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Teacher Education in the Age of Digitality: Conclusions From a Design-Based Research Project

January 2025
European Journal of Education 60(1):e12904

DOI:10.1111/ejed.12904

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CC BY 4.0

Authors:

Angelika Bernsteiner

University of Graz

Claudia Haagen-Schützenhöfer

University of Graz

Thomas Schubatzky

University of Innsbruck

In response to the essential need for digital competences in education, a 3-year Design-Based Research project was conducted to prepare pre-service mathematics and science teachers for the demands of teaching in the digital age. Over three design cycles, an evidence-based course design for teaching and learning with and about digital media was developed. The interactions of 37 pre-service teachers with the course design were examined using a mixed-methods approach. Acceptance surveys, pre-, mid-, post-surveys and reflection journals informed iterative phases of refinement. This article presents global project findings and derives contributions to context-specific theories about teaching and learning with and about digital media. From this, key implications for higher (teacher) education are discussed, such as the use of scaffolds and teaching vignettes to promote self-efficacy expectations for implementing digital data acquisition and the use of the SAMR model as a scaffold for planning digitally transformed lessons.

| Structure of the course design of 'Facts, Fakes and Algorithms'.

…

Figures - uploaded by Angelika Bernsteiner

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Content uploaded by Angelika Bernsteiner

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European Journal of Education, 2025; 60:e12904

https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12904

European Journal of Education

SPECIAL ISSUE Reinventing University: Digital Challenge in Higher Education

ORIGINAL ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

Teacher Education in the Age of Digitality: Conclusions

From a Design- Based Research Project

AngelikaBernsteiner1 | ClaudiaHaagen- Schützenhöfer1 | ThomasSchubatzky2

1Department of Physics Education Research, Institute of Physics, University of Graz, Graz, Austria | 2Department of Subject- Specific Education and

Institute for E xperimental Physics, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria

Correspondence: Angelika Bernsteiner (angelika.bernsteiner@uni-graz.at)

Received: 1 July 2024 | Revised: 4 December 2024 | Accepted: 17 December 2024

Funding: The authors received no specif ic funding for this work.

ABSTRACT

In response to the essential need for digital competences in education, a 3- year Design- Based Research project was conducted to

prepare pre- service mathematics and science teachers for the demands of teaching in the digital age. Over three design cycles, an

evidence- based course design for teaching and learning with and about digital media was developed. The interactions of 37 pre-

service teachers with the course design were examined using a mixed- methods approach. Acceptance surveys, pre- , mid- , post-

surveys and reflection journals informed iterative phases of refinement. This article presents global project findings and derives

contributions to context- specific theories about teaching and learning with and about digital media. From this, key implications

for higher (teacher) education are discussed, such as the use of scaffolds and teaching vignettes to promote self- efficacy expecta-

tions for implementing digital data acquisition and the use of the SAMR model as a scaffold for planning digitally transformed

lessons.

1 | Introduction

Digital tools have become an integral part of our personal and

professional lives. Their widespread integration across different

sectors, coupled with the ongoing digitalisation of processes, is

driving a significant change in society known as digital trans-

formation (Vial 2019). This transformation offers a range of

opportunities, from increased opportunities for social and po-

litical engagement for everybody to streamlined communi-

cation. However, it also presents challenges, such as the fast

spread of disinformation through digital channels that under-

mines trust in science and democracy (German NGO Forum on

Environment and Development2019).

To effectively navigate this new digital landscape, individuals

need digital competences (Vuorkari, Kluzer, and Punie 2022).

Therefore, the digital transformation of society requires

the promotion of digital competences at all educational lev-

els—from primary to higher education (Goulart, Liboni, and

Cezar ino 2022; Irion, Peschel, and Schmeinck 2023; Thyssen

etal.2023). Teacher education can empower cert ain parts of soci-

ety, namely (pre- service) teachers and their students, to actively

engage in our dig ital world. Thus, it is crucial in tea cher education

to promote digital competences at two distinct but interrelated

levels: First, to improve the digital competences of pre- service

teachers (PST) themselves, and second, to equip PSTs with the

necessary skills to effectively foster digital competences among

their students. This dual focus not only prepares PSTs for the

demands of a digital society but also ensures that they are able

to foster digital competences in the next generation of learners

(Brinda etal.2019; Ir ion, Peschel, and Schmeinck2023; Thyssen

etal. 2023). However, there are still gaps in many teacher edu-

cation programs in preparing PSTs to integrate learning oppor-

tunities that foster students' digital competences (OECD2019).

This is a n open access ar ticle under the terms of t he Creative Commons Attr ibution License, which p ermits use, dis tribution and repro duction in any medium, p rovided the orig inal work is

properly cited.

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Research shows that PSTs often feel ill- equipped to teach with

and about digital media and rate their digital competences as

low (Ambros, Dolezal, and Motschnig2022).

Recognising this gap, we aimed to address it in a 3- year proj-

ect at the University of Graz. The project, which ran from 2021

to 2024, had two development and research objectives: First, to

iteratively develop a course design that prepares PSTs of mathe-

matics and science subjects for teaching in our digitalised soci-

ety, and second, to investigate PSTs' learning processes within

this course.

This article focuses on the latter and presents the global project

findings and their implications for higher (teacher) educational

practices in our digitalised society (Stalder 2018). Although

we have previously shared some of the outcomes from various

project phases and focal points in papers and in a German-

language PhD- thesis (Bernsteiner 2023), this article seeks to

contextualise these outcomes within the broader context of de-

veloping digital competences in teacher education. Our goal is

to contribute to context- specific theories such as ‘domain the-

ories’ (Edelson2002) on teaching and learning with and about

digital media in teacher education, in other words, to broaden

and deepen the existing literature base (analytic generalisations

according to Firestone1993).

2 | Design- Based Research: A Paradigm for

Research and Development

Our project utilised the Design- Based Research (DBR) para-

digm, a benefit- oriented approach that aims at developing in-

tervention designs to address practical (educational) problems,

while advancing theoretical knowledge within the problem con-

text (The Design- Based Research Collective 2003; McKenney

etal.2012). DBR thus links research and development, bridging

theory and design (The Design- Based Research Collective2003;

Haagen- Schützenhöfer and Hopf 2020; McKenney etal. 2012;

Obczovsky et al. 2024). In DBR projects, intervention designs

are developed guided by desig n conjectures—assumptions about

learning that are grounded in empirical and theoretical insights.

These conjectures are translated into intervention components

through design criteria (Obczovsky etal.2024; Sandoval2014).

Our project addressed the practical educational problem of

limited learning opportunities to develop digital competences

in teacher education (Ambros, Dolezal, and Motschnig 2022;

OECD 2019). Across three design cycles (winter 2021/2022,

summer 2022, winter 2022/2023), we developed and refined a

course design for mathematics and science teacher education,

examining the learning processes of PSTs. Section3 details the

design conjectures and design criteria underlying our approach.

In DBR, each design cycle serves to r efine design c onjectures and

design criteria, advancing theoretical knowledge (Edelson2002;

The Design- Based Research Collective 2003; Haagen-

Schützenhöfer, Obczovsky, and Kislinger 2024; Obczovsky

etal.2024). This article summarises our findings from each de-

sign cycle, synthesising them into global project findings that

contribute to context- specific theories on teaching and learning

with and about digital media (in teacher education).

3 | Development of the Course ‘Facts, Fakes and

Algorithms’

As initial educational problem of our DBR project, we identified

the inadequate preparation of PSTs for teaching i n the digital age

(Ambros, Dolezal, and Motschnig 2022; OECD2019): Locally,

at our university site, lecturers observed that PSTs have diffi-

culties in using digital media in various courses and PSTs ex-

pressed that teaching with digital media is challenging for them.

However, evidence shows that it is crucial to support PSTs in

using digital media and planning lessons with and about digital

media to prepare them to enable their students to participate in

our digitalised society (Drossel and Eickelmann2018; Lorenz,

Heldt, and Eickelmann 2022). Consequently, we pursued the

goal of crafting a course design for the mathematics and science

teacher education programs of our university. In DBR, develop-

ment is typically based on a detailed problem analysis, to narrow

down the complex initial problem for the given local context. To

evaluate the presumed initial educational problem in detail for

the local context of our university, we analysed curricula and

conducted surveys involving university lecturers and PSTs to

map offered and perceived learning opportunities (Bernsteiner,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal.2023; Mandl et al. 2022). This en-

abled us to identify those aspects of digital media that are most

relevant to the PSTs at our university site. This is because there

are many aspects of digital media that could be addressed in a

course for PSTs, but not all of them can be covered in just one

course. The results of this research, combined with the results

of a comprehensive literature review, informed the learning ob-

jectives and course design (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer

et al. 2023). For example, the results of our problem analysis

show that the majority of PSTs state having no experience with

tools for digital data acquisition and with sensors (Bernsteiner,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer et al. 2023). However, working with

such tools is anchored in the Austrian school curriculum

(BMBWF 2024) and in digital competence models for pre-

service science teachers (Thoms et al.2022). This discrepancy

became apparent through the problem analysis and led us to in-

clude the work with sensors and microcontrollers in the course.

