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497 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
A Comparison of STEM Educaon Status and Trends
in Ten Highly Compeve Countries
Yi-Fang Lee1, Lung-Sheng Lee2 and Hoang Bao Ngoc Nguyen3
1Professor, Department of Industrial Education,
2Professor Emeritus, Department of Technology Application and Human
Resource Development,
3Doctoral Candidate, Department of Industrial Education,
National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
498
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Abstract
This chapter summarizes the ndings of STEM education from the 10 highly
competitive countries in the previous chapters. A cross-country comparison is
made concerning the aspects of STEM education background, current status,
as well as the trends and issues. Several conclusions are generated as follows:
(1) The supply and demand of the STEM-skilled workforce is unbalanced,
with a shortage of STEM workers a common challenge for all of the countries.
(2) Some countries have a decentralized schooling system wherein STEM
curriculum and policy are under the jurisdiction of each state/ province/ ter-
ritory; for the other countries with centralized systems, national curriculum
guidelines for STEM have been published to guide teaching in all schools.
(3) The strength of government inuence on STEM education varies across
countries. The central/federal government in some countries plays a dominant
role in promoting K-12 STEM education, while the others lack direct control
of local governments, leading to a heterogeneous landscape of STEM edu-
cation around the country. (4) Many countries perform STEM education by
means of teaching each STEM subject separately; besides, technology and
engineering have been less emphasized than science and mathematics. (5)
STEM education is usually embedded in traditional subjects (such as math-
ematics and science) from primary schools to upper secondary schools, with
an exception in IE wherein integrated STEM is fully operated in preschools
and primary schools. The STEM-focused VTE schools/programs and STEM
programs in non-STEM-focused schools are more popular school types in for-
mal education that emphasize STEM education. (6) All countries attach great
importance to the STEM-related activities in non-formal education. They are
delivered in the forms of STEM workshops, competitions, exhibitions, camps,
seminars, school visits, and field trips by government-related organizations,
schools, associations, NGOs, private companies, industries, museums, science
centers, universities, and so on. (7) Students’ STEM learning performance
499 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
is measured by international and national assessments as well as by school-
based tests. Overall, most countries perform well on science and mathematics
literacy measures in PISA or TIMSS. In addition, boys tend to outperform
girls on STEM learning assessments. (8) STEM teacher preparation programs
are oered on a spectrum of integrative degree: at one extreme, teachers are
trained as experts in one single eld, and at the other, they are trained in trans-
disciplinary programs. Overall, ongoing efforts raise an awareness of inte-
grated STEM learning among STEM teachers. (9) STEM education reform is
instigated prevalently by central government or sometimes local government.
Most policy discussions concentrate on how to introduce the integrated STEM
education into the classroom, or how to cooperate with various partnerships
to enrich the diversity of STEM initiatives. (10) Major trends in STEM edu-
cation include enhancing STEM teacher preparation, strengthening networks
from outside of schools, increasing women’s involvement in the STEM eld,
enhancing inclusive and integrated STEM environments, and so on. (11)
Some issues these countries encounter include isolation of STEM subjects in
schools, lack of qualied STEM teachers and teacher preparation programs,
insucient access to integrative STEM curriculums in school, lack of clear
understanding of STEM, and so on.
Keywords: STEM education, comparative analysis, highly competitive coun-
tries
500
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Introduction
This book compiles 10 country-specific reports, and each report illustrates
the current status, issues, and trends of STEM education in its country. The
countries listed in alphabetical order are: Canada (CN), Finland (FI), Ger-
many (DE), Hong Kong SAR (HK), Ireland (IE), Singapore (SG), Sweden
(SE), Taiwan (TW), the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and the United States
of America (USA). They all were in the top 15 of the World Competitiveness
Rankings published by the International Institute for Management Develop-
ment (IMD) in 2021. These country reports provide a comprehensive picture
of how STEM education has been implemented in these highly competitive
countries.
This chapter presents a summary and international comparison of STEM edu-
cation based on these country reports. Eleven comparison components are
raised and discussed respectively. STEM here refers to the integration of Sci-
ence, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics into a transdisciplinary sub-
ject or course in K-12 schools. They can be oered on a continuum between
the following two extremes: (1) Integrated STEM in which science inquiry,
technological literacy, mathematical thinking and engineering design are inter-
woven in the classroom, and (2) Separated S. T. E. M. in which each subject
is taught separately with the hope that the synthesis of disciplinary knowledge
will be applied.
A Comparison of the STEM Education Background
This section compares the STEM education background of the 10 countries.
The comparison is based on three components: supply and demand of a
501 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
STEM-skilled workforce, the schooling system, and the inuence government
exerts on STEM education in the 10 countries. Table 1 shows a summary of
the comparison components for each country.
Comparison Component 1: Supply and Demand of STEM-skilled
Workforce
According to the country’s reports, all 10 countries agree that the STEM skills
are vital for the fullment of a knowledge-based future, and recognize the im-
portance of cultivating STEM talent for economic growth. However, it seems
that a shortage of STEM workers is a common and signicant challenge for
all of the countries. Most countries mention that the gap between supply and
demand of the STEM workforce is massive. The STEM-related job vacancies
have been increasing largely, while the number of STEM graduates cannot
keep pace with the skill demand. To face this challenge, the governments in
most countries have expressed an eagerness to increase the number of STEM
students and have implemented policies to attract more students to study
STEM. In countries like SE, the number of people applying for STEM courses
at university level is increasing, while in some countries (such as FI and the
UAE), students’ interest in STEM elds is diminishing gradually, with many
students not choosing STEM elds.
Comparison Component 2: Schooling System
For the structure of the schooling system in the 10 countries, some countries
with a federal system of government (such as CA, DE, and the USA) have
a decentralized system of education wherein curricula and policy are under
the jurisdiction of each state/ province/ territory. The other countries’ govern-
ments (such as FI, HK, IE, SG, and TW) are more centralized, wherein na-
tional curriculum guidelines have been published to guide teachers’ teaching
in all schools, especially for the core/required courses in compulsory educa-
tion. Generally, compulsory education in most countries covers from primary
502
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
education to middle school or lower secondary education, lasting 9-10 years.
A few cases have extended compulsory education upward to upper secondary
education level (such as the USA) or have extended it downward to early edu-
cation level (like FI). In addition, the education systems in countries such as
FI, DE, IE, SG, TW, and the UAE have a dual-track feature in which there are
separate high schools and colleges/ universities dedicated to technological and
vocational education.
Comparison Component 3: Inuence of Government on STEM
Education
These highly competitive countries all agree with the importance of STEM
education, while the strength of inuence that each government exerts varies
to some extent. In countries like the USA, TW, IE, and HK, the central/federal
government plays a dominant and proactive role in promoting K-12 STEM
education. For example, the USA treats STEM education as a priority and a
national agenda wherein the Department of Education provides funding and
resources. Also, the White House unveiled a STEM education strategic plan,
detailing the federal government’s strategy for expanding and improving the
nation’s capacity for STEM education. Besides government support for poli-
cies, strategies, or resources, the Department of Education in some countries
(such as TW, IE, and HK) has developed national guidelines to promote the
STEM education curriculum and partnerships between schools, teachers, and
industries. The CN government, by contrast, allocates most of the federal
funding to postsecondary education and research, while funding for K-12
STEM education is negligible. The central government in DE lacks direct
control and inuence on states; therefore, the STEM education landscape in
Germany is quite heterogeneous.
503 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Table 1 A summary of the supply and demand of a STEM-skilled workforce, schooling system, and inuence of government on
STEM education for the 10 countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW) United Arab
Emirates (UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Supply and
demand of a
STEM-skilled
workforce
1. There are cur-
rent shortages
of engineers,
IT workers,
healthcare
specialists,
and some
tradespeople,
especially
electricians.
2. There is an eco-
nomic demand
for additional
emphases on
STEM. The
demand for
people who
can fill STEM-
related jobs
will increase in
Canada.
3. About 25% of
postsecond-
ary students
are STEM
majors, and
government
policies aim to
increase this
for economic
purposes.
1. The technology
industry will
need 130,000
new STEM
experts within
10 years, about
13,000 annu-
ally.
2. Students’
interest in
STEM fields
diminishes
gradually, with
most students
not choosing
STEM fields.
1. A massive gap
between supply
and demand
of the STEM work-
force.
2. The gap in 2022
was 286,800
persons, 137%
more than in
2021. There were
around 477,600
STEM vacan-
cies to be filled.
The greatest
bottleneck can
be seen in the
energy/electrical,
machine/vehicle
technology, IT,
metalworking,
and construction
occupations.
3. The annual new
supply of profes-
sionally qualified
STEM workers will
be significantly
lower than the
demographic
replacement
demand in the
coming years.
