evidence indicates that such
deliberate targeting aims to destabilize Gaza’s social structure and hinder long-term development. The findings
highlight the urgent need for international accountability to halt these acts, safeguard education as a
fundamental right and rebuild Gaza’s education system to ensure resilience and continuityamid conflict.
Research limitations/implications –The research faces several limitations, including reliance on
secondary sources, such as gray literature and official reports, which may limit firsthand insights and real-time
data accuracy. In addition, the ongoing nature of the conflict restricts access to updated information and
complicates direct assessment of damage. The study’s qualitative approach may also limit the ability to
quantify the full extent of destruction and long-term impacts on educational outcomes. Finally, the challenging
political environment may affect the availability and reliability of certain sources, potentially leading to gaps
in comprehensive data onGaza’s educational infrastructure and human resource losses.
Practical implications –The practical implications of this paper underscore the urgent need for
international intervention to protect Gaza’s education sector. Highlighting the concept of “Educide”, the study
calls for policies to prevent the targeting of educational institutions in conflict zones and mechanisms to hold
perpetrators accountable. It advocates for comprehensive support to rebuild Gaza’s educational infrastructure,
ensuring students and educators can safely return to learning environments. This research also serves as a
foundation for policymakers, NGOs and human rights organizations to implement sustainable educational
recovery programs to preserve Palestinian identity, cultural heritage and long-term development amidst
ongoing challenges.
Social implications –The social implications of this paper are profound, as it highlights the erosion of
Gaza’s educational foundations and its broader effects on Palestinian society. The systematic destruction of
schools and universities disrupts education and impacts community resilience, cultural preservation and
intergenerational knowledge transfer. This “Educide”undermines social cohesion by depriving young
Palestinians of safe learning environments, vital support networks and prospects for socioeconomic stability.
The study emphasizes the need for global support to restore these educational spaces, ensuring that education
can continue to foster community strength, identity and hope within Gaza’s society amid conflict.
Originality/value –This paper is original in its focus on the concept of “Educide”in Gaza, a term describing
the systematic targeting and destruction of educational infrastructure as a means of cultural and societal
erasure. By framing the deliberate dismantlingof Gaza’s education sector within a genocidal context, the paper
offers a novel perspective on the intersection of conflict, education and cultural preservation. It contributes
uniquely to academic and policy discourse by combining documented evidence with a call for international
accountability, emphasizing the critical role of education as both a human right and a foundation for resilient
societies in conflict zones.
Keywords Gaza, Scholasticide, War, School, Higher education, Justice, Peace, Crime, Human rights,
Educide
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Education is a fundamental pillar of a society’s identity and future. Access to education is a
basic human right and is crucial for realizing all other human rights. Effective education
eradicates illiteracy and helps achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), such as
reducing poverty (SDG1), zero hunger (SDG2), gender equality (SDG5) and decent work
and economic growth (SDG8). SDG 4 specifically emphasizes the importance of high-
quality education, ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong
learning opportunities for all (Abu Hamad et al.,2017;Rad et al., 2022). However, wars and
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armed conflicts profoundly affect education and students, resulting in displacement,
discrimination, identity crises and worsening mental health, among other significant
challenges (Belay et al.,2023;Muthanna et al., 2022).
In Gaza, a small and densely populated region in the Middle East, Israel imposed a
blockade by land, sea and air in 2007, after Hamas assumed control of the Strip. This
blockade has significantly restricted development and access to basic resources, contributing
to severe socioeconomic and humanitarian challenges (Jebril, 2023;Manna, 2013;Nijim,
2023). Schools and higher education facilities in Gaza have been significantly impacted by
the blockade and occupation, facing challenges such as restrictions on the movement of
students in and out of the Strip, financial constraints and ongoing safety and security
concerns (Alburai, 2023;Hussein et al., 2024;Milton et al., 2023). Despite these adversities,
including a lack of quality and affordable learning environments and repeated military
escalations, Gazans have demonstrated remarkable resilience, striving to maintain essential
aspects of their educational processes (Bonello, 2024;Hasan, 2024;Massad et al., 2018;
Milton et al., 2023).
Gaza has been subjected to intense and unprecedented Israeli military assaults since
October 2023, resulting in severe consequences for its already fragile education system and
infrastructure. Reports from euro-Med Human Rights Monitor, the United Nations Office for
the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and other credible sources indicate that
hundreds of Palestinian academics and teachers, along with thousands of students, have lost
their lives, and nearly all educational institutions, including universities and schools, have
been destroyed (ACAPS, 2024;Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor, 2024;Faculty of
Education University of Cambridge/Centre for Lebanese Studies and UNRWA, 2024;
Occupied Palestinian Territory - Education Cluster, 2024;ReliefWeb, 2024a). The impact of
the widespread destruction of universities, schools and other educational institutions due to
relentless bombardment and ground operations is especially dramatic for the current and
future generations of Gaza (Bonello, 2024;Buheji and Buheji, 2024;Phusavat and Buheji,
2024). Yet, the academic literature studying the effect of the ongoing war on Gaza on the
Palestinian educational and academic sector is still quite small.