3.1 | Learning Objectives of the Course

From the results of the problem analysis and the analysis of dif-

ferent competence models (Brinda etal.2019; Thoms etal.2022;

Thyssen et al.2023), we deduced that the course should cover

several key areas: Learning arrangements to prepare PSTs for (I)

the digitally transformed use of digital media (modification and

redefinition; Puentedura 2006) in the classroom, especially of

microcontrollers and sensors; (II) teaching and learning about

digital media; (III) understanding digitality (Stalder2018) and

digital transformation. To achieve this, we defined the learning

objectives (LO) for the course presented in Table1 (Bernsteiner,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal.2023).

3.2 | Design Conjectures and Design Criteria

Starti ng with these learnin g objectives, we developed the specif ic

course design based on theoretically and empirically grounded

design conjectures and criteria. After each design cycle, we

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refined, adapted and extended the initial design conjectures

and criteria based on the research results of these design cycles.

Tables2–4 show the final set of design conjectures and criteria

and indicate adaptations made in response to research results

across the three design cycles.

What sets the course design apart is its foundation on general

teaching- learning theories and digitality- related theories, as

well as empirical findings from various disciplines. These in-

clude, among others, the cognitive theor y of multimedia learn-

ing (Mayer 2009), the ‘Synthesize Qualitative Data Model’

from professionalisation research (Tondeur et al. 2012), the

psychological approach of inoculation (McGuire 1961) and

empirical findings in the context of using Arduino (Chung

and Lou2021).

3.3 | Design of the Course ‘Facts, Fakes

and Algorithms’

The course design, developed according to the presented design

criteria, wa s offered as a free elective for PS Ts of biology, chemistry,

mathematics and physics. This interdisciplinary course consisted

of 11 2- h units divided into two main parts and was framed by

the challenges of the COVID- 19 pandemic (Bernsteiner, Haagen-

Schützenhöfer et al. 2023; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, et al. 2023;

Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, Haagen- Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024;

Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024). What is special about

our course design is that it addresses many different facets of digi-

tal media, as well as teaching and learning with digital media and

teaching and learning about digital media. Figure1 illustrates the

embodiment of the design criteria and learning objectives in form

of the course design. It also provides information on the timing

and type of data collection for formative evaluation, such as sur-

veys and reflection journal entries (see Section5).

4 | General Research Questions

By developing a theoretically and empirically grounded course

design, we aimed to contribute to the preparation of PSTs for

teaching in the digital age. To draw conclusions about the ex-

tent to which the course design could actually contribute to this,

we investigated the interaction of PSTs with the course design.

The distinctiveness of our course lies in its strong interdisci-

plinary theoretical foundations, as detailed in Section3.2, and

its comprehensive treatment of digital media as presented in

Section3.3. Moreover, it stands out in the breadth of its associ-

ated general research questions, which address the professional

development of PSTs in the context of the digital age from mul-

tiple angles. Our inquiry extended beyond PSTs' digital compe-

tences to include their attitudes towards technology. Here, too,

TABLE  | Learning objectives of the course (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal.2023).

Learning objectives concerning pre- ser vice teachers' digital competences

The pre- service teachers can…

LO.1 implement physical computing using Arduino.

LO.2 explain computational thinking as a specific type of problem- solving skill.

LO.3 use the structure and functionality of an Arduino board and its software.

LO.4 carry out mathematical and scientific investigations using software (Arduino development environment).

LO.5 analyse results of mathematical and scientific investigations using digital media (e.g., Excel).

LO.6 present results of mathematical and scientific investigations in a targeted way using digital media.

LO.7 explain the concept of a culture of digitality (Stalder2018).

LO.8 explain how algorithms work.

LO.9 reflect on the impact of algorithms on society.

LO.10 evaluate the credibility of information.

LO.11 recognise disinformation and strategies used to spread it.

LO.12 refute disinformation with scientifically sound arguments.

Learning objectives concerning pre- ser vice teachers' competences, to promote digital competences of students

The pre- service teachers can…

LO.13 reflect on the opportunities and challenges of using Arduino

microcontrollers in mathematics and science lessons.

LO.14 describe strategies for teaching the responsible use of information,

including strategies for recognising disinformation.

LO.15 describe options for embedding aspects of digitality in mathematics and science lessons.

LO.16 plan the use of digital media to digitally transform lessons.

4 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

we drew on var ious models and examined b oth attitudes toward s

the expected utility of digital media (cf. Technology acceptance

model; Davis1989) and attitudes towards self- efficacy in using

digital media (cf. Theory of planned behaviour; Fishbein and

Ajzen2010).

The four general research questions of our project are pre-

sented below.

In the digital age, broad digital competences such as tech-

nological knowledge (TK), technological content knowledge

(TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and tech-

nological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) (Mishra and

Koehler 2006) are essential for teachers as these competences

can enhance the quality of digital media use in the classroom

(von Kotzebue2022). Teachers with high self- rated digital com-

petences are more likely to incorporate digital media into their

TABLE  | Final set of design conjectures of the course.

Design conjecture

Original design conjectures A Design decisions are based on empirical and theoretical

justifications (Haagen- Schützenhöfer and Hopf2020).

B PSTs create an individual, personal construct of meanings and connections with

aspects of their lives for the respective learning content (Widodo and Duit2004).

C Digital competence models and frameworks form the normative

framework for digital competence objectives of prospective teachers.

D The Synthesize Qualitative Data (SQD) model by Tondeur etal.(2012) provides

guidelines for integrating digital media and technologies into teacher training

in a targeted and learning- promoting manner (Weiler etal.2021).

E Flipped- classroom- settings prove effective for learning when designed

carefully and in line with leaners' needs and they can serve to differentiate

tasks for heterogeneous groups of learners (Kim etal.2014; Oppl2018).

F PSTs' working memory has limited capacity. As this facilitates learning new content,

it is important to minimise the effort of the working memory (Mayer2009).

G Teacher education in the age of digitality includes training in teaching and learning

with and about digital media as well as teaching and learning about digital

transformation processes and digitality (Irion, Peschel, and Schmeinck2023).

H Stalder's(2018) concept of digitality provides a good structure

for designing a course in the context of digitality.

I Working with Arduino promotes an understanding of what

algorithms are (Chung and Lou2021; El- Abd2017).

J Active inoculation and logic- based debunking aim to promote a critical approach

to (dis)information and the development of a disinformation resistance (Cook,

Lewandowsky, and Ecker2017; Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook2017; McGuire1961).

Adaptions in design- cycle 2 K Using the Substitution- Augmentation- Modification- Redefinition

(SAMR) model (Puentedura2006) following the approach of Blundell,

Mukherjee, and Nykvist(2022) helps PSTs to understand and plan

digitally transformed lessons (Boonmoh and Kulavichian2023).

L Scaffolds support PSTs in inquiry- based learning with

Arduino (Arnold, Kremer, and Mayer2017).

M Teaching vignettes offer a simulation of classroom reality and encourage reflection

on teaching- learning actions in classroom situations (Skilling and Stylianides2020).

Adaptions in design- cycle 3 N Alongside the consideration of cognitive aspects, teacher training for planning and

implementing digitally transformed teaching also requires working with attitudes

and beliefs related to digitally transformed teaching (Backfisch etal.2021).

O In order to prepare PSTs for the implementation of inquiry- based learning

(Blanchard etal.2010), they need to become familiar with this didactic

concept on three levels (Rosa2013): (1) implementation of inquiry- based

learning from the learner's perspective, (2) learning about inquiry- based

learning and (3) reflection on inquiry- based learning in the classroom.

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TABLE  | Final set of design criteria of the course—part 1.

Design criterion

Underlying

design

conjec ture(s)

Original

design

criteria

1 Theoretical foundations and empirical findings on learning and teaching with

and about digital media and about digitality are used as a solid basis to make

systematic design decisions for the development of single learning arrangements.

2 Due to the framing of the course by the challenges of the COVID- 19 pandemic,

PSTs are presented with problems that are important to them.

3 PSTs are explicitly offered opportunities to interact with fellow

students and lecturers in both digital and analog formats.

B, D

4 Digital opportunities for independent learning and self- reflection

are created for PSTs and specifically supported by lecturers.

B, D

5 The “Digitality- Related Pedagogical and Content Knowledge” (DPaCK)

model (Thyssen etal.2023) is used as a normative basis for preparing PSTs

of mathematics and science subjects for teaching in the age of digitality.