1. Although
the HKSAR
Government
has announced
policies and
measures to
develop an
Innovation and
Technology
(I&T) ecosys-
tem, HK has
been struggling
hard to culti-
vate a critical
mass of talent
in the younger
generation.
There were only
6.6 researchers
per thousand
employments in
2018.
2. It is necessary
to look for novel
educational
initiatives like
STEM in HK
primary and
secondary edu-
cation.
1. STEM skills
are vital for the
fulfilment of a
knowledge-
based future for
Ireland. STEM
education
plays a role of
supporting the
development
of Ireland’s
national STEM
ecosystem.
2. Ireland pro-
duced either
the highest or
second highest
proportion of
graduates in
STEM in the
EU between
2014 and 2017.
However, this
is insufficient to
keep pace with
Ireland’s STEM
skills demand.
3. There were
skill shortages
in all STEM
areas. 94% of
engineering
employers
consider the
shortage of
experienced
engineers to
be a significant
barrier to
growth.
1. The economic
growth of SG
is largely reli-
ant on STEM-
related industrial
sectors such as
electronics, bio-
medical science,
and precision
engineering.
2. The key skills
growth areas for
the continued
development of
SG society and
economy are
related to the
digital economy,
green economy
& care economy
that are STEM-
related.
3. SG STEM edu-
cation continues
to flourish for
K-12 schools.
4. However, the
% of STEM
undergraduates
& graduates has
not reached the
desired level for
both males and
females.
1. Sweden’s STEM
sector accounts for
a large portion of
its economy.
2. A significant
proportion of the
Swedish labor
force is employed
in areas such as
the mechanical,
manufacturing,
construction, and
information tech-
nology sectors, or
other professional,
scientific, or techni-
cal activities.
3. With the number
of people applying
for university level
STEM courses in
Sweden having
increased over
the years, there is
a strong demand
for a STEM-skilled
workforce to main-
tain and continue
Sweden’s success
in global markets.
4. The main areas
related to the
STEM labor force
demand include
economics, engi-
neering, forestry,
science and health,
and education.
1. The proportion
of STEM talent
shortage reached
63.5% of the total
need in 2020,
mainly including
the information
technology, sci-
ence, statistics,
and engineering
fields.
2. The gover nment
has expressed
an eagerness
to improve the
number of STEM
professionals and
enhance Taiwan’s
international
competitiveness
through educa-
tion.
1. To diversify and
strengthen the rising
oil-based economy,
the UAE has begun
revamping its
education system,
particularly the
STEM subjects.
2. Compared to other
Middle East coun-
tries, the UAE is not
a leading contributor
to technology and
science develop-
ment. The UAE
educational system
needs to evolve and
provide highly tal-
ented STEM workers
to reach its vision
of becoming an
innovative and self-
sustaining economy.
3. There is a reducing
trend of STEM in the
UAE. It is not certain
that students will
enroll and major in
STEM fields and will
become produc-
tive and innovative
members of STEM
professions due to
many challenges
and barriers influ-
encing students’
choice to study for
further education
and for future career
aspirations.
1. There is a shortage
of STEM workers.
Between 2020
and 2030, the U.S.
jobs in STEM are
expected to grow
10.5% (to more
than 11 million)
which is 1.4 times
faster than non-
STEM occupations
(7.5%).
2. The annual median
salary for STEM
degree graduates
is 2 times higher
than those who
graduate in a non-
STEM occupation.
3. The STEM work-
force represented
23% of the total
U.S. workforce in
2019.
4. Over half of the
STEM work-
ers don’t have
a bachelor’s
degree and work
primarily in health
care, construction
trades, installation,
maintenance and
repair, and produc-
tion occupations.
504
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW) United Arab
Emirates (UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Schooling
system
1. Decentralized
system of edu-
cation, wherein
curriculum
and policy are
under jurisdic-
tion of each
province and
territory.
2. K-12+ STEM
education in
CA includes
elementary,
secondary, and
tertiary or
postsecond-
ary education
levels.
1. Education
services from
pre-school edu-
cation to higher
education are
free of charge.
Great emphasis
on equal-
ity and justice
concepts.
2. Compul-
sory education:
early childhood
education (1
year), primary
education (6
years, lower
secondary/
middle school
3 years, upper
secondary/
high school
or vocational
school 3 years;
years 6 - 19).
3. After lower
secondary edu-
cation: com-
mon/ vocational
high schools (3
years).
4. Higher educa-
tion: applied
universities
and traditional
research uni-
versities.
1. The Federal
Republic of Ger-
many consists of
16 federal states
that have their
own education
ministries operat-
ing independent-
ly. Even though
some minor
differences exist,
these educa-
tional systems are
comparable and
can be described
as one system.
2. Eight ISCED
levels are divided
into five main
education levels:
elementary,
primary, lower
secondary, upper
secondary and
tertiary education.
The HK
education system
includes K
(kindergarten, 3
years), Key stage
1-2 (primary
education, 6
years), Key stage
3-4 (secondary,
6 years), 18+
(post-secondary,
4 years), and
post-graduate
level.
1. Ireland’s com-
pulsory school-
ing system
covers students
from age 7/8 to
15/16, includ-
ing primary, ju-
nior cycle, and
senior cycle
programs.
2. Irish preschools
are generally
run by private
organizations,
supported by
government
funding.
3. All public and
private primary
schools follow
the same
national cur-
riculum.
4. The post-
primary school
landscape is
comprised of
voluntary sec-
ondary schools,
community
schools, and
comprehen-
sive schools;
over time, the
separation
of academic
and voca-
tional focus has
become less
apparent.
1. Preschool is not
compulsory but
all must attend a
national primary
school.
2. Primary school
(6 years),
secondary (4-5
years), & pre-
university (2-3
years)/ polytech-
nic.
3. There are
multiple educa-
tional pathways
(tracks) after
primary school:
IP, Express, Nor-
mal (Academic
& Technical)
courses.
4. All tracks pres-
ent opportunities
to pursue a
university course
of study. Oppor-
tunities to study
science and
math are avail-
able at every
grade level.
Schooling system
includes:
1. Preschool, ages ≈
6-7
2. Compulsory
school, ages
≈ 7-16, with 3
stages: primary
school (grades
1-3), middle school
(grades 4-6),
and high school
(grades 7-9)
3. Upper secondar y
school, ages ≈ 16-
19
4. Higher education:
diplomas/bachelor,
master, licenti-
ate and doctoral
degrees
1. A 6-3-3-4
education system,
including stages
of elementary
school, middle
school, upper
secondary school
(general and
technical high
schools), and
college/university
education.
2. A 12-year basic
education is of-
fered and grades
1 to 9 are compul-
sory education.
1. The transition
between the educa-
tional phrases has
been rapid. Cycle 2
and cycle 3 enroll-
ment between 1973
to 2009 rose from
22% to 93%.
2. In the 1970s, 48% of
adults were illiterate
and 40 years later,
over 93% are liter-
ate.
3. The UAE education
system is going
through a pe-
riod of remarkable
educational reforms.
Through UNESCO
and the OECD,
the UAE is pursing
global education
reforms to enhance
the quality and
access to education
in public and private
schools.
1. K-12 schooling is
primarily achieved
through public
education, while
there are some
alternatives, such
as private schools,
home school-
ing, and charter
schools.
2. Public education
is free and compul-
sory; students’
dropout age varies
(between 14-18
years of age) by
state.
3. Secondary
education typically
includes a middle/
junior high school
and a high school
experience.
4. After high school,
students can enroll
in a community
college, college or
university.
Table 1 (continued)
505 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW) United Arab
Emirates (UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Influence of
government on
STEM education
1. Federal,
provincial, and
territorial gov-
ernments have
been active in
the STEM edu-
cation policy
context. The
federal govern-
ment has 31
initiatives of
STEM educa-
tion, while most
are not K-12
school-based.
2. The large bulk
of federal STEM
funding is for
postsecondary
education and
research, while
a negligible
fraction is al-
located to K-12
STEM educa-
tion.
3. The federal
government
prioritizes
informal STEM
education
initiatives, like
extra- curricu-
lar local and
national STEM
competitions.
1. The Gover n-
ment supports
for STEM-re-
lated projects,
such as The
LUMA-SUOMI
project were
assisted by
the Ministry of
Education and
Culture.
2. In-service
education for
teachers is free
of charge and
funded by the
municipalities
or National
Agency of
Education; The
LUMA FIN-
LAND program
was also sup-
ported by the
Finnish Ministry
of Education
and Culture.
1. The competence
to exert influence
on school educa-
tion is distributed
to Germany’s
government, the
federal states’
governments,
local authorities
and the schools.
- Just a few policies
on quite an ab-
stract level come
from the central
government.
- Many policies
are created
by the state’s
governments,
for instance the
regulations about
school subjects
and subject-
specific teaching
quantity.