Therefore, this paper introduces the concept of “Educide”, which underscores the
deliberate targeting and destruction of educational systems in conflict zones (Alousi, 2022)
within the context of the Palestinian education system in Gaza. We argue that this concept,
being especially relevant to Gaza, underscores the profound impact of conflict on education,
a pillar essential for fostering societal stability and sustainable resilience. Drawing on grey
literature and official reports, the paper builds a robust foundation of evidence to illuminate
the pressing challenges confronting education system in Palestine, especially in Gaza. It
underscores the urgent need for coordinated international intervention to address the
widespread destruction and systemic obstacles impacting education in the Gaza Strip. By
framing the education crisis in Gaza within the broader political, social and economic
dynamics unique to the region, the paper offers a nuanced and in-depth analysis that not only
informs but also advocates for actionable solutions.
The paper is structured as follows. Section 2 will define Educide, explain its short- and
long-term effects and showcase studies and examples. The systematic destruction of
education in Gaza before and during the ongoing war in Gaza will be investigated in
Sections 3 and 4, respectively. The impact of this war on SDG 4 will be described in
Section 5, whereas Section 6 will discuss the international efforts to protect educational
facilities. Mitigation measures and recommendations for education recovery will be given in
Section 7, whereas Section 8 will conclude the paper.
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2. Educide: definition, effects and case studies and examples
2.1 Definition of “Educide”
“Educide”is the mass destruction of a country or region’s educational infrastructure because
of war, invasion, conflict, terrorism or mass killings. The term “Educide”combines
“education”and “genocide”to describe the devastating impact of war, conflict, terrorism or
mass killings on the educational infrastructure of a country or region (Alousi, 2022). This
destruction not only involves physical damage to schools, universities and other educational
facilities but also encompasses the loss of teachers, students and the disruption of learning
opportunities (Korhonen et al., 2024;McGahern, 2024;OHCHR, 2024).
Destruction of educational infrastructure deprives individuals of their fundamental right
to education, impeding social progress, economic development and the overall well-being of
societies. This term underscores the profound impact that conflict and war can have on
education, hindering the development and welfare of individuals, communities and societies
at large. It includes the destruction of educational institutions, the displacement of students
and teachers, the disruption of educational programs and the long-term implications for
access to quality education and societal advancement (Alousi, 2022;Rabaia and Habash,
2024). In Gaza, there is an urgent need for the reconstruction of educational infrastructure,
the provision of support for students and teachers affected by conflict, the promotion of
educational opportunities in conflict-affected regions and advocacy for the safeguarding of
education during times of crisis (Faculty of Education University of Cambridge/Centre for
Lebanese Studies and UNRWA, 2024;UNESCO, 2024).
2.2 Effects of Educide
The relationship between conflict, genocide and education is intricate and impactful. In times
of conflict, education is often disrupted, leading to the closure of schools and universities,
displacement of students and teachers and destruction of educational infrastructure. Conflict
can also result in the targeting of educational institutions, hindering access to learning
opportunities and knowledge dissemination (Sahar, 2024;UNESCO, 2010;Unfried and Kis-
Katos, 2023). Genocide, as an extreme form of conflict, further exacerbates these issues by
specifically targeting educated individuals, thus depleting human capital and eroding the
intellectual resources necessary for rebuilding society. The trauma and psychological effects
of conflict and genocide can also impede individuals’ability to engage effectively in
education, perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage and hindering long-term development
(Abudayya et al., 2023;Milton, 2018a;Milton and Barakat, 2016).
In the short term, conflict and genocide have immediate and devastating impacts on
higher education institutions. Disruption of academic programs, displacement of students
and faculty, destruction of infrastructure and loss of human capital all contribute to a
significant decline in the quality and accessibility of higher education. The psychological
trauma experienced by individuals in conflict-affected areas further hinders their ability to
engage effectively in learning, exacerbating the challenges faced by higher education
institutions. In the long term, the effects of conflict and genocide on higher education can be
profound and far-reaching. The erosion of academic freedom, the loss of skilled individuals
and the destruction of educational resources can impede the development and progress of
higher education institutions for years to come. Rebuilding and recovering from the impact
of conflict and genocide on higher education requires sustained efforts to restore educational
infrastructure, promote reconciliation and invest in human capital development. Addressing
the long-term effects of conflict and genocide on higher education is essential for rebuilding
communities, fostering social cohesion and preventing future conflicts from arising (Milton,
2018b;Phusavat and Buheji, 2024;UNESCO, 2011).