6 Theoretical instruction on digital media content is linked to practical work with digital

media so that what has been learnt in theory can be practised in a timely manner.

7 Alternative strategies are used to assess performance. The

PSTs are given continuous feedback by the lecturers.

8 The design of the single learning arrangements of the digital learning arrangement

for the self- learning phase of the flipped- classroom- setting follows the framework

of Kwan Lo and Foon Hew(2017) and the criteria of Kim etal.(2014).

9 In the digital learning arrangement, information that is not essential for

processing is avoided. This follows the coherence principle (Mayer2009).

10 Following the multimedia principle (Mayer2009), information in the digital

learning arrangement is offered in various, independent formats.

11 According to the principle of segmentation (Mayer2009), efforts are made to focus

the attention of the PSTs on only one specific topic at a time during their work

in the digital learning arrangement and when they use Arduino in general.

12 PSTs are offered opportunities to learn with digital media and to learn

how to use digital media for teaching and learning in the classroom.

13 PSTs are offered opportunities to learn about digital media and to

learn how to use them as a learning object in the classroom.

14 PSTs deal with Stalder's(2018) concept of digitality. G

15 PSTs are offered opportunities to engage with various digital tools for communication,

collaboration and design to enhance their understanding that they can participate

in shaping the culture of digitality in terms of community (Stalder2018).

16 To promote understanding of the aspect of algorithmicity (Stalder2018),

PSTs are offered learning opportunities to work with Arduino and

Arduino- compatible sensors, as well as complementary discussions on

the opportunities and challenges associated with algorithms.

17 To promote understanding of the aspect of referentiality (Stalder2018), PSTs are offered

opportunities to deal with disinformation circulating in digital and analog media.

18 PSTs learn about techniques of science denial (Cook, Lewandowsky,

and Ecker2017) and use these techniques in terms of active inoculation

to create disinformation and to debunk disinformation.

(Continues)

6 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

teaching practices (Lorenz, Heldt, and Eickelmann2022). The

technology- related competences anchored in the TPACK model

only cover part of the competences required for teaching in the

age of digitality (Thyssen etal. 2023). For example, the digital

age is characterised by an enormous f lood and density of par-

tially unfiltered information and offers new opportunities and

practices for communication (Stalder 2018). These new prac-

tices and opportunities, along with the associated opportunities

and challenges, require competences that go beyond TPACK,

for example, competences in dealing with new communication

possibilities and the challenge of disinformation (Thyssen

etal.2023).

Therefore, we pursued the following research questions, both

relating to digital competences of PSTs:

RQ1. To what extent does the course design, developed

according to the design criteria, affect PSTs' digital

competences?

Design criterion

Underlying

design

conjec ture(s)

Adaptions

in design-

cycle 1

19 The content of the course is based on PSTs' prior knowledge and attitudes towards

the use of digital media as identified in the preliminary surveys. Before working with

various digital media, the PSTs are given information and operating instructions.

20 Working with Arduino is implemented using the flipped

classroom setting to differentiate tasks for the heterogeneous

group of PSTs with regard to their prior knowledge.

TABLE  | (Continued)

TABLE  | Final set of design criteria of the course—part 2 .

Design criterion

Underlying design

conjec ture(s)

Adaptions in

design- cycle 2

21 A handout, step- by- step explanations and sample solutions are provided

for working in the flipped- classroom- setting to differentiate tasks for

the heterogeneous group of PSTs with regard to their prior knowledge.

22 PSTs use the SAMR model (Puentedura2006) several times

as a scaffold for planning the implementation of digital media

in the classroom. For this, the SAMR model is condensed into

two levels (level 1, enhancement: substitution & augmentation

and level 2, transformation: modification & redefinition).

23 Depending to the PSTs' self- assessment of their prior programming

knowledge, the PSTs are either supported by peer tutoring in

the implementation of physical computing with Arduino or

take on a supporting role in the context of peer tutoring.

24 Frequently asked questions (FAQs) are integrated into the

digital learning arrangement as a macro- scaffold to support

PSTs in inquiry- based learning with Arduino.

25 Step- by- step instructions are integrated into the digital learning

arrangement as a macro scaffold to support PSTs in acquiring

basic knowledge of digital data acquisition with Arduino.

26 All program codes for working with Arduino are made available

to the PSTs so that they do not have to program themselves,

but can make adjustments to the code if necessary.

27 To reflect on teaching- learning processes in the context of digital

data acquisition with Arduino, teaching vignettes based on Skilling

and Stylianides(2020) are developed and used in the course.

Adaption in

design- cycle 3

28 In preparation for the implementation of inquiry- based learning with

Arduino, PSTs are offered learning opportunities to learn about the

didactic concept of inquiry- based learning (Blanchard etal.2010).

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a. To what extent does the course design, developed accord-

ing to the design criteria, affect PSTs' assessment of their

TK, TCK, TPK and TPACK?

b. To what extent does the course design, developed accord-

ing to the design criteria, affect PSTs' competence in deal-

ing with digital (dis)information?

Teaching in the digital age requires teachers to plan and im-

plement the use of digital media in a didactically sound way. It

is crucial for teachers to understand that digital media can not

only replace analogue media, but can also digitally transform

teaching, re sulting in positive changes i n teaching and learni ng

processes. Digital transformation occurs when digital media

are used for modification or redefinition (Puentedura2006),

that is, to positively change teaching- learning processes for

better student outcomes (Kramer etal. 2019; Stinken- Rösner

etal.2023).

However, teachers and PSTs predominantly use digital

media for substitution or augmentation (Boonmoh and

Kulavichian 2023; Budiman, Rahmawati, and Ulfa 2018;

Kramer et al. 2019; Puentedura 2006; Stinken- Rösner

etal. 2023). Given this context, we pursued the following re-

search question:

RQ2. To what extent does the course design,

developed according to design criteria, influence

PSTs' understanding of digitally transformed

teaching?

In addition to digital competences, self- efficacy expecta-

tion (Bandura 1986) inf luences motivation (Ertmer and

Ottenbreit- Leftwich2010; Fishbein and Ajzen2010; Vogelsang

etal.2019) and the quality of digital media use in the class-

room (Yotyodying and Lorenz 2023) Therefore, self- efficacy

expectation is an important construct to address in teacher

education. In this context, we pursued the following research

question:

RQ3. To what extent does the course design,

developed according to the design criteria, affect

PSTs' self- efficacy expectations regarding the

aspects of digital media addressed by the course

design?

Other motivational and attitudinal factors, such as the ex-

pected utility value of digital media, also influence whether

teachers integrate digital media into their teaching (Backfisch

FIGUR E  | Structure of the course design of ‘Facts, Fakes and Algorithms’.

8 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

etal. 2021; Davis 1989; Ertmer and Ottenbreit- Leftwich 2010;

von Kotzebue2022). To this end, we pursued the following re-

search question:

RQ4. To what extent does the cours e design, developed

according to design criteria, affect the benefits of

digital media as anticipated by PSTs?

5 | Research Design

This project achieved outcomes at two different levels, namely

(1) the level of the individual design cycles and (2) the level of

interpretation of the results of these design cycles.

5.1 | Mixed- Methods Studies Along Three

Design- Cycles

In order to conduct a comprehensive, formative evaluation of the

course design , we used a mixed methods approach (Bry man2006).

In the first design cycle, we implemented a specific segment of

the course design—the digital learning arrangement for the self-

learning phase using Arduino—in a micro- setting with N = 7

PSTs. The learning processes were evaluated by means of accep-

tance surveys (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal. 2023;

Jung1992).

In design cycles 2 and 3, the entire course design was imple-

mented with N = 17 and N = 13 PSTs respectively. For forma-

tive evaluation, we administered pre- , mid- and post- surveys

that included both closed and open- ended questions. Table5

outlines the constructs examined in the surveys. Additionally,

PSTs kept digital reflection journals throughout the course,

with specific prompts to reflect on the course content and their

learning processes. Lecturers' observations provided deeper

insights into ongoing processes. Personal codes were used to

merge data from surveys and ref lection journals for each PST.

Figure1 illustrates the survey instruments integrated into the

course design.

5.2 | Interpretation From a Global Project

Perspective

Each design cycle produced subresults that addressed the gen-

eral research questions of the project. These subresults relate

to a subsample of each design cycle. Tables 6–8 outline the

primary research foci, the main results and the implication

for the refinement of the course design for each of the three

design cycles.

In order to contribute to context- specific theories, we zoomed

out our focus on the individual design cycles and adopted an

overarching view: the global project perspective. From this per-

spective, we have interpreted the main results from the three

design cycles (Tables6–8) and summarised them as global proj-

ect findings along the four general research questions in the fol-

lowing areas:

5.2.1 | Area A: Digital Competences of PSTs

This area includes global project findings about digital compe-

tences of PSTs (general research question 1), distinguishing be-

tween their previous experience, their self- assessment of digital

competences and their preparation for teaching and working

with Arduino.