- Many decisions at
the executive level
are made by the
schools.
2. In general,
Germany’s central
government has
limited influence
on the education
system due to the
fact that respon-
sibility to regulate
the specific
education policies
is given to the 16
states.
1. The HKSAR
Government
plays a domi-
nant role in de-
veloping STEM
education in
schools through
enacting policy
and appropriat-
ing funding,
resource and
support.
2. STEM is
considered as
a measure to
equip future
generations for
the keen global
competition
ahead in HK.
3. HK gover nment
promotes and
starts STEM
early in primary
and secondary
schools to nar-
row the talent
gap.
1. The strategic
direction of
developing
STEM educa-
tion is heavily
supported and
influenced by
governmental
incentive and
funding.
2. The Irish
Government
is proactive in
developing the
STEM strategy
with the agenda
of providing the
best education
and training
in Europe by
2026.
3. The Depar t-
ment of Educa-
tion and Skills
has developed
guidelines to
support STEM
education part-
nerships be-
tween schools,
school leaders,
teachers, and
industry.
1. The academic
syllabus in
national schools
is decided by
the MOE.
2. The curriculum
review cycles
take place once
every 6 years,
involving experts
from MOE,
schools, insti-
tutes of higher
learning (IHLs) &
industries.
3. The gover n-
ment’s support,
mandate, and
influence for
STEM education
takes the form
of resource
allocation, policy
documents &
expertise avail-
ability.
1. The gover n-
ment has overall
responsibility for
higher educa-
tion with funding
allocation being a
dominant way of
having impact. It
has been providing
extra funding to
higher education
institutions for
teacher education
programs since
2015.
2. The Riksdag
(the Swedish
national legislature
or parliament) and
the government
are responsible for
the curriculum and
what pupils learn
in school.
3. The compulsor y
school curriculum
written by the
Swedish National
Agency for Educa-
tion is cohesive in
that all students
follow the same
curriculum and all
subjects offered
are mandatory.
1. The latest na-
tionwide 12-year
basic education
curriculum guide-
lines treat STEM
as an interdisci-
plinary education
and allocate it to
the technology
domain of the
upper secondary
education stage.
2. For STEM-related
departments in
higher education,
MOE policies fo-
cus on expanding
enrollment by 10-
15%, diminishing
the restriction
on the teacher-
student ratio,
and encouraging
the offering of
interdisciplinary
programs.
3. The gover nment
supports setting
up 100 Maker
and Technology
Centers to design
STEM-related
activities and pro-
vide the modules
to K-12 teachers.
4. Informal STEM
activities (such as
camps & compe-
titions) are highly
supported by the
government.
1. The goals of STEM
education are
reflected in the main
government’s reform
agendas (such as
UAE Vision 2021)
and the related pub-
lished studies.
2. The MOE imple-
mented the educa-
tional development
program for math
and science as part
of improving the
integrated STEM
education.
3. The MOE has
signed a 7-year deal
with the American
company McGraw-
Hill Education to
procure all K-12
math and science
instructional materi-
als in e-book and
print formats.
1. STEM education is
a national agenda
item. The U.S.
Department of
Education provides
a variety of re-
sources, including
funding opportuni-
ties, relevant and
timely information
about STEM.
2. STEM education
became a priority
for the U.S. when
The White House
(2018) released
The STEM Educa-
tion Strategic Plan,
Charting a Course
for Success:
America’s Strategy
for STEM Educa-
tion.
Table 1 (continued)
506
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
A Comparison of the Status of STEM Education
This section presents a comparison of the current STEM education in K-12
schools for the 10 countries. It comprises six comparative components, name-
ly: contexts of STEM education, STEM education system/ framework, STEM-
related activities in non-formal education, STEM learning assessment and
career development, STEM teacher qualification and professional training,
and current STEM education reform and policy discussions. Table 2 shows
the summarized information of each country for the above-mentioned compo-
nents.
Comparison Component 4: Contexts of STEM Education
The STEM current practices in schools, key statistics, and highlights of poli-
cies and strategies in the 10 countries are discussed here. Since traditional
education systems prefer a monodisciplinary approach, it is observed that
many countries perform STEM education by means of teaching each subject
of S.T.E.M. separately. Among these four subjects, mathematics and science
are typical core subjects that are commonly included in the curriculum from
primary schools to secondary schools. By contrast, the subjects of technology
and engineering are not so prevalent, and fewer eorts have been concentrated
on them. Some countries, such as DE, CN, SG, and the UAE, are examples
of the separated STEM education approach. Even though monodisciplinary
teaching is popular in secondary education, a number of countries (e.g., FI and
IE) highly promote the interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach. Taking
FI as an example; the latest national core curriculum emphasizes the learning
of transversal STEM competences through the phenomenon-based teaching
and learning approach which has a transdisciplinary nature.
As for the proportion of students in STEM elds, some countries, such as FI,
DE, SG, and TW, have more than one-third of students in STEM postsecond-
507 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
ary education. DE even has the highest rate of 1st year students in STEM in an
international comparison. Compared to males, females are underrepresented
in STEM elds in most countries.
The prioritization of STEM education is apparent from the government’s
policy or strategies in FI, HK, IE, TW, and the USA. For example, the USA
has developed international/ national educational standards in each of the
STEM disciplines. Thus, states could build up their own STEM programs and
curricula based on the standards. Ireland is another case where its government
is proactive in developing a STEM strategy with the agenda of providing the
best STEM education and training in Europe. On the other hand, Canadian
federal policies and funding have little eect on K-12 STEM education, and
the UAE is just at the early implementation stage of STEM education and is
calling for an integrated framework suitable for K-12 schools.
Comparison Component 5: STEM Education System/Framework
This part focuses on discussion of the goals of STEM education, types of K-12
schools oering STEM education, and school categories especially emphasiz-
ing STEM education in formal education. For the goals of STEM education, a
number of countries (such as the USA, FI, HK, and IE) have set up clear goals
for STEM education in formal documents. For example, in the USA, there
are three broad goals for STEM education, that is, building strong founda-
tions for STEM literacy, increasing diversity, equity, and inclusion in STEM,
and preparing the STEM workforce for the future. Similarly, HK’s STEM
education aims to cultivate students’ interests and solid knowledge in STEM,
to strengthen integrated ability to apply knowledge and skills across dierent
disciplines, and to nurture innovative talents for the needs of the 21st century.
On the other hand, Germany has no xed objectives for STEM education, be-
cause traditionally STEM is not a subject in schools. In Taiwan, explicit goals
of STEM education have not been generated yet, due to the inconsistencies
between policy makers and practices of STEM education.
508
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
In terms of types of K-12 schools offering STEM education, it is observed
that STEM education is usually embedded in several subjects from primary
schools to upper secondary schools. Specifically, STEM is predominantly
taught in the traditional subjects of mathematics or science (biology, physics,
or chemistry) separately. An exception is IE wherein integrated STEM is fully
operated in preschools and primary schools. In addition, mathematics and
science are usually mandatory in compulsory education, and more optional
courses about science, technology, engineering, or STEM-related subjects are
oered as students move to higher educational levels. It is worth noting that
STEM education in a few countries is not common in regular classrooms. One
example is DE, where STEM education is often oered as voluntary classes
or extracurricular activities; the other is the UAE, where all integrated STEM
education initiatives are exclusive to private educational institutions in which
international curricula with parts of STEM education are operated.
The National Academy of Sciences (2011) in the USA identied four school
categories in formal education that emphasize STEM education, namely elite
STEM-focused schools, inclusive STEM-focused schools, STEM-focused
vocational and technical education (VTE) schools or programs, and STEM
programs in non-STEM-focused schools. Among the 10 highly competitive
countries, the STEM-focused VTE schools or programs and STEM programs
in non-STEM-focused schools are more popular, while the other two cat-
egories are uncommon. In countries where vocational education sectors are
prominent (such as DE, SG, TW), there are many VTE schools or programs
at the upper secondary education level that are designed to prepare students
for a broad range of STEM careers. As for STEM programs in non-STEM-
focused schools, they are often provided in countries where comprehensive
high schools are prevalent (such as the USA). Many of these schools oer ad-
vanced coursework through the Advanced Placement (AP), International Bac-
calaureate (IB) programs, and other opportunities for highly STEM motivated
students.
509 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison Component 6: STEM-related Activities in Non-formal
Education
All countries in this comparison attach great importance to the STEM-related
activities in non-formal education, no matter how many efforts they have
made in formal education. Such activities are provided through diverse forms,
including STEM workshops, competitions, exhibitions, summer/ student/
maker camps, seminars, school visits, eld trips, and so on. Most of them are
offered after class time or out of schools by government-related organiza-
tions/ schools, private cram schools, associations, NGOs, private companies,
industries, museums, science centers, universities, and so on. Among them,
museums are one of the most popular ways to access STEM. For example,
museums in Sweden oer a wide variety of exhibitions, workshops tailored
for schools, school visits, and competitions to enrich students’ STEM learning
experience.