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Rebuilding education systems in the aftermath of conflict and genocide is a critical
component of post-conflict recovery, requiring significant resources, expertise and support to
restore access to quality education, promote reconciliation and foster social cohesion. Efforts
to address these challenges must prioritize the rebuilding of educational infrastructure,
support for affected individuals and the promotion of peace, reconciliation and social justice
within educational institutions.
2.3 Case studies and examples
2.3.1 Rwanda genocide and its impact on higher education. In Rwanda, the genocide in
1994 had profound effects on the education system, with attacks on schools and educators.
The destruction of educational infrastructure had significant implications for economic
growth and development in the country (Rwigema, 2020). Beyond physical destruction, the
genocide caused widespread psychological trauma among students and educators,
complicating efforts to revive the education sector. The loss of human capital and collapse of
institutions created barriers to educational continuity and quality (La Mattina, 2018). These
challenges underscore the importance of educational resilience in fostering national recovery
and sustainable development.
2.3.2 Impact of the war in Iraq on the education sector. In Iraq, the education system
suffered severe destruction and disruption due to conflict and political instability. Schools
were targeted, leading to the destruction of educational infrastructure and creating a climate
of fear. The deliberate targeting of schools in Iraq exemplifies how Educide can devastate the
physical foundations of education (Alousi, 2022). Moreover, the effects of conflict extended
beyond physical destruction. Internal displacement and the widespread loss of educators due
to violence significantly hindered the delivery of education. For instance, over 500
academics were assassinated, and thousands fled the country post-2003, leaving institutions
severely understaffed and undermining educational continuity. The collapse of Iraq’s once-
progressive education system highlights the profound long-term consequences of conflict on
human capital and national development (Diwakar, 2015).
2.3.3 Impact of the Yugoslav wars on higher education institutions. During the
Yugoslav wars, Educide manifested in the deliberate targeting of educators and intellectuals,
resulting in a loss of human capital essential for a functioning education system. The
persecution and killing of teachers and academics in Yugoslavia undermined the capacity to
educate future generations (Jovanovic and Đureinović,2020). This deliberate strategy
highlights the role of education as a political tool, where its destruction was not merely
collateral damage but an intentional act to weaken resistance and control the narrative of
history. Such actions emphasize the need for international accountability mechanisms to
safeguard education in conflict zones.
2.3.4 Lessons learned. Educide undermines social cohesion and exacerbates divisions
within society. In Rwanda, Iraq and Yugoslavia, mass destruction of educational
infrastructure fueled social unrest and violence, hindering efforts to foster unity and
reconciliation. The experiences of Rwanda, Iraq and Yugoslavia underscore the urgent need
to prevent Educide and safeguard education systems. Governments, international
organizations and civil society must prioritize education and invest in protecting educational
institutions and personnel (Hoepken, 1998). The cases of Rwanda, Iraq and Yugoslavia
underscore the devastating impact of Educide on education systems and society. By learning
from these examples and taking proactive measures, we can work towards a more inclusive
and prosperous future for all. Safeguarding education from deliberate destruction is essential
for promoting peace, equity and sustainable development (Alousi, 2022).
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Educide undermines social cohesion and exacerbates divisions within society. In
Rwanda, Iraq and Yugoslavia, destruction of education systems fueled social unrest and
violence, hindering efforts to foster unity and reconciliation. Similarly, in Gaza, the
systematic targeting of schools, universities and educators has amplified societal
fragmentation and disrupted educational continuity (Desai, 2024;Gordon and Turner, 2024;
Middle East Eye, 2024;OHCHR, 2024). The destruction of educational infrastructure in
Gaza, much like in Iraq, exemplifies how conflict zones experience both immediate and
long-term erosion of intellectual and human capital.
Although the cases of Rwanda, Iraq and Yugoslavia were marked by significant
destruction, the scale of devastation in Gaza is unparalleled. Repeated cycles of conflict,
coupled with ongoing blockades, have decimated the educational system in Gaza to an extent
far greater than in the previously mentioned examples. The near-total destruction of schools,
persistent lack of resources and the enduring trauma experienced by students and educators
in Gaza underscore the dire need for urgent international intervention to rebuild and protect
its education system. Without focused efforts, the long-term societal and developmental
consequences will be even more catastrophic.
3. Destruction of education in Gaza before the ongoing war
3.1 Facts about public and higher education in Gaza before October 2023
In Palestine, two authorities or supervision bodies are managing primary and secondary
education: Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MoEHE) and the United Nations
Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) (AlDahdouh,
2018). UNRWA supports access to basic education (Grades 1–9) as well as vocational
education to all Palestinian refugee students and youth, whereas MoEHE runs government
schools and public higher education institutions.
According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (Institute for Palestine Studies,
2023), the number of schools in the 2022 / 2023 academic year in the Gaza Strip was 796
schools distributed as follows: 442 government schools, 284 UNRWA schools and 70 private
schools. The Gaza Strip is home to a total of 550 school buildings, comprising 303
government schools, 182 UNRWA schools and 65 private schools. As evident from the data
presented, a double-shift schooling system, where two schools –one in the morning and
another in the evening –share the same building, is widely implemented in Gaza.