5.2.2 | Area B: Grasping the Nature of Digitally

Transformed Teaching

This area summarises the global project findings of PSTs' under-

standing of digitally transformed teaching, regarding general re-

search question 2.

5.2.3 | Area C: Self- Efficacy Expectations of PSTs

Global project findings in this area relate to the third general

research question regarding PSTs' self- efficacy expectations for

using digital media and dealing with (dis)information.

5.2.4 | Area D: Expected Utility Value of Digital Media

This area summarises global project findings on the fourth

general research question, which relates to the expected utility

value of digital media by PSTs.

6 | Global Project Findings

The analysis of the main results from the individual design cy-

cles (Tables 6–8) resulted in 11 global project findings. In the

following sections, these findings are clustered in four areas.

6.1 | Area A: Digital Competences of PSTs

6.1.1 | Global Project Findings About

Previous Experience

Global project finding I: While teacher education

programs in mathematics and science often include

opportunities for learning with digital media,

preparation for teaching about digital media remains,

for the most part, insufficiently integrated.

Our curriculum analysis and surveys revealed that PSTs at our

university are provided with learning arrangements for learning

with digital tools, but learning about digital media is underrep-

resented (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal.2023; Mandl

etal.2022).

Global project finding II: Most mathematics and

science PSTs lack basic digital competences.

This project found that mathematics and science PSTs at our

university show a considerable heterogeneity in their prior

9 of 18

TABLE  | Content of the pre- , mid- and post- surveys. The items for the constructs listed were taken from the sources cited and slightly adapted to the content of the course.

Research question Construct PRE MID POST Example item

What prior knowledge regarding

aspects addressed by the course do

PSTs report?

Demographic data • Gender, age, enrolled studies (Bachelor/

Master), enrolled subjects, semester

Previous experience related to digital

media (Vogelsang etal.2019)

• During my teacher education, I used spreadsheet

programs (e.g., Excel) to work on tasks.

Relevant learning opportunities

within teacher education

• Open- ended question: Which relevant learning

opportunities in the course of your teacher

education program do you particularly remember

as positive regarding digital media?

Prior programming knowledge • Open- ended question: To what extend do

you have programming knowledge?

RQ3 Self- efficacy expectation: digital data

acquisition (Vogelsang etal.2019)

• • I am confident that I can conduct sensor-

based experiments in the classroom

RQ4 Expected utility value of using digital media

(van Braak, Tondeur, and Valcke2004)

• • • I believe that it is necessary to integrate

digital media into the classroom

RQ1 TPACK (Mishra and Koehler2006) self-

assessment (Stinken- Rösner2021)

• • • I can easily learn how to use digital media

RQ2 Understanding of digitality • • Open- ended question: The term digitality has

come up a lot in media recently. How would

you explain this term to your grandmother?

Understanding of digitally transformed teaching • • • Open- ended questions:

What competences do teachers need to be able

to design digitally transformed lessons?

RQ1- 4 Achievement of learning objectives • • By participating in the first part of the course, I

can implement physical computing with Arduino

What prior knowledge regarding

aspects addressed by the course do

PSTs report?

COVID- 19- knowledge (Schubatzky

and Haagen- Schützenhöfer2022)

• How do you rate your knowledge about COVID- 19?

RQ3 Self- efficacy expectation: recognising and

debunking disinformation (Schubatzky

and Haagen- Schützenhöfer2022)

• • I am always able to recognise COVID- 19- myths,

for example, on the internet or in social media,

even if they are expressed in scientific language

(Continues)

10 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

knowledge of digital media and often need support with digital

tools and applications such as Microsoft Excel. Lecturers ob-

served, and self- assessments confirmed, greater heterogeneity

in specialised applications, such as digital data acquisition, than

in general applications, such as spreadsheet use (Bernsteiner,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer et al. 2023; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky,

Spitzer, etal.2024).

Global project finding III: The implementation of

learning arrangements in a f lipped- classroom- setting

can be helpful in preparing PSTs with varying levels

of prior knowledge for using Arduino.

The flipped- classroom- setting used to introduce Arduino and

digital data acquisition (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer

et al. 2023) supported addressing the varying levels of prior

knowledge and experience of PSTs with digital media and pro-

gramming (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer et al. 2023).

During the self- learning phase, PSTs worked on Arduino and

digital data acquisition exercises, accessing learning videos and

instructions as needed. Preliminary surveys helped to tailor the

learning arrangements to PSTs' needs (Bernsteiner, Haagen-

Schützenhöfer etal.2023).

6.1.2 | Global Project Findings on Self- Assessment

of Digital Competences

Global project finding IV: Being overwhelmed when

working with A rduino can lead to low sel f- assessment

of TK among PSTs.

This project found that prior programming knowledge in-

fluenced PSTs' ability to work with Arduino and implement

digital data collection (Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, Haagen-

Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, Spitzer,

et al. 2024). Those with no prior programming knowledge

struggled despite the self- learning phase, felt overwhelmed and

subsequently rated their TK lower (Bernsteiner, Schubatzky,

Haagen- Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky,

Spitzer, etal.2024).

Global project finding V: Inquiry- based learning with

Arduino can improve PSTs' self- assessment of their

TCK.

This project showed that using inquiry- based learning (level 1

according to Blanchard etal.(2010)) with Arduino as part of the

course design increased PSTs' self- assessed TCK (Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Haagen- Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024; Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024).

6.1.3 | Global Project Findings About Preparing PSTs

for Working and Teaching With Arduino

Global project finding VI: Scaffolding can support

PSTs in inquiry- based learning with Arduino.

Research question Construct PRE MID POST Example item

RQ1 Debunking competence (Schubatzky

and Haagen- Schützenhöfer2022)

• • Open- ended question based on a debunking

task: Analyse the given two excerpts from

letters to the editor and name all statements

that, in your opinion, are not in line with the

scientific state of the art on COVID- 19

RQ1- 4 Retrospective of the course • Open- ended questions: Which learning

opportunities offered to you do you remember as

particularly positive and conducive to learning?

TABLE  | (Continued)

11 of 18

TABLE  | Sample, research foci, results and refinement of the course design: Design cycle 1 (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer etal.2023).

Design cycle 1

Sample Ntota l = 7

Nmale = 4; Nfemale = 3; Nbachelor = 4; Nmaster = 3

Research foci Digital learning arrangement as a basis for the flipped classroom setting of the course:

Identification of aspects within the digital learning arrangement for working with

Arduino that are conductive to learning and those that are incomprehensible

Main results • Some PSTs have difficulties using the (digital) devices provided (laptop, tablet, cable)

• Most PSTs need additional help to be able to work on the tasks in the digital learning arrangement

independently

• The majority of PSTs have difficulties transferring their theoretical knowledge into the practical

implementation of digital data acquisition

Implications for

refinement of the

course design

We strengthened design criterion 19 (Table3): Before working with various digital

media, the PSTs are given information and operating instructions.

The main results from design cycle 1 suggest that it would be too difficult for the PSTs to

complete all the tasks of the digital learning arrangement independently in preparation

for the course. For this reason, we added design criterion 20 (Table3). Parts of the digital

learning arrangement are implemented in the face- to- face phase of the course.

TABLE  | Sample, research foci, results and refinement of the course design: Design cycle 2 (Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, etal.2023; Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Haagen- Schützenhöfer, etal.2024; Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024).

Design cycle 2

Sample Ntota l = 17

Nmale = 10; Nfemale = 7; Nbachelor = 9; Nmaster = 8

Research foci Investigation of the influence of PSTs' interaction with the course design on their:

a. self- assessment of digital competences (RQ1)

b. self- efficacy expectation (RQ3)

c. expected utility value of using digital media (RQ4)

d. understanding of digitally transformed teaching (RQ2)

e. dealing with disinformation (RQ1)

Main results Self- assessment of digital competences & self- efficacy expectation

• Most PSTs with prior programming knowledge differ from those without in their statements about TK,

TCK and self- efficacy expectations.

• Most PSTs without prior programming knowledge rated their TCK lower after working with Arduino

and felt over whelmed.

• Most PSTs rated their TPK and TPACK higher after working with Arduino but felt they lacked

opportunities to shift from a learners' to a teachers' perspective.

• After working with Arduino, PSTs expressed high self- efficacy expectations for implementing digital

data acquisition in the classroom, though lecturer observations did not fully align with these statements.

Understanding of digitally transformed teaching

• Lecturer observations indicate that while PSTs have ideas for using digital media to replace analog

media, they lack practical ideas for enhancing teaching- learning processes with digital media in digitally

transformed teaching.