Comparison Component 7: STEM Learning Assessment and Ca-
reer Development
Students’ STEM learning performance in the 10 countries is commonly mea-
sured by international assessments as well as by national or school-based tests
in each country. On the whole, most countries perform well on science and
mathematics literacy measures in PISA or TIMSS. Some countries’ scores are
even ranked at the top of all participants (such as FI, HK, IE, SG, TW, etc.), or
achieve the supreme level in their regions. Finnish and Irish students are noted
to perform highly in math and science with respect to EU countries, as do the
HK, SG and TW students in the Asian area. As for the gender dierence, boys
tend to have higher scores in mathematics and science measures than girls,
while in two Nordic countries, FI and SE, girls outperform boys, and the gap
is even signicant in FI. In the USA, although K-12 students do not perform
that well as compared with peers from around the world, the USA has some
of the best STEM-related programs in higher education that cultivate a great
510
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
number of talents in STEM elds. It is worth noticing that only mathematics
and science literacy are measured in PISA or TIMSS; no valid international
measures are issued to assess students’ learning performance in technology
and engineering.
In addition to joining the international assessments, some countries hold
national assessments in the form of standardized tests, proficiency tests, or
surveys. For example, the Institute for Quality Development in Education in
DE regularly conducts a nationwide survey to assess fourth and ninth graders’
performance in science and math, and the results are reported in comparison
to KMK standards. Similarly, there are national standardized tests (GCE and
PSLE) in SG to evaluate students’ performance. In the USA, the National As-
sessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is developed to measure student
achievement nationally and periodically. It covers not only mathematics and
science, but also technology and engineering literacy in STEM elds; the re-
sults are presented in "The Nation's Report Card" for stakeholders to access.
Regarding students’ STEM career development, some countries have special
emphases on students’ vertical articulation to post-secondary STEM-related
programs or horizontal transition to STEM-related workplaces. For example,
science and engineering careers are a part of STEM education in FI. In HK,
after the junior secondary level, students have many paths for STEM ca-
reer development, such as opting for STEM-related elective subjects, taking
career-oriented “Applied Learning Courses,” choosing STEM-related under-
graduate courses in universities, and so on. In SG, students have to study and
meet minimum grade requirements at the secondary school and junior college
levels to further pursue a STEM course at tertiary level. For countries with
a vocational education system at the secondary education level (such as DE,
TW), students in STEM programs usually have internship or apprenticeship
opportunities to prepare them for a specific type of job, while meeting the
STEM-related industry’s need for highly skilled employees.
511 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison Component 8: STEM Teacher Qualication and Pro-
fessional Training
Because some countries treat S.T.E.M. as monodisciplinary subjects and the
others treat it as a transdisciplinary subject, STEM teacher preparation pro-
grams are oered on a spectrum in terms of the degree of integration. At one
extreme, STEM remains as distinct and disjointed subjects wherein teachers
are trained as experts in one single field. Taking CN, HK, and the UAE as
examples, neither STEM teacher qualification requirements nor STEM-ma-
jored pre-service programs are oered. Teachers obtain most of their STEM
teaching competencies through in-service training activities or from their
own experiences. At the other extreme, STEM teachers are well trained in an
intradisciplinary or transdisciplinary manner and programs. For example, sec-
ondary education teachers in FI are trained in joint programs provided by the
faculty of science and education together. In DE, general education teacher
programs require studies on two or three subjects and pedagogy training.
As for vocational teachers’ training, one general education subject has to be
studied besides one vocational subject. Further, Taiwan provides three types
of integrative/interdisciplinary STEM teacher education preparations or in-
service trainings: degree programs in master and doctoral degrees, certicate
or diploma programs for pre- and in-service teachers; and short-term training
programs, courses, or workshops for in-service teachers. Overall, ongoing ef-
forts have raised awareness of integrated STEM learning among STEM teach-
ers in these 10 countries.
Comparison Component 9: Current STEM Education Reforms and
Policy Discussions
In recent years, STEM education reform occurs prevalently from either central
government or local government in these countries. In addition, policy discus-
sions often concentrate on how to introduce the integrated STEM education
into the classrooms or through out-of-school activities, how to support and co-
512
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
operate with various partnerships to enrich the diversity of STEM initiatives,
and so on. For example, the White House in the USA has set out federal strat-
egies for a future that all Americans will have lifelong access to high quality
STEM education. Besides the eorts from federal government, a number of
professional associations and nonprot organizations (such as ITEEA, Battelle
for Kids, etc.) have been involved in the development of standards for STEM
literacy and have illustrated the framework of skills and knowledge students
need to succeed in work and life. Similarly, after extensive consultation with
stakeholders, the Department of Education in IE has published a STEM Edu-
cation Policy Statement that focuses on the many strengths in STEM educa-
tion while providing a roadmap to address the areas for development. Four
main pillars are identied as follows: increased success in STEM, including:
nurturing learner engagement, enhancing early years practitioner and teacher
capacity, supporting STEM education practice, and using evidence to support
STEM education. In countries such as SE, TW, SG, and IE, recent curriculum
reform has taken STEM education into consideration. Take SE as an example;
a clear direction of STEM education is indicated in the curriculum in which
one signicant change is to introduce programming and safety of the use of
technology in mathematics and technology subjects. In TW, more opportuni-
ties to implement integrative STEM education were provided in the school-
based curriculum in the last curriculum reform.
Among these countries, FI is the only one where STEM education has been
mainstreamed in the education system and reached high consensus from the
stakeholders; therefore, STEM issues are not a matter of debate there. By con-
trast, the German system in general is quite static and traditional. Any change
including integrative STEM education needs a considerable amount of time.
513 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Table 2 A summary of the status of STEM education for the 10 countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United
Arab Emir-
ates (UAE)
United
States of
America
(USA)
Contexts of
STEM education
1. STEM is found to be
a catalyst for eco-
nomic and cultural
change; however,
federal policies and
funding for K-12
STEM education
has little effect on
practices in schools
and teacher educa-
tion.
2. Most efforts have
been concentrated
on math and sci-
ence. Engineering
education is exclud-
ed from K-12. The
ITEEA Standards for
Technological and
Engineering Literacy
is the first step to
promote TE in K-12
STEM education.
3. Women are under-
represented in
STEM postsecond-
ary education: only
22% in engineering,
30% in math and
computer science,
32% in physical sci-
ences, and 60% in
biological sciences.
4. About 50% of STEM
postsecondary
students are im-
migrants.
5. 46% of Canadian
youth anticipate
working in a STEM
career.
1. Diverse national
level STEM education
development projects
are conducted, such
as LUMA-SUOMI,
StarT development
project, LUMA FIN-
LAND program, the
“Co4-Lab” project,
etc.
2. Several networks aim
to improve students’
and teachers’ knowl-
edge and skills in
STEM fields, such as
LUMA and Innokas
networks.
3. National core cur-
riculum emphasizes
STEM competences.
Learning transversal
competencies is a
major part of STEM
education.
4. The phenomenon-
based approach to
STEM education is
proposed. In primary
education, the trans-
disciplinary approach
is a major teaching
method in STEM. In
secondary education,
STEM subjects are
taught separately.
5. Around 36% of all
students studied
STEM in universities;
the percentage in
applied universities
was 34%.
1. Highly focused
on traditional sub-
jects (like math,
biology, physics
& chemistry); only
math is taught in
each school and
has educational
standards in each
level. That is,
STEM-relevant
subjects (like
computer sci-
ence, technology)
are lacking.
2. In an international
comparison,
Germany has the
highest rate of 1st
year students in
STEM subjects;
36% obtained a
tertiary degree in
STEM subjects
compared to
24% in OECD
countries.
3. In general,
Germany has an
above-average #
of young people
starting STEM
studies, and the
proportion of
women is increas-
ing slightly,
while the high
# of dropouts
continues to be a
challenge.
1. Policy documents
announce the
positioning of
STEM education
in HK indicating
the promotion of
STEM education
is a key emphasis
under the ongo-
ing renewal of
the school cur-
riculum.
2. The ”Final Report”
from the Task
Force on review
of the school cur-
riculum suggests
setting up a des-
ignated commit-
tee at policy level,
to appoint STEM
coordinators, and
to provide central
guidelines for
schools.
3. Surveys & study
findings revealed
concerns over
the shortage of
STEM teachers &
inadequate train-
ing, availability
of professional
development of
STEM education,
etc.
4. Around 65 to 80%
of the primary
and secondary
schools have
implemented
STEM education.
