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Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 27
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
Examination of Students’ Social Entrepreneurial an
Observational Test
Zainab Y. Al-sheikhly1, Qusay H. Al-Salami1, Raz A. Jalal2
1Department of Business Administration, Cihan University-Erbil,
Kurdistan Region, Iraq,
2Department of Public Administration, Cihan University-Erbil,
Kurdistan Region, Iraq
Abstract—This paper examines the disparity between male and female Syrian university students in enhancing intellectual awareness
and developing entrepreneurial skills in the charitable sector. It explores how these inuential groups can contribute to activating the
roles of institutions and individuals in serving society humanely. The study’s hypotheses were based on variables such as entrepreneurial
intentions, self-ecacy, perceived social support, moral obligation, and empathy. Results support the existence of gender dierences
among private university students. Findings reveal that many Syrians have the potential and strong desire to become social entrepreneurs
despite facing signicant economic and social challenges. The study also underscores the urgent need for systematic education for those
addressing social issues in Syria. It recommends that Syrian educational institutions incorporate courses on social entrepreneurship,
possibly through relevant elective courses.
Keywords—Empathy, Entrepreneurial intentions, Moral obligation, Self-ecacy, Social entrepreneurship programs.
Our research examines the social entrepreneurial intentions
(SEIs) of Syrian private and state university students, noting
by social and business ventures (Maziriri et al., 2024). No
Syrian universities, highlighting a need for such education to
develop future social entrepreneurs. In the Middle East, data
on social entrepreneurship programs (SEPs) are limited, with
no dedicated teaching centers or ongoing research.
Our objective is to explore SEP development in Syria,
focusing on SEI among young Syrians, and to assess whether
there are suitable human resources for future social ventures.
We aim to evaluate the feasibility of integrating social
entrepreneurship courses into university curricula, based on
data from approximately 300 Syrian university students. Our
SEP, which includes work integration, poverty reduction, and
environmental protection (Bielefeld, 2009; Henderson and
Robertson, 2000; Hockerts, 2017; Issa et al., 2023).
Kaya (2024) focused on the legal and administrative
challenges faced by Syrian small, medium, and micro-enterprises
in Turkey, established by Syrian refugee entrepreneurs. The
analyzing the negative impacts on these businesses. In the
same context, Refai et al. (2024) highlighted the challenges
faced by small and medium-sized business owners in northern
England and their impact on Syrian entrepreneurs.
The literature on entrepreneurial intentions (EIs) is vast.
Liñán and Fayolle (2015) “Systematic Literature Review on
analyzing 409 EI-related papers published between 2004
Shapero and Sokol, 1982, are acknowledged as pivotal in
the development of EI literature. In the second part of our
discussion, we revisit Shapero’s EI model, focusing on the
methodology of our study, which models SEI. It is essential to
(Massoudi et al., 2023; Sawadi and Al-Salami, 2015).
Hockerts (2017) characterizes SEP as encompassing diverse
domains, from work integration and poverty reduction to
Cihan University-Erbil journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (CUEJHSS)
Volume IX No. 1 (2025) 6 pages
DOI: 10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2024.pp 27-32
Received 22 June 2024; Accepted 9 September 2024; Regular research paper: Published 1 January 2025
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: qusay.hameed@cihanuniversity.edu.iq
Copyright © 2025 Zainab Y. Al-Sheikhly, Qusay H. Al-Salami, Raz A. Jalal. This is an open-access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
28 Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
environmental resource protection. Due to the broad scope of
(2009) highlights this ambiguity, noting that the diversity of actors
in interest in social enterprises and social entrepreneurship.
Social enterprises have emerged as a distinct area within general
entrepreneurship studies, quickly evolving into an independent
SEP drives social change, adapting business principles. It
fosters social transformation. Demand rises for innovators
driving economic and social development (Rwehumbiza
and Hyun, 2024). This paper examines SEP and SE who
and business studies, SEP remains largely unexplored in
many countries, including Syria.
of general entrepreneurship studies, quickly evolving into an
independent domain of applied research (Rwehumbiza and
Hyun, 2024). Both commercial and social entrepreneurial
activities create opportunities for advancement (Defourny
and Nyssens, 2010).
Maziriri et al. (2024) found that leadership models in
study of 261 students in Eastern Cape, South Africa, showed
a strong link between intention and action, moderated by
Similarly, Satar (2024) examined the impact of inspiring role
models, social entrepreneurs’ education, and social entrepreneurs’
compassion on nascent SE behavior in Saudi Arabia, surveying
risk management (IRM) exposure which impacts nascent SE
behavior, SE compassion predicts it, and SE education indirectly
compassion does not mediate IRM’s impact. The study provides
insights and a framework for further SE behavior research (Jami
and Agha, 2022; Massoudi and Birdawod, 2023).
In 2024, Feroz found that educational, structural, and
in Southern Punjab, highlighting the need for Pakistani
institutions to redesign curricula to promote entrepreneurship
personal experiences and backgrounds as key motivators for
SEs in Tanzania, introducing a new motivational model and
proposing governance innovations.