Results for research foci (c) and (d) were analysed together with data from design cycle 3.

Implications for

refinement of the

course design

We added design conjecture K (Table2) and design criterion 22 (Table4), which

refer to the SAMR model (Puentedura2006) as supporting tool for PSTs to

build an understanding for and to plan digitally transformed lessons.

We added design conjecture L (Table2) and design criteria 23, 24, 25 and 26 (Table4). They

relate to scaffolding activities to support the PSTs when working with Arduino.

We added design conjecture M (Table2) and design criterion 27 (Table4) related to the use

of teaching vignettes to create opportunities for PSTs to adopt teacher perspectives.

12 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

The implementation of the course design showed that PSTs

without prior programming knowledge need support es-

pecially in inquiry- based learning (Blanchard et al. 2010)

and digital data acquisition with Arduino (Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Haagen- Schützenhöfer, etal.2024; Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024). In the context of our course,

peer tutoring, the developed digital learning arrangement,

provided program codes and step- by- step instructions were

effective scaffolds. Lecturers gradually reduced scaffolding

and encouraged independent work. Reflection journals and

lecturer observations indicated that reducing scaffolds grad-

ually was beneficial for the learning processes of the PSTs

(Bernsteiner2023).

Global project finding VII: In order to prepare PSTs

to implement inquiry- based learning scenarios with

Arduino, it is important to be able to consider inquiry-

based lear ning from dif ferent perspectives, namely from

that of learners, teachers and from a meta- perspective.

TABL E  | Sa mple, research foci, res ults and refinement of the cours e design: Design c ycle 3 (Bernsteiner2023; Schubatzky etal.2023; Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024).

Design cycle 3

Sample Ntota l = 13

Nmale = 7; Nfemale = 6; Nbachelor = 13; Nmaster = 0

Research foci Investigation of the influence of PSTs' interaction with the course design on their:

a. self- assessment of digital competences (RQ1)

b. self- efficacy expectation (RQ3)

c. expected utility value of using digital media (RQ4)

d. understanding of digitally transformed teaching (RQ2)

e. dealing with disinformation (RQ1)

Main results Self- assessment of digital competences and self- efficacy expectation

• Most PSTs rate their TK slightly higher after working with Arduino supported by scaffolds and teaching

vignettes, showing improvement from design cycle 2

• Peer tutoring and the digital learning. arrangement are perceived as helpful for working with Arduino.

• About half of the PSTs rate their TPK the same or slightly lower after working with Arduino, but their

self- assessments remain high, representing an improvement from design cycle 2.

• Most PSTs feel that teaching vignettes help them understand the teachers' perspective and students'

learning processes.

• PSTs express higher self- efficacy for implementing digital data acquisition after working with Arduino

and lecturers interpret these statements more realistic compared to design cycle 2.

Dealing with disinformation

• After completing active inoculation and debunking learning arrangements, most PSTs have higher self-

efficacy in recognising and debunking COVID- 19 disinformation.

• Debunking competence improves for most PSTs after active inoculation and debunking, though

debunking quality remains unchanged.

• Most PSTs see high relevance in preparing students to critically handle (dis)information.

Understanding of digitally transformed teaching

• Lesson plans reveal difficulties of PSTs in distinguishing between the SAMR model's (Puentedura2006)

four levels, leading to the useful condensation of SAMR into two levels: enhancement (substitution &

augmentation) and transformation (modification & redefinition).

• With the condensed SAMR model, PSTs are able to plan digital media use for improvement and

transformation.

• Without the SAMR model as a scaffold, about half of the PSTs describe digitally transformed lessons that

resemble digitised analogue processes rather than expanded possibilities through digital media.

Expected utility value of using digital media

• PSTs attribute greater utility value to digital media after the second part of the course on active

inoculation and debunking.

• Most PSTs see benefits of digital media in lesson management but less so in teaching- learning processes,

with many noting negative aspects.

Implications for

refinement of the

course design

We strengthened design criterion 22 (Table4) so that the SAMR model

is used in a two- level rather than a four- level form.

We added design conjecture N (Table2) related to the addressing of PSTs' attitudes.

We added design conjecture O (Table2) and design criterion 28 (Table4). Although these

were pursued in the previous design cycles, they have not yet been made explicit.

13 of 18

In our project, the three- step approach from Rosa (2013)

was helpful in preparing PSTs for implementing inquiry-

based learning (level 1 according to Blanchard et al. 2010)

with Arduino: PSTs experienced inquiry- based learning with

Arduino as learners, explored its didactic features and reflected

on its implementation in the classroom using teaching vignettes

(Bern steiner 2023). Reflection journals and survey results re-

vealed that taking only the learner's perspective was insufficient

to build confidence for classroom implementation (Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Haagen- Schützenhöfer, et al. 2024; Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024).

6.1.4 | Area B: Grasping the Nature of Digitally

Transformed Teaching

Global project finding VIII: The two- tiered SAMR

model can serve as a scaffold to help PSTs plan the

use of digital media for digital transformation in

teaching.

In our project, we observed that while many PSTs had ideas for

using digital media to enhance learning processes (Substitution

and Augmentation according to Puentedura 2006), few had

practical ideas for using digital media to transform teaching

and learning processes (Modification and Redefinition accord-

ing to Puentedura2006). Furthermore, the lesson plans created

by PSTs showed that most of them could not clearly distinguish

between the four levels of the SAMR model (Puentedura2006).

Therefore, we condensed the SAMR model into two levels:

Level 1 (enhancement) includes substitution and augmentation,

and level 2 (transformation) includes modification and redefi-

nition. With this two- level model, most PSTs were able to plan

the use of digital media for both enhancement and transforma-

tion situations. However, without support of the SAMR model,

most PSTs' descriptions of digitally transformed teaching were

more aligned with enhancement than with transformation

(Bernsteiner2023).

6.1.5 | Area C: Self- Efficacy Expectations of PSTs

Global project finding IX: Working with teaching

vignettes can contribute to a reflected self- efficacy

expectation of PSTs.

Our main results indicate that integrating teaching vignettes

into the course design helped PSTs to adopt the perspective

of teachers. This facilitated their understanding of learning

processes and challenges faced by students using Arduino.

The main results suggest that this approach led PSTs to re-

flect on their self- efficacy expectations at two levels: im-

plementing digital data acquisition with Arduino and TPK

(Bernsteiner2023).

Global project finding X: Implementing an active

inoculation and debunking approach can lead to

an increase in PSTs' self- efficacy expectations for

identifying and debunking disinformation.

As part of our course design, we implemented active inoculation

(Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook2017) and logic- based debunk-

ing (Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker2017) at two occasions with

PSTs, adapting the methods tested by Schubatzky and Haagen-

Schützenhöfer (2022) in the context of climate change to the

context of COVID- 19. Our results not only support the findings

of Schubatzky and Haagen- Schützenhöfer (2022) but also extend

them by targeting a broader group and different content. The im-

plemented approach has a positive impact on PSTs' self- efficacy

expectations in identifying and debunking disinformation, as well

as on their debunking skills (Bernsteiner, Schubatzky, etal.2023).

6.1.6 | Area D: Expected Utility Value of Digital Media

Global project finding XI: PSTs perceive benefits

of digital media primarily at the level of classroom

management rather than at the level of teaching-

learning processes.

As part of our preliminary surveys (Bernsteiner, Haagen-

Schützenhöfer etal.2023), PSTs' attitudes and motivational ori-

entations towards using digital media were investigated through

self- assessment (Vogelsang etal.2019). The results show a pos-

itive attitude and high motivational orientation towards dig-

ital media (Bernsteiner, Haagen- Schützenhöfer et al. 2023).

During the formative evaluations of design cycles 2 and 3, we

asked PSTs about the expected utility value of digital media (van

Braak, Tondeur, and Valcke2004). Most of them attributed sig-

nificant utility value to digital media for classroom management

but expressed concerns about its benefits for teaching- learning

processes, often citing potential disadvantages (Bernsteiner,

Schubatzky, Spitzer, etal.2024).

7 | Discussion: Global Project Findings Contribute

to Context- Specific Theories

From our DBR project, we do not derive any generalisations

from the samples of the three design cycles for the total popu-

lation of PSTs in terms of a ‘sample- to- population extrapolation’

(Firestone 1993). However, by analysing the interaction of the

PSTs with the developed course design, we were able to gain

insights into teaching- learning processes and analyse whether,

how and why the course design has a certain impact in the pres-

ent context. With these findings, we can derive analytic gener-

alisations (Firestone1993), which are common generalisations

from DBR projects (Haagen- Schützenhöfer, Obczovsky, and

Kislinger2024): We contribute to broadening and deepening the

literature base regarding PSTs' learning with and about digital

media, by providing empirical evidence of aspects that can pro-

mote PSTs' learning with and about digital media and aspects

that can hinder PSTs' learning with and about digital media. In

the following, we discuss these contributions and draw implica-

tions for higher education in general and for teacher education

in the digital age in particular.