1. The prioritization
of STEM educa-
tion in Ireland is
apparent from
government
policy.
2. The STEM Eco-
System aligns
with and comple-
ments formal and
informal STEM
education. Core
curricular objec-
tives are explicit
and progressive
with a clear focus
on the integrated
nature of STEM
activity and the
value of interdisci-
plinary capacity.
3. The “Innovation
2020" strategy
for research and
development,
science, and
technology
highlights the
critical role that
STEM education
plays in ensuring
the continual
development of
a talent pipeline
to support the
foreign direct in-
vestment and an
active ecosystem
for indigenous
tech start-ups.
1. K-12 STEM
education is
carried out in
a monodis-
ciplinary
manner, where
science, math,
design and
technology
& computing
are taught
as separate
subjects
by different
teachers. It
works well with
high levels of
proficiency.
2. The conversa-
tions among
educators
and policy
makers about
integrated
STEM learning
started in
2019 and are
still ongoing.
3. Around 58%
of polytechnic
students take
STEM-related
courses in
post-second-
ary schools
in 2020; the
percentage
in ITE is 62%,
and 47% for
university.
1. 86% of Swedish
1- to 5-year-
olds attend
preschools that
offer a national
curriculum em-
bracing a holistic
inter-disciplinary
approach.
2. The upper
secondary edu-
cation providers
offer 18 national
programs across
2 strands: a
vocational
strand and a
higher education
preparatory
strand. Among
the programs,
the STEM
direct-related
programs (Natu-
ral Science and
Technology)
accounted for
21.2% of upper
secondary
level students in
2021.
3. As for a crude
classification,
about 42.2%
of upper
secondary level
students were
in STEM related
programs.
1. The gover nment
has emphasized
STEM education
for all education
levels to deal with
the insufficiency of
STEM talents.
2. Engineering
design and inter-
disciplinary STEM
education have
been addressed at
upper secondary
schools, while the
main ideas still fo-
cus on technology
education.
3. Some local educa-
tion bureaus have
started to exert
their policies of
STEM education.
4. There is a lack of
systematic orga-
nization for STEM
education in basic
education.
5. The number of
students in STEM
has declined from
35.4% to 31.8%
over the past
decade.
6. There is a low pro-
portion of females
majoring in STEM:
15% in science,
28% in technology,
30% in engineer-
ing, & 32% in math.
1. The imple-
mentation
of STEM is
at the early
stage in the
UAE and
there are
calls for an
integrated
framework
for effective
implementa-
tion in K-12
education.
2. STEM
education
has been
introduced
formally and
informally in
UAE educa-
tion over
the past few
years with
light focus
and cover-
age.
3. Engineer is
ranked as the
top preferred
job (15.9%)
by Emirati
youth.
1. No national
curriculum
for STEM
educa-
tion, while
there are
international/
national
educational
standards
in each of
the STEM
disciplines
for states to
build their
own STEM
programs
and cur-
ricula.
2. There are a
few notable
national cur-
riculum
programs
that focus on
STEM edu-
cation, such
as Project
Lead The
Way (PLTW),
ITEEA’s
Engineering
by Design
(EbD),
Engineering
is Elementary
(EiE), etc.
514
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore (SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
Emirates
(UAE)
United
States of
America
(USA)
STEM
education
system/ frame-
work
1. Elemen-
tary schools
are somewhat
inter- or trans-
disciplinary.
2. Nearly all public
secondary
schools have
isolated math
and science
and some form
of technology
courses, but
no engineering
requirements.
3. Very few techni-
cal (vocational)
secondary
schools are
specific to
the T in STEM
and specialize
in functional
integration or
applications
of math and
science. In the
early 2000s,
they had recon-
figured into Ca-
reer Technical
Centers. Later,
since priorities
shifted to grant
“polytechnic”
institutions
later, it has
been ineffective
in providing
alternatives to
comprehensive
high school for
STEM immer-
sion.
1. Goals for STEM
education in
lower secondary/
middle school are
analyzed in terms
of aims for math,
biology, craft,
chemistry & phys-
ics, as designated
in the National
Core Curriculum.
2. The middle school
STEM-oriented
curriculum is part
of the curriculum
of different school
subjects. STEM
literacy in the Finn-
ish middle school
is grouped under
3 areas: attitudes,
knowledge, and
STEM practices.
3. Science and en-
gineering process
skills introduced
in the curricula
require the concre-
tion of science with
math, engineering,
& technology.
4. The subject-
specific curriculum
emphasizes stu-
dents’ engagement
in science inquiry
and technology-
related problems.
5. The middle school
curriculum empha-
sizes the learning
of transversal
competencies.
1. Due to the German
tradition, STEM isn’t
a subject in schools
and has no fixed key
objectives for STEM
education.
2. Some pragmatic
goals of STEM
education are
identified: to supply
the economy with
a STEM workforce,
to integrate school-
external learning
occasions, to take
real-life problems
into account without
the restrictions of
curricular settings.
3. A practice-oriented
learning style is
conducted that
addresses real-life
problems and situa-
tion.
4. Since there is no uni-
form, didactic con-
cept for integrated
STEM education, it is
difficult to implement
integrated STEM into
regular classes. It is
often offered outside
the compulsory
lessons as voluntary
classes or an extra-
curricular offer.
5. STEM is taught as
separate subjects in
ISCED levels 1 to 3.
6. In the vocational
school sector, there
are many schools
that focus on STEM
topics.
1. HK's STEM edu-
cation aims to: 1.
cultivate students’
interest in sci-
ence, technology
and math; and
develop among
them a solid
knowledge base;
2. strengthen abil-
ity to integrate and
apply knowledge
and skills across
different STEM
disciplines; 3.
nurture creativity,
collaboration and
problem solving
skills; and foster
innovation and en-
trepreneurial spirit
as required in the
21st century.
2. The scope of
implementing
the curriculum
change of STEM
education covers
all primary though
General Studies
and the 3 STEM
KLAs in second-
ary schools. In
senior secondary
school, STEM
learning is offered
to those who opt
for STEM-related
subjects.
3. STEM educa-
tion depends on
the readiness
of teachers and
schools. It varies
among schools.
1. The national
STEM education
policy sets
out a goal of
providing “…the
highest quality
STEM education
experience
for learners
that nurtures cu-
riosity, inquiry,
problem-solv-
ing, creativity,
ethical behavior,
confidence, and
persistence,
along with the
excitement of
collaborative
innovation”.
2. Types of K-12
schools offering
STEM educa-
tion: preschool
and primary
schools (fully in-
tegrated STEM);
junior cycle
(different sub-
jects, including
math, science,
& 4 technology
subjects: mate-
rial technology
wood, engineer-
ing, applied
technology
& graphics);
senior cycle
(separate STEM
subjects; except
for math, the
other subjects
are elective).
1. At primary schools,
fundamental learn-
ing of math from
grades 1 to 6, and
science from grades
3 to 6.
2. For secondary 1 &
2, science & math
are mandatory. At
the secondary 3 &
4, different science
subjects are offered
for choice, and
elementary math
is required. The
Applied Learning
Programme (ALP)
is available in all
secondary schools
which emphasizes
the applications of
knowledge and skills
learnt in schools to
problems in indus-
tries and society.
41% of schools have
STEM-related ALP.
3. Advanced lear ning
of math and science
is offered at junior
colleges; ITE pro-
vides a curriculum
aimed at the acqui-
sition of practical
STEM-related skills.
4. Polytechnics
train profession-
als to support the
technological and
economic develop-
ment. Universities
have programs to
develop top talents
in S.T.E.M.
1. There is a national
curriculum for pre-
schools and com-
pulsory schools.
In the pre-school
curriculum, some
areas are close
to STEM, such
as “creative and
aesthetic forms of
expression,” “math-
ematical reasoning
and forms of
expression,” etc.
2. In compulsor y
schools, STEM
education is em-
bedded in several
subjects, however
it is predominantly
in “the traditional”
STEM subjects of
math, technology,
crafts and the sci-
ence subjects (biol-
ogy, physics, and
chemistry) which
are all mandatory
from grade 1 to
grade 9.
3. Of the 6,890 total
guaranteed hours
of compulsory
school, 34.25%
are directly related
to STEM subjects,
and there is more
STEM-related
content in other
subjects, such as
physical education
and health, history
and geography.
1. STEM education
goals (gener-
ated from survey
and literature
review): cultivating
students’ 21st-
century skills,
STEM literacy,
and capabilities
in interdisciplinary
problem-solving.
2. In the 12-year
basic education,
STEM-related
activities gener-
ally take place in
school-developed
curricula (in 'alter-
native curricula'
for primary and
middle schools/
'alternative learn-
ing periods' for
upper secondary
schools).