The number of students in schools for the 2022 / 2023 academic year in Gaza Strip
schools reached about 608,000 students, distributed according to supervision bodies as
follows: 294,000 students in government schools, 293,000 students in UNRWA schools and
21,000 students in private schools. The number of teachers in the Gaza Strip schools reached
about 22,000 teachers, including 12,000 teachers in government schools, 9,000 teachers in
UNRWA schools and 1,000 teachers in private schools. The average number of students per
class in schools in Gaza reached 38.6 students per class in government schools in the Gaza
Strip, 41.1 students in UNRWA schools and 21.7 students in private schools.
As for the higher education sector, the number of higher education institutions in the
academic year 2021 / 2022 was 17 institutions in the Gaza Strip, in addition to an open
education university whose centers are distributed between the West Bank and the Gaza
Strip. The higher education sector in the Gaza Strip comprises 17 institutions, including an
open university with centers in both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, collectively enrolling
approximately 87,000 students and employing about 5,000 staff members, of whom around
2,000 are academics (Institute for Palestine Studies, 2023).
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3.2 Political and contextual background
In 2006, the Islamic Resistance Movement (Hamas) won the second Palestinian Legislative
Council elections and was set to form the government. However, the power transition was a
challenging process and resulted in political division between the ruling political faction, the
Palestinian National Liberation Movement (Fatah) and Hamas. To exert political pressure on
Hamas, many Palestinian Authority employees in the education sector in Gaza have been
asked to abstain from work in schools which disrupted classes. The Hamas Government in
turn brought in large numbers of unqualified employees to work as teachers to cover this
deficit (Al-Rozzi, 2022). In June of 2007, Israel imposed a land, sea and air blockade on the
Gaza Strip, which is still ongoing to the date of writing this article. Moreover, Israel waged
numerous wars on Gaza in 2008, 2012, 2014, 2021 and the most destructive war in 2023–
2024. These political events have inflicted negative repercussions, severely hindering
economic development, exacerbating poverty and limiting access to essential services (Abed
Alah, 2024;Hussein et al., 2024;Smith and Scott, 2023), all of which have long-lasting
effects on the educational process.
3.3 Repercussions on education before October 2023
The systematic destruction of Palestinian education by Israel has been documented well
before the ongoing conflict (Johnson, 1989;The Guardian, 2009). Consequently, the
repercussions of Israeli assaults on the educational system in the Strip should be analyzed
through a cause-and-effect lens to fully understand their long-term impact and underlying
motivations. There was limited electricity supply, construction materials and mobility while
the unemployment rate was very high under the Israeli blockade of Gaza. Electricity
limitation in turn led to devastating effects on the provision of daily services in academic
institutions, such as water desalination plants and laboratories (UNICEF, 2022). Likewise,
the lack of construction materials has led to a sustained destructional damage from any
Israeli war attack, according to Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA,
2022), not to mention the MoEHE’s inability to respond to the natural growth of student
numbers. Therefore, freezing the reconstruction operations resulted in overcrowding
classrooms, with approximately 40 students per class in a double-shift schooling system,
leading to a chronic crisis in the education sector of the Occupied Palestinian Territory
(Institute for Palestine Studies, 2023;Nicolai, 2007). Restriction of individuals’mobility due
to the Israeli blockade stifled the intellectual growth of teachers and students and has
weakened the intercultural exchange and collaboration locally (between Gaza and the West
Bank) and internationally (Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), 2021). In addition, the high
unemployment rate resulted in increasing poverty, students’inability to cover studying
expenses and eventually dropping out of their schools. The 2018 Humanitarian Response
Plan indicated that over 450,000 basic, secondary and kindergarten students and teachers
were identified as “people in need”(OCHA, 2018).
The devastating effects of the Israeli blockade were not limited to the infrastructure and
the educational process in general, but rather it directly affected workers in the education
sector, especially teachers. This effect manifests in restricted funding allocated for education
and poor working and life conditions (Ramahi, 2015). The restricted funding led to low
teacher salaries, a high workload and a lack of professional training opportunities, which in
turn raised teachers’dissatisfaction, disengagement and turnover intention (Romahi and Issa,
2010). The poor life conditions led to the depletion of the teacher’s time to provide basic and
daily life needs; the time that was supposed to be used for self-development. These poor
conditions also arose negative emotions and teacher ill-being in general (Aldahdouh et al.,
2023).
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The catastrophic effects of the Israeli blockade on students cannot be ignored either.
Overcrowded classrooms, for example, magnified tensions among students and contributed
to an increase in violence in schools (Al Mezan Center for Human rights, 2021). In addition,
the high student-to-teacher ratio leaves no room for reinforcing learning and providing
remedial and extracurricular activities. Moreover, the shortage of teacher training has
impacted the quality of instruction and support provided to students. For instance, about 50%
of students (aged 5–17 years) do not achieve their full educational potential, leading to a
deterioration in learning outcomes and difficulties in reading and writing (OCHA, 2018).