Global project finding I aligns with D. Braun and Huwer(2023),

who report that, for example, digital data acquisition is included

in German physics teacher education curricula, but essential

14 of 18 European Journal of Education, 2025

background knowledge, such as algorithmic work, is hardly

addressed. To enable PSTs to acquire such background knowl-

edge about digital media, learning opportunities for learning

about digital media are needed alongside learning opportuni-

ties for learning with digital media (Brinda etal.2019; Thyssen

et al. 2023). Our developed course design provides a possible

framework for this.

Global project finding II is consistent with the findings of

Ambros, Dolezal, and Motschnig (2022), Boonmoh and

Kulavichian (2023), Janschitz, Monitzer, and Penker (2021),

Kopp, Gröblinger, and Adams(2019) and Kennedy etal.(2008).

Although PSTs frequently use digital applications and tools such

as smartphones and tablets in their everyday lives, they may not

have mastered basic digital skills such as using spreadsheets.

From this, we conclude that the design of learning arrange-

ments for (teacher) students needs to take into account that there

is no general solid base of digital competences on which to build.

This project provides design knowledge (Tables2–4) on how this

can be achieved.

Global project finding III, showing that the flipped- classroom-

setting supported the preparation of diverse learners for collab-

orative digital data acquisition using Arduino, is in line with

the findings of Altemueller and Lindquist (2017), Oppl (2018)

and Bitzenbauer and Hennig (2023). We recommend the im-

plementation of f lipped- classroom- settings in higher (teacher)

education for courses involving practical work with digital

media, especially when (teacher) students have different prior

knowledge and skills. With the course design we have developed

and, in particular, with the digital learning arrangement for the

self- learning phase of the flipped- classroom- setting, we show

evidence- based ways in which this can be realised.

Global project findings IV, V and IX, coupled with other

empirical findings (Backfisch et al. 2021; Kindermann and

Pohlmann- Rother2022; Lorenz, Heldt, and Eickelmann2022;

Pf itzner- Eden 2016; von Kotzebue 2023) lead to the follow-

ing three conclusions: First, given TK's indirect influence on

TPACK (Mishra and Koehler 2006; von Kotzebue2023) and

TPACK's role in predicting digital media use in classrooms

(Lorenz, Heldt, and Eickelmann 2022), it is essential to pro-

vide PSTs with targeted support and needs- oriented scaffolds

(see global project finding VI) to prevent overwhelming or

overly cautious self- assessments of TK. The scaffolds we have

implemented in the course design we have developed demon-

strate helpful possibilities for PSTs' learning in this respect.

Second, inquiry- based learning with Arduino can be support-

ive in improving PSTs' self- assessed digital competences. We

were able to derive possible prerequisites for success for the

implementation of inquiry- based learning with Arduino from

the analysis of the interaction of PSTs with the first part of the

course design. Third, since self- efficacy and TPK self- efficacy

expectations influence the motivation to use digital media and

its frequency (Backfisch etal.2021; Vogelsang etal.2019), we

recommend providing PSTs with sufficient opportunities to

reflect on their self- efficacy expectations regarding digital

media. Authentic teaching situations, such as teaching vi-

gnettes we have developed based on evidence, are particularly

helpful for this purpose.

Global project finding VI aligns with the findings of DesPortes

and DiSalvo (2019): students without programming knowledge

struggle with Arduino. Additionally, they are aligning with

Hmelo- Silver, Duncan, and Chinn (2007) and Arnold, Kremer,

and Mayer (2017), who show that scaffolding can support

inquiry- based learning. As the gradual reduction of scaffolding

in our case was very rewarding for PSTs' learning, and as it is

also suggested by Arnold, Kremer, and Mayer(2017), we pro-

pose, in order to prepare (teacher) students to work with new

digital tools, implementing a support framework that is gradu-

ally dismantled in order to transfer the learning responsibility to

the (teacher) students.

With global project finding VII, we support Rubach and

Lazarides(2021), who emphasise the need for multi- perspective

learning arrangements regarding digital media in teacher edu-

cation. Our findings extend their conclusions to the context of

inquiry- ba sed learning with Arduino. In our project, we show how

inquiry- based learning can be effectively implemented in teacher

education from a learners', teachers' and meta- perspective.

Global project finding VIII builds on a body of existing research

regarding S AMR model (Blundell, Mukherjee, and Nyk vist2022;

Boonmoh and Kulavichian 2023; Stinken- Rösner et al. 2023;

von Kotzebue 2022) and broadens it. In teacher education, it

is beneficial to provide the condensed two- level SAMR model

(Blundell, Mukherjee, and Nykvist 2022; Puentedura 2006) as

a scaffold for planning lessons that incorporate digital media.

Our project shows how this can be achieved, so that PSTs un-

derstand that digital media can not only enhance but also dig-

itally transform teaching and learning processes. In addition,

our findings are consistent with Obczovsky, Schubatzky, and

Haagen- Schützenhöfer (2023), who suggest that PSTs need

multiple opportunities to use a scaffold in order to internalise

the practice it supports—in our case, planning the use of digi-

tal media. We indicate that removing the scaffold of the SAMR

model too quickly is ineffective in preparing PSTs for planning

the implementation of digital media for both enhancement and

transformation.

Global project finding X follows Cook, Lewandowsky, and

Ecker (2017), Schubatzky and Haagen- Schützenhöfer (2022)

and Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook(2017). In (teacher) educa-

tion, active inoculation and debunking prove to be supportive

in building up resistance to (dis)information. With the second

part of the course we have developed, we show how this can be

achieved.

Global project finding X I, that PSTs tend to express negative atti-

tudes towards the use of digital media in the classroom, broaden

the findings of A. Braun, Weiß, and Kiel (2022) and Knüsel

Schäfer (2020). In addition, our findings support Backfisch

etal. (2021), who suggest that it is necessary to address PSTs'

beliefs regarding the use of digital media in the classroom.

8 | Limitations and Further Research

The comprehensive findings presented in this article are not

without limitations. First, the studies' sample consisted only of

15 of 18

participants who chose a free elective course, which likely bi-

ased the sample towards those with a pre- existing interest in

digital media. As a result, self- assessed digital competences, self-

efficacy expectations and attitudes towards digital media may

not accurately represent all mathematics and science PSTs at

our institution. This self- selection bias, along with the small and

demographically limited sample—as evidenced, for example, by

the participation of only two chemistry PSTs—limits the gener-

alisability of our findings. We do not make sample- to- population

generalisations, but analytical generalisations (Firestone1993).

We conducted formative evaluations in a real course setting with

many uncontrolled variables. This choice was intended to address

real- world challenges, but it limits sample- to- population gener-

alisability. In addition, the formative nature of our evaluations,

without rigorous experimental controls, means that our global

project findings do not imply causality. Future research should

test specific course components in different settings, possibly

under (quasi- )experimental conditions, to provide broader and

deeper insights. For example, our research findings suggest that

teacher vignettes help PSTs to self- as sess their digital competences

and self- efficacy—a global project finding that we consider worth

investigating in more detail in (quasi- )experimental settings.

The use of self- assessment surveys for formative assessment

runs the risk of misrepresenting actual competences (von

Kotzebue 2022). Future research should include performance

testing. We attempted to mitigate this limitation through data tri-

angulation, using multiple sources, including qualitative insights

from reflection journals, to provide a nuanced understanding

(Flick2020).

Finally, our course setting intervenes for the limited period of

a semester, so the transfer of digital competences to authentic

teaching practice remains unknown. Future initiatives should

explore how teacher candidates integrate inquiry- based learn-

ing with digital media, lesson planning using the SAMR model

(Puentedura2006) and approaches to critical thinking and resil-

ience to disinformation into their teaching.

9 | Conclusion

In this article, we have presented learning- enhancing key as-

pects of a multi- faceted course design to prepare PSTs in mathe-

matics and science for teaching in the digital age. These include

promoting self- assessment of digital competences through

inquiry- based learning with Arduino, enhancing critically re-

flected self- efficacy expectations through work with teaching

vignettes and supporting the planning of digitally transformed

lessons using the SAMR model (Puentedura 2006) as a scaf-

fold. Additionally, we uncovered central difficulties that PSTs

face when interacting with the course design. These difficulties

include that being overwhelmed by digital media can lead to a

decrease in self- assessed TK, and that PSTs often lack basic dig-

ital skills. Our findings contribute to context- specific theories

of teaching and learning with and about digital media. In par-

ticular, our findings extend and support findings on scaffolding

in inquiry- based learning (Arnold, Kremer, and Mayer 2017),

the implementation of f lipped- classroom- settings (Altemueller

and Lindquist 2017; Bitzenbauer and Hennig 2023), the use

of the SAMR model (Blundell, Mukherjee, and Nykvist 2022;

Puentedura 2006; Stinken- Rösner et al.2023) and active inoc-

ulation and debunking (Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker2 017;

Lewandowsky, Ecker, and Cook2017; Schubatzky and Haagen-

Schützenhöfer 2022). Therefore, our comprehensive findings

on many facets of teaching and learning with and about digital

media broaden and strengthen the empirical basis for course de-

signs promoting digital competences among (teacher) students.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated

or analysed during the current study.