3. Teachers have
limited knowledge
in creating STEM
activities; thus,
‘Maker and Tech-
nology Centers’
help to develop
STEM modules
for teaching. Also,
MOST has encour-
aged the develop-
ment of school-
orientated STEM
activities, like
Mushroom experi-
ment, Incubators
design, Mousetrap
car, Bridge design,
Seismic structure
design, etc.
1. All integrated
STEM educa-
tion initiatives
are exclusive
to private
educational
institutions,
as they are
based on
international
curricula and
accreditations
in which STEM
education is
recognized
as a part of
curricula.
2. The gover n-
ment is taking
logical steps
to expand
integrated
STEM educa-
tion to public
schools.
3. A 3-pronged
structure
provides a
history of how
the current
STEM subject
integration
approach to
education
has occurred,
including
design-based
education,
project-based
education,
and subject
integration.
1. Three broad
goals for
STEM educa-
tion: building
strong
foundations
for STEM
literacy;
increasing
diversity,
equity, and
inclusion
in STEM;
preparing
the STEM
workforce for
the future.
2. Some high
schools
focus on
STEM educa-
tion. Also,
students
can enroll in
competency-
based career
and technical
educa-
tion (CTE)
programs
and receive
specialized
training in a
STEM-related
field.
3. High school
graduates
can enroll in
a community
college, or
university
that offers
STEM-related
degrees.
Table 2 (continued)
515 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany (DE) Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore (SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United
Arab \
Emirates
(UAE)
United
States of
America
(USA)
STEM-related
activities in non-
formal educa-
tion
1. In 2018, the gov-
ernment launched
the “Future Skills”
initiative; a few
projects directly
linked to K-12
school systems,
like “STEM Skills
and an Innovation
Mindset for Youth”
project.
2. The Canada
Agriculture and
Food Museum,
Aviation and
Space Museum,
and Science and
Technology Mu-
seum offer sen-
sory experiences
that immerse both
young and old in
the many ways
science and tech-
nology intersect
with Canadians’
daily lives.
3. The Geering
Up program im-
merses children,
youth, and teach-
ers in summer
STEM camps to
investigate engi-
neering, science,
and technology
in a fun, safe,
& educational
environment.
1. Entrepreneur-
ship education:
such as the “Me
& MyCity" project,
the "Economic
Information Office”
and "Federation of
Finnish Enterprises”
website, etc.
2. Student Camps:
to improve and
strengthen the
science, math, and
technology interests
of the participants.
3. Cultural Events (fes-
tivals, competitions,
TV series, etc.): to
draw students’ inter-
est in science and
technology.
4. Science Centers:
such as the Heureka
center offers enter-
taining, exploratory,
and pleasant learn-
ing experiences for
visitors of all ages in
the science, math,
and technology
fields.
5. Museums: such
as Museum of
Technology, Design
Museum, Zoology
museum, The Natu-
ral History Museum,
etc.
1. Many STEM initia-
tives/ programs that
bring the stakehold-
ers are provided at
the local level.
2. At the national
level, there are
some STEM-related
programs sup-
ported by BMBF.
For example:
- A central action plan
for STEM (2019)
aims to strengthen
STEM education
across the board
through extracur-
ricular offerings for
children and young
people.
- The "Let’s do STEM"
initiative informs and
inspires girls and
young women about
STEM courses.
- The "Youth Research"
competition aims to
get young people
interested in STEM.
- The foundation
“House of Little Sci-
entists” is committed
to early education
in the STEM field in
daycare centers and
primary schools.
- The “MINT-EC” initia-
tive is dedicated to
promoting STEM
talents.
1. Numerous out-of-
school activities
provided by
government-
related organiza-
tions and schools,
NGOs and private
companies, in-
cluding competi-
tions, exhibitions,
talks, workshops,
courses, field
trips and camps.
Workshops
and courses
combined take up
over 80% of the
total number and
most activities
related to the
science subject.
3. The faculties
of science and
engineering of
local universities
organized STEM
education sum-
mer programs
for secondary
students.
4. Associations of
different subject
disciplines
organize IT
workshops,
seminars, com-
petitions, sharing,
exhibitions and
exchange-tours
for teachers and
students.
Extra-curricular
activities con-
sisting of STEM-
related activities
such as summer
STEM camps,
workshops, or
competitions
in non-formal
education.
1. Co-curricular ac-
tivities after class
time.
2. Three government
affiliated organiza-
tions play crucial
roles:
(1) Science Centre
Singapore (STEM
Inc.) offers STEM
workshops for
students and
teachers, and runs
various award
programs that
make STEM ideas
and knowledge
accessible to the
masses.
(2) A*STAR offers
attachment pro-
grams and schol-
arship programs
to nurture young
scientific talents.
(3) IMDA develops
and regulates the
infocomm and
media sectors to
create opportuni-
ties for growth in
STEM talents.
3. Private companies,
industries, and
non-government
organizations offer
STEM- related
programs, holiday
camps, enrichment
classes, attach-
ments, etc.
1. There are many infor-
mal STEM activities
for young people and
many are not orga-
nized by a centralized
system; for example,
individual people can
and have organized
ad-hoc STEM-related
summer camps.
2. One way to access
STEM is through
museums that offer
a wide variety of
exhibitions, workshops
tailored for schools,
school visiting (such
as mobile maker tours)
and competitions.
3. For the higher educa-
tion level, House of
Science is a resource
developed by KTH
Royal Institute of Tech-
nology and Stockholm
University with an aim
of increasing students’
knowledge of and
interest in STEM.
Around 100 STEM
related programs are
provided for compul-
sory school students
in which students can
work with researchers
on a group project.
4. There are many STEM-
related summer camps
offered to school
students.
1. An increasing
number of
STEM activities
provided by the
government,
educational
institutions or
associations,
and private
cram schools,
such as: Maker
camps, An-
nual National
Technology
Competition,
GoSTEAM
competition,
Start! AI Car
competition,
etc.
2. STEM aids
developed
by publishers
enrich young
children’s STEM
experience.
3. Exhibitions
of multiple
STEM themes
in museums
offer students
STEM learning
experiences
from non-formal
access.
1. STEAM
workshops
run by
experts
with an
emphasis
on projects.
2. The STEM
and STEAM
fields
are more
appropri-
ately taught
through
projects
such as
STEAM
yardstick
activities
and visiting
sustainabil-
ity pavilions
at Dubai
Expo 2020.
Most states
recognize the
importance
of STEM and
have devel-
oped websites
providing
resources or
set up centers
to support
STEM educa-
tion via offering
grants, events,
activities,
competitions,
etc. (such as
the STEM Ac-
tion Center in
Utah).
Table 2 (continued)
516
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany
(DE)
Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
Emirates
(UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
STEM learning
assessment
and career
development
1. Most Cana-
dian students
perform well
enough on
measures
in PISA of
reading, math,
and science
proficiency, and
in TIMSS.
2. Most 8th grad-
ers achieved
average results
on the Pan-
Canadian
Assessment
Program.
3. No measures
of performance
in engineering
and technology
education.
1. The number of
studies in the
STEM subjects in
Finland is higher
than in most coun-
tries in Europe.
2. Finnish students'
PISA performances
are ranked among
the top 5 countries
in the OECD. The
performance gap
between girls
and boys is the
largest across
OECD countries;
girls have higher
scores in math and
science than boys.
3. Finnish 4th graders
performed the
best in TIMSS
among the Nordic
countries.
4. The emphasis
on science and en-
gineering careers
is a part of STEM
education.
1. The Institute for
Quality Develop-
ment in Educa-
tion regularly
conducts a na-
tionwide survey
of achievement
levels in specific
areas. Nearly
45% of 9th grad-
ers and 62% of
4th graders met
or exceeded the
KMK standards
in math, respec-
tively. More than
half of the 9th
graders met or
exceeded the
standards in
nature science
subjects.
2. In PISA 2018,
German
15-year-old stu-
dents had better
competencies
in math and
science than the
OECD average.
3. In TIMSS 2019,
Germany is
above the
international
average in math
competencies of
4th graders.
1. Hong Kong
students' perfor-
mance in PISA
has declined;
ranking in science
competence fell
from 2nd in 2006
to 9th in 2018, and
the percentage of
“high-achievers”
decreased by
8.1%.
2. After junior
secondary levels,
students have
many paths for
STEM career
development,
such as opting
for STEM-related
elective subjects,
taking a career
oriented “Applied
Learning course”,
choosing STEM
related undergrad
courses in univer-
sity. However, the
actual figures of
students taking
them is challeng-
ing.
3. Around 34% to
36% of students
graduated from the
University Grants
Committee funded
STEM-related un-
dergrad courses,
while they failed
to attract students
with the best
academic results.
1. Through TIMSS
& PISA, Irish stu-
dents’ math and
science are noted
to perform highly
with respect to
other OECD & EU
countries.