According to the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), the COVID-19 pandemic has further
exacerbated these challenges, particularly when education suddenly shifted to online settings
(NRC, 2021). Neither infrastructure (e.g. electricity and internet access) nor previous
preparedness for online education helped to support students’learning and that has
negatively affected students’mental health, well-being and digital literacy (UNICEF, 2022).
Higher education in Gaza has also severely suffered from analogous challenges like those
of school education, such as the lack of funding, effective governance, difficult political
situations and mobility restrictions. All these factors impacted the quality of academic
programs and the competencies of university teachers and graduates. For instance, in a recent
study, Milton and co-authors sheds light on the fact that universities in Gaza have endured
relentless attacks on campus infrastructure, resulting in a cycle of destruction and
reconstruction (Milton et al.,2023). Moreover, another recent study by Jebril (2023)
describes the concurrent tension between construction and destruction as a de-development
process of higher education where physical construction projects and educational endeavors
are juxtaposed with the destructive forces of bombardment and resource scarcity. Gazan
academics and students find themselves deeply entrenched in this context of “de-
development”, grappling with multiple sieges imposed by both external forces, such as
occupation and warfare, as well as internal constraints on their freedoms and life choices
(Jebril, 2023;Smith and Scott, 2023;Traxler et al., 2019). To illustrate the severity of these
challenges, some 20,000 graduates in Gaza have been unable to receive their certificates due
to their inability to pay tuition and other fees, further exacerbating the long-term crisis in
higher education (OCHA, 2018).
3.4 Education resilience under the occupation
Palestinian educational institutions have demonstrated remarkable resilience in the face of
external conflict and internal restrictions, navigating challenges that threaten academic
freedom, access and autonomy. Despite the occupation and the frequent disruptions caused
by violence and political instability, universities and schools in Palestine have managed to
sustain their operations and maintain a strong commitment to education (Akesson, 2015;
Diab, 2024;Quneis and Rafidi, 2023). The role of free speech in Palestinian universities has
emerged as a critical issue, shaped by external pressures such as the Israeli occupation and
internal authoritarian practices within Palestinian governance. Academic freedom, though
often constrained, remains an essential tool for fostering critical inquiry and upholding
democratic values in oppressive contexts (Hamamra and Gould, 2024).
Moreover, the psychological toll on students and educators has been profound,
particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. A study on university students in Gaza
revealed that academic stress was closely linked to fears surrounding the pandemic, with
self-esteem playing a crucial role in mitigating stress. Surprisingly, social support proved less
effective in this context, underscoring the unique challenges faced by students in politically
unstable and conflict-ridden environments (El Khodary et al.,2024). The pandemic also
introduced new challenges to online education, such as increased surveillance practices in
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universities. Faculty and students faced restricted freedoms in virtual spaces, with lectures
monitored and administrative protocols limiting critical engagement and innovation in
teaching practices (Hamamra et al., 2022). Furthermore, marginalized groups, such as
disabled students, encountered severe barriers during the pandemic, including inaccessible
learning materials and inadequate emergency planning. These limitations exacerbated
educational inequalities and psychological distress, particularly among students with
disabilities in besieged Gaza (Al-Masri and Serhan, 2024).
These examples illustrate the complex interplay between external pressures, institutional
governance and individual resilience. While Palestinian educational institutions have shown
remarkable adaptability, their capacity to innovate and foster critical thinking continues to be
undermined by systemic barriers due to the ongoing conflict. Addressing these challenges
through reforms that prioritize academic freedom, inclusivity and mental well-being is
essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability and advancement of education in
Palestine.
4. Educide in Gaza since October 2023
In tackling the systematic targeting and destruction of education, Professor Karma Nabulsi,
an Oxford don and Palestinian specialist on the laws of war, created the term “Scholasticide”
to address the deliberate targeting and systematic destruction of education. The phrase is a
combination of the Latin prefix“schola”, meaning school, and the Latin suffix“cide”, which
means murdering (Ali, 2024;Desai, 2024;The Guardian, 2009). There is a close association
between genocide and scholasticide, both of which are highly relevant to understanding the
ongoing challenges faced by the education system in Gaza (Scholars Against the War on
Palestine, 2023). Scholars Against the War in Palestine have documented 18 systematic
actions targeting education in Gaza, including killings, detentions and harassment of
educators and students; the destruction and looting of educational infrastructure and
resources; and severe restrictions on access, rebuilding and international collaboration,
among others. These measures collectively cripple the education system, stripping students
and educators of their fundamental rights and undermining the future of education in the
region. Moreover, many of these violations have long been committed against educational
institutions and communities in the Occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem, with similar
challenges faced by Palestinian Israeli residents (Quneis and Rafidi, 2023;Shellah, 2024;
Tseng et al., 2022).