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Enseñanza de matemáticas para ingeniería en educación superior

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Este estudio analiza la efectividad de diferentes metodologías de enseñanza de las matemáticas en la formación de ingenieros, enfocándose en el rendimiento académico y la motivación de los estudiantes. Se compararon tres enfoques: enseñanza tradicional, aprendizaje basado en problemas (ABP) y el uso de tecnología en el aula. A través de una metodología mixta, se recopilaron datos cuantitativos mediante exámenes y encuestas estructuradas, y cualitativos mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas y observaciones participativas. Los resultados cuantitativos mostraron que el grupo ABP experimentó una mejora del 23% en el rendimiento académico, el mayor aumento entre los grupos, lo que sugiere que el enfoque basado en problemas favorece la comprensión y aplicación de las matemáticas en contextos reales de ingeniería. Los estudiantes del grupo ABP también reportaron mayores niveles de motivación y satisfacción en comparación con los de la enseñanza tradicional, que se caracterizó por una mayor desconexión entre la teoría matemática y su aplicabilidad. Los resultados cualitativos corroboraron estos hallazgos, destacando que la enseñanza tradicional resultó en un bajo nivel de participación y engagement, mientras que el ABP promovió un aprendizaje más activo y colaborativo.

Transformational Leadership, Digital Competence, and Employee Performance: Examining the Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy and the Moderating Influence of Perceived Organizational Support in Riau Islands Province

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Mar 2025

Research aims: To examine the influence of transformational leadership and digital competence on employee performance in Regional Apparatus Organizations (OPDs) in the Riau Islands Province, with self-efficacy as a mediating factor and organizational support as a moderating factor.Design/Methodology/Approach: A quantitative approach using a survey method was employed. Data were collected from 185 employees in OPD using a structured questionnaire. The analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with Smart PLS software, allowing for both direct and indirect effect evaluations.Research findings: Transformational leadership and digital competence were found to significantly enhance employee performance, both directly and indirectly, with self-efficacy mediating their positive effects. Organizational support further strengthened these relationships as a moderating factor. Together, these variables accounted for 90.3% of the variance in performance, emphasizing the need for leadership that inspires and equips employees with digital skills to thrive in a technology-driven workplace.Theoretical Contribution/Originality: The study integrates leadership, digital competence, and psychological constructs (self-efficacy and organizational support) in the context of public sector organizations. It highlights the interplay between these variables, offering a comprehensive framework for improving employee performance in a digital era.Practitioners/Policy Implications: The study emphasizes the importance of developing transformational leadership through targeted training and prioritizing digital competence to address digital-era challenges. Organizations should strengthen support systems, such as continuous training and recognition programs, to boost employee confidence and engagement, fostering sustained performance, innovation, and resilience.Research Limitations/Implications: This study focuses on Regional Apparatus Organizations in Riau Islands Province, limiting generalizability. Its cross-sectional design restricts causal inference. As such, future research should consider longitudinal and qualitative approaches for deeper insights into these relationships.

Uso de herramientas tecnológicas para análisis de textos académicos

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Feb 2025

El análisis de la literatura académica mediante herramientas tecnológicas ha permitido la identificación de patrones y temas emergentes, facilitando una comprensión más profunda de las tendencias de investigación actuales. El uso de técnicas como el análisis de frecuencia de términos (TF-IDF) y el modelado de temas (LDA) ha mostrado ser eficaz para extraer patrones clave, revelando áreas dominantes de investigación y áreas emergentes antes de que se conviertan en tendencias ampliamente reconocidas. A través del modelado de temas, se identificaron relaciones complejas entre conceptos y se logró una visión más matizada de las dinámicas de la literatura. Además, el análisis de redes de coautoría y citación ha proporcionado una comprensión más amplia de las relaciones entre autores y cómo las ideas se diseminan en la comunidad científica. La interdisciplinariedad es un rasgo destacado en los temas emergentes, ya que muchos de ellos involucran áreas de investigación multidisciplinarias, como la salud digital y las tecnologías verdes. Sin embargo, a pesar de las ventajas de las herramientas tecnológicas, se requiere intervención humana para interpretar adecuadamente los resultados, ya que los algoritmos pueden no captar el contexto completo de los temas. En conclusión, estas herramientas mejoran la eficiencia del análisis académico, pero deben combinarse con la interpretación experta para asegurar su precisión y relevancia.

Aporte de la asignatura matemáticas para carreras universitarias

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Las matemáticas juegan un papel fundamental en las universidades, pero su relevancia y aplicación varían significativamente según la disciplina. En áreas como ingeniería, arquitectura y ciencias de la computación, las matemáticas son esenciales para la resolución de problemas técnicos, y los estudiantes tienden a valorarlas positivamente. Sin embargo, enfrentan dificultades para aplicar conceptos abstractos a situaciones prácticas, lo que requiere un enfoque pedagógico que combine teoría con ejercicios prácticos y herramientas tecnológicas. Por otro lado, en disciplinas como ciencias sociales, derecho y artes, las matemáticas se perciben como una herramienta complementaria, utilizada principalmente para el análisis de datos. La resistencia al aprendizaje de matemáticas y la percepción de que son irrelevantes son barreras comunes en estas áreas, lo que subraya la necesidad de enfoques pedagógicos que conecten las matemáticas con la práctica profesional de estas disciplinas. En disciplinas como las artes y la educación, aunque las matemáticas son vistas con menos interés, su aplicación en aspectos como el diseño y la enseñanza puede ser valorada si se contextualiza adecuadamente. A futuro, se recomienda investigar enfoques pedagógicos personalizados que integren las matemáticas de manera más contextualizada y aplicada a cada disciplina, aprovechando tecnologías innovadoras y estrategias didácticas adaptadas a las necesidades específicas de los estudiantes.

E-Learning: EFL Learners' Perceptions Towards Blog Affordance to Facilitate Written Peer Feedback

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Noman Musleh Al-Sayadi

Systematizing Decisions in Design‐Based Research: From Theory to Design

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2024
SCI EDUC

There is a general consensus that design‐based research (DBR) is a genre of approaches in education research to design interventions for specific problems with the aim to gain an understanding of how they work in the problem context. While there is a considerable body of literature discussing the epistemic and methodological aspects of DBR, we found little guidance on how to actually design an intervention. The majority of research articles about DBR projects focus on the output of the projects rather than the process. In this article, we reflect on our approach to design processes in two DBR projects, with a particular focus on making and grounding design decisions. Our aim is to provide support to other researchers engaged in DBR projects and to contribute to a discussion about practices in DBR to contribute to design methodologies. We conclude with three key contributions. First, we emphasize the significance of awareness of design decisions as well as their groundings, advocating for thorough consideration of the applicability of theories, and transferability of empirical findings, as well as pragmatic and personal factors. Second, we recommend a flexibility in revising design decisions, allowing for meaningful refinement of interventions in response to evolving contexts and insights. Third, we propose a systematic approach to arrive at and document design decisions, facilitating communication within DBR projects and across research communities.

Sicht Lehramtsstudierender auf Unterricht im Zeitalter der Digitalität

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Impact of working with Arduino on mathematics and science teacher students’ self-assessment of TPACK and self-efficacy

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

To prepare mathematics and science teacher students for the implementation of digitally transformed teaching, we are developing and researching a course using the design-based research paradigm at the University of Graz. Based on the findings of curriculum analyses and surveys, we selected two main content areas for the course: digital data acquisition with Arduino and dealing with misinformation. Learning arrangements were developed based on empirical findings and theoretical foundations. The initial implementation of the course took place in the summer semester of 2022 with 17 teacher students. We examined the teacher students’ learning processes and the effectiveness of the learning arrangements in terms of the teacher students’ learning using a mixed-methods design (pretest, posttest, reflection journal, and field observations of course instructors). This article presents the triangulation of the research findings related to the work with Arduino and the derived criteria for redesigning the learning arrangements. The results show that self-assessment of technological competencies and self-efficacy expectations related to working with Arduino differ between teacher students with and without prior programming knowledge. Our findings suggest that there is a need to implement scaffolds that support teacher students as they undertake practical work with Arduino.