(1) In TIMSS 2019,
there are 7
countries above,
4 similar, and
46 below the
performance of
Irish pupils in
math; and 12
countries above,
12 similar, and 33
below Irish pupil
performance in
science at the
4th grade.
(2) In PISA 2018, Ire-
land was ranked
16th of the 37
OECD countries,
and 21st of the
78 participat-
ing countries
in math; and
ranked 17th of
37 OECD coun-
tries and 22nd
from 78 partici-
pating countries
in science.
2. There is a narrow-
ing of the gender
gap in math, with
male mean scores
were only slightly
higher than
female scores.
1. Assessment is
through students’
results from
school-based
tests, examina-
tions, national
standardized
tests (like GCE,
PSLE), or IB.
2. For PISA 2018,
93% of students
attained a level
2 or higher for
math, higher than
the OECD aver-
age of 76%; 37%
of students at a
level 5 or higher,
compared to 11%
for the OECD
average. For
science, 91% of
students attained
a level 2 or higher,
compared to 78%
for the OECD
average; 21% of
students scored
at level 5 or 6,
while 7% for the
OECD average.
3. To pursue a STEM
course at tertiary
level, students
must meet
minimum grade
requirements at
the secondary
school and junior
college levels.
1. There are nation-
al test in math
(for year 3, 6, 9
students) and
biology, physics,
or chemistry (for
year 9 students),
while there are
no national tests
in technology
and crafts. Girls
tend to outper-
form boys in all
subjects.
2. In PISA 2018,
Swedish
students scored
higher than
average in read-
ing, math, and
science.
3. Similarly,
Sweden tends to
perform above
the average in
math and sci-
ence in TIMSS.
4. Many Swedish
students pursue
STEM-related
professional
degrees. The
most in-demand
programs were
those leading to
MSc qualifica-
tions in engi-
neering fields.
1. Taiwan students
performed well
in PISA & TIMSS.
In PISA 2018,
students ranked
5th in math and
10th in science
(out of 79 coun-
tries). In TIMSS
2019, the 4th
graders’ math &
science ranked
4th and 5th (out
of 58 countries);
the 8th graders
ranked 2nd (out
of 39 ones) for
math & science.
2. A worldwide
assessment
for STEM
performance
has not yet been
developed. To fill
the gap, a NTNU
STEM research
team has been
working on a
context-based
STEM compe-
tency online
assessment to
assess students’
performance in
interdisciplinary
problem-solving
competency.
1. In 2016,
the UAE
achieved the
highest score
amongst all
Arab countries
in the PIRLS.
2. In 2021, the
targets for av-
erage TIMSS
scores and
average PISA
scores were
to be among
the top 15 and
20 countries
respectively.
3. On an interna-
tional scale,
the UAE
doesn’t meet
the interna-
tional average
for student
achievement.
1. Some of the best
STEM- related
programs in the
U.S. university;
however, K-12
students don’t
perform that well
in the STEM areas
as compared with
their peers from
around the world.
2. The U.S. ranked
15th in math and
11th in science
of TIMMS 2019
assessments &
25th in PISA 2018
assessments.
3. In the math and
science areas,
only a third of 8th
grade students
were at the NAEP
Proficient level;
however, the tech-
nology and engi-
neering literacy
assessment has
promising results
(46%).
4. The U.S. ranked
7th (out of 37
OECD countries)
in science, 25th in
math, & 5th out of
14 in computer in-
formation literacy.
(Elementary and
Secondary STEM
Education Report
in 2021)
Table 2 (continued)
517 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada
(CN) Finland (FI) Germany
(DE)
Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
\Emirates
(UAE)
United
States of
America
(USA)
STEM teacher
education
1. STEM remains
distinct
and disjoint
subject areas
in second-
ary teacher
education
programs. No
program offers
an integrative
STEM major
and very few
have integra-
tive STEM
courses.
2. Because of
the lack of
incentive or
leadership
for change,
the key policy
document
from the Asso-
ciation of Ca-
nadian Deans
of Education
doesn’t men-
tion STEM,
integration, or
interdisciplin-
arity
1. It is compulsory for
primary, lower sec-
ondary and upper
secondary teachers
to have a master’s
degree.
2. Primary school
and craft teacher
education is offered
by faculties of edu-
cation. Lower and
upper secondary
teachers are trained
in joint programs by
the faculty of sci-
ence and education.
School education
and teacher educa-
tion policy adopts
Bildung-Didactics
approach which
enables teachers to
have an autono-
mous role in the
classroom.
3. Several in-service
training projects in
STEM education,
such as the In-
service education
program in math
education; The
“LUMA Centre
Finland” to improve
the lifelong learning
and research-based
teaching of the
teachers working;
“The Innokas
Network” to help
teachers gain skills.
1. Teachers have
to hold a Mas-
ter’s degree of
ISCED-level 7
before they can
be employed at
a public school.
2. General educa-
tion teacher
studies contain
two or three
subjects and
pedagogy
studies. Voca-
tional teachers
take one gen-
eral education
subject and
one vocational
subject.
3. At some voca-
tional schools,
profession-
als with a
ISCED-level
6 certificate
teach practical
subjects.
4. Participation
in continuing
education in
parallel with the
teaching activ-
ity is voluntary.
1. There is no
STEM teacher
qualification
requirement
stipulated nor
STEM-majored
pre-service train-
ing; most of the
competence for
implementing
STEM resides
in teachers’
expertise.
2. The EDB offered
3 categories of
in-service PDP,
including (1)
planning of a
school-based
cross-disci-
plinary STEM
curriculum, (2)
enrichment of
knowledge and
(3) introduction
of appropriate
STEM teaching
and assessment
strategies.
3. There are train-
ing courses
organized by
local universi-
ties, like “Coding
Education
Centre”, "STEM
Ed Lab”, “Hour
of Code”.
1. The teaching
profession in Ireland
remains a high-status
profession.
2. The National Teach-
ing Council has
defined standards
and frameworks
to support teacher
learning within: Céim
(the standards for
pre-service initial
teacher education),
Droichead (the inte-
grated professional
induction framework),
and Cosán (the
framework for teach-
ers’ learning and in-
service professional
development).
3. Two routes to qualify-
ing as a primary or
post-primary teacher:
the consecutive initial
teacher education
programs (an honors
bachelor’s degree &
professional master’s
in education degree)
or concurrent teacher
education degree
programs (integrating
the subject specialist
modules with founda-
tional, professional,
pedagogical, and
school-based learn-
ing).
1. Teachers in
national schools
under the MOE
must have ob-
tained their teach-
ing certification
from the NIE.
2. Pre-service teach-
ers take Bachelor
of Science (Edu-
cation) program,
pedagogy-related
courses and
intern in schools
to learn how math
& science are
taught. They have
a 5-week teach-
ing assistantship
in year 2, a
5-week and a 10-
week practicum
in year 3 and 4,
respectively. They
have to complete
a final-year
research project.
3. Ongoing efforts
raise awareness
of integrated
STEM learning
among STEM
teachers.
4. In-service
teachers can
participate in the
annual Empower-
ing STEM Educa-
tion Professional
program to build
their confidence
and ability.
1. An employed
teacher needs to
have a teacher
certificate issued
by the National
Agency for Educa-
tion. The certificate
can be applied
after graduating
from a teacher ed-
ucation program.
Due to teacher
shortage, only 72%
of full-time teach-
ers were qualified
with teaching
certificates.
2. There are many
ways to become
qualified as a
teacher, while
internship in school
is the commonality
for each pathway.
3. Skolverket offers
many in-service
courses for STEM
subject teach-
ers, such as
Introduction to
programming in a
text-based environ-
ment, Program-
ming activities in
teaching, Science
and technology,
Mathematics, Digi-
tal tools in science,
and Sustainable
development.
Three major types
of STEM teacher
education prepara-
tions:
1. Degree pro-
grams:
(1) Interna-
tional doctoral
program in
integrative
STEM education
in NTNU
(2) A master’s
degree in
interdisciplinary
STEM education
in NTHU
2. Certificate/ di-
ploma programs
for pre- and in-
service teachers.
3. Various short-
term training
programs
(training courses,
workshops) for
in-service teach-
ers.
4. Overall, the
development of
STEM teacher
training has
gradually
received increas-
ing attention; a
well-constructed
teacher educa-
tion system for
pre- & in-service
STEM teachers is
expected in the
near future.
1. Teachers are
qualified to teach
their specialty
area in K-12
schools after
having at least
either (a) a bach-
elor’s degree in
a specific field
and education or
(b) a bachelor’s
degree in a spe-
cific field and a
one-year diploma
in educational
psychology,
learning theories,
and teaching
methods or
pedagogies.