Numerous sources document devastating declines in Gaza’s education system, which is
characterized by huge human losses and systematic destruction of educational infrastructure,
revealing an Educide/scholasticide occurring in Gaza since October 2023. Satellite-derived
images confirm this mass destruction of educational infrastructure and provide further
evidence for turning schools in Gaza into military bases. According to recent estimates, over
12,000 students and more than 500 teachers and educational administrators were killed since
October 2023. It is recently reported that 85%–90% of schools sustained some level of
damage to their buildings, more than while 65% of school buildings have been either directly
hit or damaged (Gordon and Turner, 2024;McGahern, 2024;Occupied Palestinian Territory -
Education Cluster, 2024;OHCHR, 2024;ReliefWeb,2024a, 2024b;The New Arab, 2024).
At the higher education level, Israel destroyed every university in the Gaza Strip and
killed many professors and other staff members and leading Palestinian academics, such as
poet and literature professor Refaat Alareer and Sufian Al-Tayeh, a well-known physicist and
president of Islamic University, among many others. Al Azhar University was razed to the
ground in November 2023 by the Israeli army under the pretext that Hamas had operated
there. Israel bombed and destroyed Al-Israa University and the Islamic University of Gaza.
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Overall, 12 universities in Gaza have suffered complete destruction or significant damage
due to intensive Israeli airstrikes or artillery shelling (Albhaisi, 2024;Osman, 2024;
Whiteman, 2024). This has led to a complete and devastating annihilation of education in
Gaza, severely impacting its institutions, educators and students, and leaving long-lasting
scars on the educational landscape in this region (Al-mqadma et al.,2024;Jebril, 2024).
It should be noted that the damage and destruction of schools and higher education
institutions was not limited to buildings but also included related infrastructure and facilities,
such as squares, playgrounds, roads, green areas and sources of energy, water,
communications and sanitation. With the contents of those buildings and facilities, including
specialized devices, equipment, machines, and even chemicals, educational materials,
manuscripts, books and archives, it remains complicated to quantify the damage sustained in
quantity and quality due to the continuation of the aggression and its repercussions.
Therefore, an accurate measurement of the damage could be only performed when cease-fire
is imposed and when the war ends to be able to conduct detailed investigations that reflect
exact damages and losses (Faculty of Education University of Cambridge/Centre for
Lebanese Studies and UNRWA, 2024;ReliefWeb, 2024a).
Furthermore, the systematic aggression against Gaza has had catastrophic, long-lasting
effects on the scientific research sector. The destruction of higher education institutions,
research laboratories and infrastructure has disrupted research and hindered access to
essential resources. This has also limited participation of Palestinian researchers in
international projects, conferences and cultural exchanges, while deterring international
collaboration. In addition, training programs and graduation projects, particularly in health
and medical fields, have been severely impacted by the destruction and looting of training
facilities (ACAPS, 2024;Dader et al.,2024;McGahern, 2024;Sparks, 2024).
Based on the reviewed literature, the main impacts of Educide in Gaza can be
summarized as follows.
4.1 Short-term effects of Educide on the education system in Gaza
Educide has immediate and devastating impacts on higher education, intensifying existing
challenges and creating new barriers. In Gaza, academic programs are frequently disrupted
due to damaged infrastructure, the closure of universities and suspended classes, making it
nearly impossible for students and faculty to maintain regular academic activities. The
deliberate targeting of universities and the violence against educators and students lead to a
significant loss of human capital, depleting the intellectual resources necessary for education
and innovation.
Psychological trauma among the academic community further exacerbates the crisis, with
students and educators suffering from stress, anxiety and fear, impairing their ability to focus
and engage in learning. In addition, displacement caused by the conflict limits access to
education as displaced students and educators face resource shortages, unsafe conditions and
difficulty continuing their studies. Addressing these short-term effects requires immediate
actions to rebuild educational infrastructure and provide support to affected individuals.
4.2 Long-term effects of Educide on the education system in Gaza
In the long term, Educide fundamentally reshapes the educational landscape in Gaza, with
impacts persisting for years. Academic freedom is severely undermined by political
pressures and restrictions that stifle intellectual inquiry and critical discourse. The
destruction of educational infrastructure and the loss of skilled academics make rebuilding
efforts slow and resource-intensive, requiring significant investment to restore facilities and
support recovery.
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The economic consequences of Educide are far-reaching, weakening the competitiveness
and sustainability of higher education institutions while negatively affecting societal
development. Socially and culturally, the loss of education disrupts social cohesion and
threatens cultural continuity. Higher education institutions, which play a vital role in
preserving cultural heritage and fostering resilience, face immense challenges in rebuilding
their capacity. Addressing these long-term effects necessitates sustained investments in
human capital, infrastructure and initiatives that promote peace and reconciliation to ensure
the resilience and sustainability of higher education in Gaza.