This study aims to bridge the knowledge gap on SEP in
Syria by examining young Syrians’ SEI and the availability of
suitable human resources. It seeks to contribute to predictive
models of social entrepreneur success and assess the
Syrian SMEs, rooted in historical commerce, notably
contribute to the economy. Abdelrahim and Abdelrahim (2007)
state that by the early 2000s, the government aimed to create
200,000 jobs yearly, with only 90,000 in the public sector.
The International Labour Organization reports that 88% of
workers were employed by SMEs (Alsheikhly, 2009). Initial
hindrances from the centralized economy were addressed with
mid-1990s decentralization, supporting small investors.
Abdelrahim and Abdelrahim (2007) post-2000 SME
analysis in Syria underscores potential opportunities for future
social entrepreneurs. Damascus’ registered SMEs, including
various service sectors, formed the study’s sample. However,
some industries such as travel and tourism are inactive
due to the current political climate. SMEs require minimal
investment, with human resources being key (Al-Salami
41 own 66.7% of businesses.
Businesses had a maximum of 25 workers, and 81.5% of
them had 15 workers or fewer. Companies with headquarters
in Damascus were privately held by their management, who
made all of the decisions. Furthermore, 88.5% of enterprises
loans and debt (Abdelrahim and Abdelrahim, 2007).
The turbulent state of the Syrian economy has spurred the
development of social entrepreneurship programs (SEPs),
which often thrive during economic recessions. During
stable economic periods, large companies attract labor with
higher salaries, reducing small business establishment and
the role of SEP. However, recessions increase unemployment,
prompting individuals to start their ventures (Kashina and
Utkina, 2015; Massoudi et al., 2024).
government failure (Kugel and Mercado, 2024; Weisbrod,
1988). Similar events occurred in the United States during
economic recessions (Bielefeld, 2009). In Syria, involving
crucial (Al-Salami and Abdalla, 2022). The objectives of
SEPs include providing unavailable goods and services,
enhancing skills, creating job opportunities, supporting social
services (Rwehumbiza and Hyun, 2024; Saadi et al., 2023).
gender-segregated labor market, with cultural constraints
The majority of social orientations of women are associated
with strong gender stereotypes that go counter to modern
enterprises as “man’s” domains. From this vantage point,
SEP is a compromised means for women to realize who they
are outside of the family. Kashina and Utkina (2015) think
that “it is women with their emotional orientation to the
client, care, and the responsible relation get advantage before
man in realization of the main objectives of social business.”
Based on a comprehensive review of the existing literature,
empirically tested among Syrian students of both genders
Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 29
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
to examine the relationships between the variables under
investigation, as delineated in the proposed research model.
Fig. 1 shows the recommended research model.
Based on the aforementioned research model (Fig. 1), the
following hypotheses were developed:
α = 0.05)
independent variables (empathy).
(α = 0.05) between state and private university students’
responses for variables (moral obligation).
Hypothesis 3: Regarding the independent variable (self-
efficacy), there is a statistically significant difference
(α = 0.05) between the responses of students.
(α = 0.05) between students’ responses for the independent
specializations.
(α = 0.05) between students’ responses for independent
EIs modeling before delving into the details of our model.
Liñán notes that “an explosion of research using EI model
as a framework” occurred in the early 1990s in his review of
the literature on entrepreneurship (Liñán and Fayolle, 2015).
Most EI models are compatible and similar, and they fall into
two primary categories:
First, originating from social psychology with the intention
of examining behaviors in general, illuminating the cognitive
process that links attitudes and beliefs to productive action, t
found in Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) from
reliable predictors of behavior.”
Shapero’s Entrepreneurial Event (EE) model (Shapero
and Sokol, 1982) is prominent among entrepreneurship
models, considering genetic traits such as risk-taking ability,
The context has an impact on entrepreneurship as well.
Contextual and genetic factors must be taken into account
concurrently and be treated as variables in the EI model (Issa
and Al-Salami, 2023).
According to Shapero’s EE model, the desire to act
on opportunity and the perception of desirability and
comes before the inclination to take action. How much a
person believes they are personally capable of launching a
desirability” and Ajzen-Fishbein’s “social norms and attitudes”
align. “Perceived behavioral control” was covered by Ajzen’s
“Propensity to act” variable.
Turker and Selcuk (2009) introduced an entrepreneurial
support model tested on 300 Turkish students, highlighting
relational support in shaping youth emotional intelligence
(EI). Ngugi et al. (2012) applied Shapero’s model to Kenyan
university students’ entrepreneurial tendencies. The person-
four personality traits as primary predictors of SEI.
toward behavior; perceived social support symbolizes
external behavioral control. The four primary variables of the
model are the measures of the traits mentioned above. The
average response to three to four questions (or questionnaire
items) determined the value of each variable.
Hockerts (2017) integrated prior involvement with social
organizations into the SEI model, analyzing 2790 responses
based on age, minority status, gender, and nationality. Our
study empirically tests Mair and Noboa’s model in the Syrian
context, using their variables and hypotheses. Approximately
150 random observations were collected from students at
Syrian universities in the areas of Damascus city and Daraa
governorate.