Design-based research–Tension between practical relevance and knowledge generation–What can we learn from projects?

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Researchers often develop teaching-learning solutions to improve the quality of instruction. Some of these solutions are developed in the paradigm of design-based research (DBR). The output of DBR projects goes beyond design products for practice and includes contributions to local theories about teaching-learning in specific subject areas and contexts as well as knowledge about how to design and implement these processes. Design knowledge and contributions to local theories are intended to construct a cumulative, content-specific body of knowledge about teaching and learning that is transferable to related subject areas or contexts. To make this process work, dimensions of DBR need to be systematically reported. However, DBR projects are sometimes criticized for focusing more on practical output than on reports about research output and the form of cooperation with practitioners. To empirically investigate these presumed voids, we examined DBR projects conducted by the German-speaking physics education research community during the past 20 years.

Computational Literacy as an Important Element of a Digitized Science Teacher Education—A Systematic Review of Curriculum Patterns in Physics Teacher Education Degrees in Germany

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2023

Computational literacy (CL) has become indispensable for teachers and learners as part of 21st-century skills. Therefore, corresponding models for teacher education are being further developed internationally from a scientific perspective. In parallel, content and competencies are being enhanced in the respective subjects at the curricular level of teacher training. In this context, we consider it important to examine the current status of this development. Since, to our knowledge, there are no comparable scientific studies, we have taken Germany as a representative example of the international education system and systematically analyzed the module handbooks of the physics teacher training courses at methodically selected universities. For this analysis, we used three research questions focusing on CL: In which physics content does CL play a role? Which computer science competencies or knowledge can be identified or derived? Are they described implicitly or explicitly? Our results suggest that CL is integrated very differently in terms of quantity and depth of content among the universities we examined. For example, there is often a very strong focus on computer-based data acquisition, but few programs also have specialized courses addressing CL more explicitly or integrate additional computer science competencies. CL is primarily taught in laboratory courses and frequently in subject-didactic courses. Nevertheless, the depictions presented in the purely subject-oriented and basic lectures lack specific computational literacy skills or knowledge. Furthermore, the fact that many programs only offer implicit descriptions of CL skills indicates that the integration of these skills has not progressed very far in practice.

Predicting the development of digital media PCK/TPACK: The role of PCK, motivation to use digital media, interest in and previous experience with digital media

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2023
COMPUT EDUC

In today's digital age, incorporating technology in teaching has become increasingly important. To prepare future teachers, understanding the factors that influence the development of teachers' corresponding knowledge base is crucial. However, not only is there a small number of studies investigating the development of pre-service teachers' professional knowledge, but these studies also predominantly rely on cross-sectional and/or self-reported data. This pre-post study investigated the factors associated with the development of digital media Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in physics teacher education through a seminar-based approach with N = 66 pre-service teachers (PSTs). Investigated factors include PSTs' PCK about students' conceptions (PCK-SC), general motivation to use digital media, interest in digital media, and previous experience with digital media. The findings suggest that a strong foundation in various aspects of PCK is essential for the development of digital media PCK, as PSTs' PCK-SC has proven to be a positive predictor for the development of PTSs' digital media PCK. Surprisingly, the study found that higher motivation to use digital media negatively affects the development of digital media PCK, suggesting that excessive motivation may hinder the acquisition of digital media PCK. Additionally, the study found that PSTs' interest in digital media positively influenced the development of digital media PCK, while previous experience with digital media had a negative impact on its development. The study suggests that future research should focus on investigating the general professional knowledge of PSTs and identifying the proficiency levels of PCK needed for the development of digital media PCK. It also emphasizes the importance of considering both, cognitive and affective aspects of teacher preparation, as seminars that solely focus on motivation may not be adequate in fostering effective technology integration. The study recommends that seminars on digital media integration should be situated at later stages of teacher education or after introductory courses that cover other facets of PCK. Furthermore, integrated seminars addressing multiple facets of PCK alongside digital media PCK could be explored in future research. Overall, this study provides insights into the factors influencing PSTs' development of digital media PCK and suggests avenues for further research to improve the integration of digital media in teaching practices for enhanced student learning outcomes.

Entwicklung und Beforschung einer Lehrveranstaltung zu Physical Computing mit Arduino in der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Lehramtsausbildung

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

From TPACK to DPACK: The “Digitality-Related Pedagogical and Content Knowledge”-Model in STEM-Education

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Digitalization is a keyword in the discourse of educational science, but it is often linked to technological challenges, although digital changes occur throughout society. Therefore, STEM teachers are required to cope with technological changes in the subject, the increasing and diverse education and training technologies, and the ever-changing paths of information and communication of adolescents in their role as members of a changing society and culture. The TPACK-model focuses educators’ professional knowledge based on teachers’ expertise concerning technological knowledge per se and the pedagogy and content of their subjects. In contrast, knowledge relevant to daily life and social and cultural interaction beyond this is not clearly included in the TPACK-model at present. This article proposes supplementing the TPACK-model with the knowledge components of digital cultural transformations (digitality) and, therefore, extending the TPACK-model to a DPACK-model, where D stands for digitality. Therefore, digital transformation in STEM teaching requires additional professional knowledge considering the transformation of communication, mediatization and society. Through this expansion, the focus should also be directed on the necessity that children and young people in the digitally shaped world must also be able to critically reflect on the processes of change and shape them in an ethically responsible manner. For this reason, teachers require professional knowledge to reflect, analyze, use and shape the digital transformation, which is regularly demanded of them by national and international educational standards. As a foundation of STEM teachers’ education and training, an integrated model combining these facets of knowledge and skills is provided for discussion, and, as a result, quickly found its way into the educational policy guidelines and educational science discourses in Germany. In order to integrate the sociocultural consequences of digitalization into TPACK, this paper proposes a new hemisphere, sociocultural knowledge, which extends the existing TPACK components.

Technology Implementation in Pre-Service Science Teacher Education Based on the Transformative View of TPACK: Effects on Pre-Service Teachers’ TPACK, Behavioral Orientations and Actions in Practice

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Teaching with and about technology is part of science teachers’ 21st century skills. To foster technology-enhanced practice, teachers need to acquire both technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK on action) and positive behavioral orientations toward technology exploitation. However, it remains unclear if the gained knowledge is applied in practice (TPACK in action). Therefore, studies are required to investigate the interplay of programs promoting TPACK on action, behavioral orientations, and resulting TPACK in action. This paper presents an approach that explicitly links pre-service science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) with TPACK development in two undergraduate modules, following the transformative view of TPACK. TPACK on action and behavioral orientations are captured through a questionnaire at three points in time. Additionally, lesson plans are analyzed to evaluate the quality of technology use and cognitive engagement, approximating TPACK in action. The results show a significant increase in pre-service science teachers’ (N = 133) self-rated TPACK on action and behavioral orientations between pre- and post-test, with moderate to large effects. Moreover, the analyses of lesson plans reveal a high quality of technology exploitation in the planned lessons, indicating distinctive TPACK in action after attending the modules. This theory-based approach is supported by empirical data, and highly regarded by participants, making it a successful model for course redesign at other universities.

Exploring Thai EFL pre-service teachers’ technology integration based on SAMR model

Article

Oct 2023

This study investigated how Thai EFL pre-service teachers (PSTs) use technology in their classrooms and the level of substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition (SAMR) they implement. Seven English education majors enrolled in the course “teaching internship 2” in their fourth year at a Thai university participated in the study. Due to COVID-19, the participants were trained to teach online, but during their teaching practicum, they were required to teach in a traditional on-site setting. Because of this novel arrangement, it was essential to investigate how these PSTs incorporate technology into the classroom. For the purpose of analyzing the process of educational technology integration, this study employed SAMR model. Observations and semi-structured interviews were used as data collection methods. Throughout the semester, observations were conducted twice. SAMR observation form was used to investigate how PSTs used technology in their teaching. Participants were asked to participate in an interview after each observation. The interviews included open-ended questions based on the conceptual framework of SAMR. Observation results show that technological tools were used to engage students, check comprehension, create teaching content, and evaluate students’ understanding. For the study, the participants were divided into three groups based on the extent of technological tools used. One participant was deemed to be in the substitution stage, five participants in the augmentation stage, and only one participant in the modification stage. The results of the interviews indicated that teacher motivation and the availability of ICT equipment, as well as familiarity with technological tools, played a significant role in PSTs’ integration of technology into the classroom. The study’s conclusions are helpful in developing PSTs’ technology integration in EFL classrooms. SAMR model should be introduced to PSTs to let them critically reflect on and develop their own technology integration.

Teacher Education in the Age of Digitality: Conclusions From a Design-Based Research Project

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