5. Impact of the ongoing conflict in Gaza on achieving SDG 4
Wars and armed conflicts pose significant barriers to achieving SDG 4, which aims to ensure
inclusive and equitable quality education for all. In Gaza, repetitive conflicts and blockades
since 2007, exacerbated by the recent escalation in October 2023, have severely disruptedthe
education sector. Children have been deprived of their right to education, with schools
frequently damaged or closeddue to violence, making it increasingly challenging to maintain
safe and accessible learning environments (Abusamra et al., 2023;Faculty of Education
University of Cambridge/Centre for Lebanese Studies and UNRWA, 2024).
Beyond school closures and destruction, the ongoing conflict has profound effects on
learning and development of children. The stress and trauma of war hinder cognitive growth,
causing children to fall behind in academic skills and critical thinking abilities (Abudayya
et al., 2023;Malaguti, 2023). Constant exposure to violence and instability leads to
emotional and psychological disorders, including anxiety and depression, which impair the
ability of children to focus, regulate emotions and engage effectively in their education.
These challenges often result in long-term mental health issues, further compounding the
barriers to learning. As the conflict persists, access to essential resources such as health care,
nutrition and education becomes increasingly limited, amplifying developmental delays and
widening educational inequities (Bürgin et al., 2022;Malaguti, 2023).
The current situation in Gaza is a direct impediment to achieving SDG 4, as the
destruction of schools and educational infrastructure, coupled with ongoing violence, denies
children and youth the opportunity to learn and develop. Inclusive and equitable education is
a fundamental pillar of SDG 4, yet the displacement of families and the conversion of
schools into shelters have created unsafe and overcrowded learning environments. Teachers
face insurmountable challenges, including limited access to teaching resources, power
outages and restricted mobility, which hinder their ability to deliver quality education.
Addressing these challenges requires urgent international intervention to rebuild
infrastructure, restore access to education and prioritize mental health and psychosocial
support for students and teachers. Without immediate efforts to stabilize and support the
education system in Gaza, achieving SDG 4 will remain an unattainable goal for an entire
generation of Palestinian children.
6. International efforts to protect educational facilities
International agreements like the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child affirm
education as a fundamental right for all countries. The necessity of free primary education is
emphasized by this treaty, especially Article 28, which also promotes the extension of
education to the secondary school level (UNICEF, 1989). Education is fundamental to
raising awareness and equipping young people to face future challenges, but this right is
often endangered in regions plagued by violence and armed conflict. Especially schools,
which are vital places for education, are unluckily targeted in these kinds of confrontations,
which leads to fatalities, serious injuries and significant damage to educational infrastructure.
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Attacks on educational facilities have become more common in recent years; 17% increase
over the previous year, which indicates an alarming trend worldwide (Human Rights Watch,
2023).
For example, in Syria since the arrival in power of Hafez al-Assad in 1970 and then his
son Bashar al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian regime has employed education as a weapon under
the pretext of patriotism and strengthening the state. Moreover, since the start of the Syrian
revolution in 2011, education has suffered enormous losses due to the Syrian regime and
Russian military airstrikes (Al Sakbani and Beaujouan, 2024). Similar weaponization of
education and destruction of educational infrastructure have been reported in other armed
conflicted such as in Ethiopia (Jones et al., 2022) and Iraq (Hassoun, 2023).
Recognizing that children are entitled to special protection under international
humanitarian law (IHL), the international community has expressed deep concern over the
militarization of schools. Resolutions from the United Nations Security Council, which
denounce attacks on schools and stress the significance of maintaining the civilian nature of
educational establishments, have given impetus efforts to safeguard schools during armed
conflict. IHL regulates the protection of educational facilities during armed conflict with the
goal of reducing the devastation and suffering brought about by war. IHL mandates that
people and civilian property be protected from the dangers posed by military operations. The
principle of distinction requires that fighters and civilians, as well as civilian objects and
military targets, be clearly distinguished from one another.
Therefore, many resolutions stress the protection of students, schools, universities and
other educational facilities during armed conflicts. The first resolution to address school
attacks was Resolution 1998 in 2011, which urged parties involved in armed conflicts to
desist from exploiting schools for military reasons (United Nations Security Council, 2011).
Resolutions 2143 (2014) and 2225 (2015) have reaffirmed the necessity of shielding schools
and connected workplaces from violence (Alburai, 2023). The UN Special Representative
for Children and Armed Conflict’s Leila Zerrougui launched a “Guidance note”offering
helpful guidelines for putting these resolutions into practice and improving both individual
and school safety (Zerrougui, 2014). More recently, the UN Security Council unanimously
adopted resolution 2601, calling on all relevant parties involved in armed conflicts to take
special measures to protect children and to ensure equal access to education, safeguard of
right to education and ensure the security of schools (United Nations Security Council,
2021). Unfortunately, despite these resolutions, the deliberate targeting of schools and other
educational facilities persists in Gaza, undermining global efforts to achieve the protection
and security of education in conflict zones.