A 24-item questionnaire, resembling Hockerts’ work, was
administered, initially in English but later in both English
and Arabic. Only 116 of the 150 questionnaires were deemed
valid, with responses evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale. The
The capacity to understand another person’s feelings or
the propensity to feel something when faced with another
person’s mental and emotional state is known as empathy
(Miller et al., 2012; Saeed, 2024). Ajzen’s TPB (Kautonen
et al., 2015) starts with empathy, representing a person’s
attitude toward SEP. Moral obligation results from perceived
Empathy
Moral Obligation
Self -Efficacy
Perceived Social
Support
Entrepreneurial
Intentions
Gender
Male
Female
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
Fig. 1: Recommended research model.
30 Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
normative beliefs about expected behaviors (Haines et al.,
predict self-esteem as they encourage helping others.
and entrepreneurial behavior (Issa and Al-Salami, 2023),
motivating individuals to address societal issues. Perceived
and support are raised in social entrepreneurship discussions.
SEIs refer to students’ future enterprise aspirations. This study
examines students’ likelihood of pursuing SEP careers.
Male and female students’ responses from diverse
university backgrounds, rural/urban areas, and various
Cronbach’s α (Table I) for all variables (α
(Alpha) surpasses 0.92 (close to 1) across all domains
(Table I). This indicates a high level of constancy, suggesting
that the topics and their questions are consistent and
compatible (Tavakol and Dennick, 2011).
It is widely believed that women are more inclined
to engage in charitable and social projects due to their
perceived greater empathy for less fortunate individuals. This
is supported by Table II from hypothesis 1, which shows
that the mean responses between male and female students
are not nearly equal for all independent variables, with male
students displaying slightly higher standard deviations.
This suggests that women’s responses are less variable.
Therefore, H1 was accepted (P = 0.007 < α = 0.05). The
seen in Fig. 2.
The results of Table III indicate that the relationship
between the gender of public and private university students
and the independent variable (moral commitment) is not
P = 0.149
α = 0.05), therefore H2 was rejected. Fig. 3 shows the
judgments about an individual’s success in executing the
required courses of action to handle potential situations.
The 3rd hypothesis tested in this study indicates that there
α = 0.05) between
the responses of male and female students (as in Table IV).
Based on the current results, this hypothesis was accepted
(P = 0.028 < α
all sections can be observed in Fig. 4.
The results of the 4th hypothesis (as in Table V) indicate
(P α = 0.05) in students’ responses to the
independent variable of perceived social support across
social support interpreted new supportive behaviors more
negatively compared to students with high social support,
and they also recalled a lower proportion of behaviors
perceived as helpful.
Based on the current results (in Table VI), hypothesis 5 is
accepted (P = 0.031 < α
values across all sections are illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6.
It is important to activate the role of youth in the process
of social entrepreneurship and increase their awareness.
TABLE III
Gender * Moral obligation Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups
Within groups
Total
4.108
52.308
56.417
5
106
111
0.822
0.493
1.665 0.149
TABLE IV
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups
Within groups
Total
4.953
40.054
45.008
5
106
111
0.991
0.378
2.622 0.028
TABLE VI
Gender * Entrepreneurial Intentions Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups
Within groups
Total
5.653
46.549
52.202
5
106
111
1.131
0.439
2.5750.031
TABLE V
Gender * Perceived Social Support Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups
Within groups
Total
6.677
64.076
70.753
5
106
111
1.335
0.604
2.2090.059
TABLE II
Gender * Empathy Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups
Within groups
Total
6.065
34.990
41.018
5
106
111
1.098
0.333
3.401 0.007
TABLE I
No. Variables Cronbach’s alpha
1 Empathy 0.920
2 Moral-obligation 0.919
3 Perceived social support 0.929
4 Entrepreneurial intentions 0.951
5 0.941
Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 31
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
Academic institutions in Syria lack methods and methods
for educating young groups on which the development of
the country’s future depends. They also lack people with
current and future stages.
research leads to two main conclusions:
First, the results align with those of Kautonen et al., 2015;
Mair and Noboa, 2006; Maziriri et al., 2024, despite some
Even amid Syria’s economic and social depression, there are
individuals willing and able to work as entrepreneurs.
Second, this study highlights the importance of enhancing
human skills and awareness, especially among students, who are
crucial for future sustainability, empathy, and charitable works.
Those eager to address Syria’s social problems urgently
need education and training from SEP experts. There is
development and prosperity through human resource creation.
Abdelrahim, A., & Abdelrahim, A. (2007). Critical analysis and modelling of
small business performance (Case study: Syria). Journal of Asia Entrepreneurship
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Fig. 2: Average values across all departments for empathy variable.
Fig
Fig. 3: Average values across all departments for moral obligation
variable.
Fig. 6: Average values across all departments for entrepreneurial
intentions variable.
Fig. 5: Average values across all departments for perceived social support
variable.
32 Cihan University-Erbil Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
10.24086/cuejhss.vol9n1y2025.pp27-32
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