7. Mitigation measures and recommendations for education recovery
The destruction of the education system in Gaza has disrupted generations of learners,
eroded access to formal education and violated IHL designed to protect education in conflict
zones. Immediate efforts must prioritize halting further damage and addressing the
significant financial, political and logistical challenges of reconstruction (Milton et al.,
2024). A robust education recovery plan for Gaza should prioritize safeguarding primary and
higher education through innovative and targeted strategies. This includes a comprehensive
assessment of the full impact of attacks on schools and universities, encompassing
infrastructure destruction, psychological trauma and disrupted learning. Beyond traditional
approaches, it is crucial to think outside the box by incorporating non-formal education
methods, such as community-based learning programs and digital platforms, to ensure
continuity during the recovery process. Emergency funding and the establishment of
alternative learning sites, including safe spaces for informal education, can play a pivotal role
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in mitigating these effects and addressing the immediate educational needs of students and
educators (Faculty of Education University of Cambridge/Centre for Lebanese Studies and
UNRWA, 2024;Scott and Jarrad, 2023;UNISCO/UNICEF, 2015).
The international community must play a central role in addressing the ongoing
educational crisis in Gaza by enforcing accountability mechanisms for attacks on schools
and ensuring robust legal protections for educational institutions. Partnerships with global
organizations, NGOs and academic institutions are crucial to mobilizing resources,
rebuilding educational infrastructure and establishing sustainable systems that support
education. These partnerships can significantly enrich academic programs through
knowledge exchange and foster mobility opportunities for Palestinian students and
educators. Moreover, leveraging international scholarships can play a pivotal role in
fostering academic recovery in Gaza, as such programs have been shown to not only provide
immediate educational opportunities but also contribute to rebuilding academic capacities
and fostering long-term peacebuilding efforts in conflict-affected regions (Almassri,2024a,
2024b).
Long-term recovery must address the severe psychosocial impacts of conflict through
redesigned educational programs that integrate mental health support and peacebuilding
initiatives. By fostering intercultural dialogue and incorporating reconciliation activities into
the curriculum, schools and universities can promote stability and mutual respect.
Professional development for educators and administrators should also be prioritized to
improve teaching quality, enhance governance and ensure the efficiency of academic
institutions.
These efforts, combining immediate interventions with sustainable strategies, are
essential to rebuilding an inclusive, resilient education system in Gaza and ensuring progress
toward long-term stability and development in the region.
8. Conclusion
The devastating effects of the ongoing unprecedented conflict on schools and the higher
education sector in Gaza have been profound, dramatically impacting institutions, educators
and students. In the short term, this Educide has resulted in severe physical destruction,
disrupted programs, widespread trauma and a significant loss of intellectual capital. In the
long term, the consequences include a weakened educational system, limited access to
quality education, reduced opportunities for social and economic advancement and a society
fractured by trauma and displacement.
Addressing this crisis requires a coordinated and actionable recovery strategy supported
by local and international stakeholders. Key steps include rebuilding damaged infrastructure,
providing emergency funding and ensuring access to safe learning environments.
International organizations and governments must enforce accountability for attacks on
educational facilities while offering financial aid and resources to restore the Palestinian
education system. Long-term recovery efforts should include the integration of mental health
and psychosocial support programs into educational curricula to address the deep
psychological scars caused by the conflict.
In addition, fostering partnerships with global institutions can enrich academic programs,
promote knowledge exchange and provide mobility opportunities for students and educators.
Community engagement is essential, as local input ensures that recovery plans are
contextually appropriate and address the needs of those most affected. Nonformal education
initiatives and innovative approaches, such as digital learning platforms and alternative
education sites, should also be explored to maintain education continuity during ongoing
instability.
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93
Further research is needed to explore long-term educational recovery strategies in post-
conflict settings, particularly focusing on the psychological and social impacts of “Educide”
on affected populations. Comparative studies on educational resilience in similar conflict-
affected regions could provide valuable insights, such as evaluations of the effectiveness of
international policies and interventions designed to protect and restore education. These
investigations would not only enrich the understanding of recovery processes but also inform
evidence-based strategies to build more resilient education systems in Gaza and beyond.
Finally, this is a call to action for all stakeholders, including policymakers and the
international community to collaborate and commit to rebuilding the education system in
Gaza as a cornerstone of sustainable development, peace and prosperity in the region. The
challenges are significant, but through collective determination and innovative thinking, the
potential for positive change and impact is immense. By working together with empathy,
resilience and a shared commitment, it is possible to create a brighter future for the students,
educators and all people of Gaza, ensuring education becomes a powerful catalyst for healing
and progress in the aftermath of conflict.
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Corresponding author
Dalal Iriqat can be contacted at: dalal.s.iriqat@aaup.edu
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