2. Many teachers
are not content
experts within
each of the STEM
disciplines and
bridging these
individual fields
can be a chal-
lenge.
3. Some STEM
teachers’ profes-
sional programs
aim to equip
teachers with
new and effective
teaching strate-
gies, such as
the TECHQUEST
leadership
program.
1. Most teacher
education
programs are
subject spe-
cific (e.g.,
science
education).
2. There is
a teacher
shortage.
Teachers
may be
asked to
teach in
areas where
they haven’t
been formally
trained. In
some states,
individuals
are being
hired to
teach without
formal
training in
teaching.
Table 2 (continued)
518
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany
(DE)
Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
Emirates
(UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Current STEM
education
reforms and
policy discus-
sions
1. STEAM has found
its broadest ap-
peal in Canada
in the elementary
schools, extracur-
ricular enrichment
programs and
within indigenous
communities.
2. Canadian
researchers and
teacher educators
have been keen to
demonstrate the
viability of STEM as
more than four dis-
crete disciplines,
for example, ES-
TEEM, STeeeEM,
STEAMBED,
STEHM/STEM-H,
STEMMed, and
STREAM.
3. The BC MoE
introduced Applied
Design, Skills and
Technologies to
resolve the chal-
lenge of clustering
business, home
economics, and
technology in the
schools.
4. Thee Council of
Canadian Acad-
emies offered a
thorough analysis
of challenges to
STEM education
and a persuasive
argument for
equity, diversity,
and inclusion.
STEM has been
mainstreamed
through the Finnish
education system
rather well, and
STEM appeals to a
great extent to the
educators in Fin-
land’s education
system; therefore,
STEM educational
issues are not a
matter of debate
in Finland.
1. The Ger-
man system
in general is
quite static and
changes need
a considerable
amount of time.
2. Currently, there
is a national
‘digitalization
pact’ and initia-
tives to enrich
the teacher edu-
cation and to up-
date the school
infrastructure.
3. Some states
have strength-
ened subjects
like computer
science or inte-
grated subjects
like ‘science and
technology’ in
recent years.
Two endeavors on
change-capacity
building are fo-
cused on:
1. Integrative STEM
efforts by the Edu-
cation University
of Hong Kong to
provide teachers
with a summary
of literature from
foreign countries
to formulate a
theoretical basis
in STEM imple-
mentation and a
set of guidelines
in undertaking
the planning
and offering of
integrative STEM
education.
2. The “CEATE
Awardee Work-
shop” aims to
gather and formu-
late a professional
knowledge base
in teaching DT
and STEM and to
share knowledge
with local and
global TE and
STEM communi-
ties through paper
presentations.
1. The Depar tment
of Education’s
STEM Education
Policy Statement
recognizes the
need to promote
and diversify
participation and
increase suc-
cess in STEM
with 4 pillars: 1.
Nurture learner
engagement and
participation; 2.
Enhance early
years practitioner
and teacher ca-
pacity; 3. Support
STEM education
practice; 4. Use
evidence to sup-
port STEM educa-
tion.
2. The Depar tment
of Education and
Skills has also
developed guide-
lines to support
STEM education
partnerships
which has led to
many STEM edu-
cation initiatives
and partnerships
being formed to
support STEM
learning and
activities.
1. In 2019, SG
revealed the
revised science
curriculum
framework that
had Science
for Life and
Society as the
goal for sci-
ence education
in Singapore.
2. There are cur-
rently discus-
sions around
how integrated
STEM educa-
tion can be
introduced into
schools to aug-
ment science
and mathemat-
ics teaching.
1. Changes for
STEM education
between the
2011 and 2018
curriculum
indicate a clear
direction of how
STEM educa-
tion is being
reformed.
2. The biggest
changes were in
Math and Tech-
nology subjects
that related to
the introduction
of programming
(predominantly
in Math and
also seen in
Technology) and
safety regard-
ing the use of
technology to
the compulsory
curriculum.
3. A change that
related to the ac-
knowledgement
of the relevance
of digital tools in
core content was
also seen in all
STEM subjects.
1. Holding activi-
ties to cultivate
female STEM
talents.
2. Developing
training courses
to assist STEM
teachers who
commit to imple-
menting STEM
education.
3. Providing
various STEM-
related activities
for students to
explore their
interests and
enhance willing-
ness to pursue
STEM careers.
4. Applying
multiple digital
devices to help
STEM courses
delivery.
1. The Education
Vision 2020
aims to improve
the educational
system of K-12
and prepare
students for
STEM challeng-
es in colleges
and future
professions by
introducing a
STEM curricu-
lum in K-12.
2. The UAE Vision
2021 aims
to render the
UAE one of
the world's
best countries
and to bring
this vision into
action and in-
crease student
achievement in
foreign testing.
3. The Innovation
Hub, which was
launched by Al
Bayt Mitwahid
Association in
collaboration
with Google,
has given a
great deal of
media cover-
age to STEM
education in
the UAE.
1. “Charting a Course
for Success: Amer-
ica's Strategy for
STEM Education”
was released by
The White House
(2018) that set out
a federal strategy
for a future where
all Americans will
have lifelong ac-
cess to high-quality
STEM education.
2. The “Standards
for Technological
and Engineering
Literacy” was
released by ITEEA
in 2020.
3. Battelle for Kids’
(2019) “P21’s
Frameworks for
21st Century
Learning” defined
and illustrated the
skills & knowledge
students need to
succeed in work
and life.
4. The U.S. organiza-
tions published
a joint document
“STEM4: The pow-
er of Collaboration
for Change” that
identified 3 main
principles to drive
and implement
STEM education
research and
practices.
Table 2 (continued)
519 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
A Comparison of Trends and Issues in STEM Education
In this section, major trends and issues in STEM education among the 10
countries are discussed and compared in terms of the beforementioned aspects
such as contexts and status of STEM education. In this book, “trend＂is de-
ned as “a general direction in which something is developing or changing”
and “issue” is referred to as “an important topic or problem for debate or dis-
cussion.” Table 3 shows a summary of the STEM trends and issues in the 10
highly competitive countries.
Comparison Component 10: Trends in STEM Education
For the trends in STEM education among the 10 countries, some directions
are similar, while others are specic for individual countries. Eight prevalent
trends are observed as follows. First, increasing the momentum and support
of STEM teachers’ preparation and professional development through vari-
ous channels of capacity building (e.g., HK, SG, SE, TW, the USA). Sec-
ond, strengthening networks or partners from outside of schools to diversify
students’ STEM learning experiences in non-formal education (CN, FI, DE,
IE, TW). Third, increasing the importance of STEM education through intro-
ducing STEM curricula in formal education, making STEM-related national
policies and reforms, incorporating STEM policy into school assessment, or
continuing national investment in STEM research (HK, FI, SG, SE, the UAE,
the USA). Fourth, accelerating eorts to increase the number of women in the
STEM eld (DE, SG, TW). Fifth, applying digital devices, eLearning video
services, or social media in STEM teaching and learning (DE, TW, the USA).
Sixth, enhancing the provision of inclusive and integrated STEM environ-
ments such as applying the phenomenon-based approach/ project-based learn-
ing/ authentic hands-on problem solving, emphasizing holistic or transversal
competency development, or proposing a well-structured STEM instructional
design model (FI, HK, IE, TW, the UAE). Seventh, increasing emphases on
520
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
technology subjects such as programming and computer technology in formal
curricula (CN, SE). Eighth, emphasizing science and engineering career de-
velopments or aspirations in schools (FI, the UAE).
In addition, a word cloud of the STEM trends was generated that provides a
visual representation of the above STEM trends (see Figure 1). In the gure,
the larger and bolder the term, the more frequently it appears in the content of
STEM trends in the 10 country reports. The word cloud indicates that STEM
education, students, teachers, STEM eld, and STEM subject are the ve most
relevant words in these texts. The results are closer to the above paragraph
where we find that most countries recognize the importance that educators
play in STEM education. In addition, students’ STEM learning experience in
school or out-of-school is highlighted; and technology is treated as an integral
part of STEM education.
Figure 1 A word cloud of STEM trends in the 10 countries
521 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison Component 11: Issues in STEM Education
Most countries have recognized the importance of STEM talents and work-
force and have made great eorts to promote STEM education through vari-
ous forms of access. However, they face a number of problems and important
topics for debate or discussion. Below are six issues commonly raised by these
countries.
First, the traditional concept of separate S.T.E.M. is dominating in schools,
in which discipline-based curricula and teaching is popular (CN, FI, DE, SG,
TW, UAE, the USA). Under such a framework of discrete subjects, schools
might offer activities and units that challenge students to integrate the four
STEM subjects, while integrative STEM courses are rare, especially in sec-
ondary schools or higher levels of education.
Second, since tradition education prefers isolated STEM subjects, integrative
STEM education/ curricula are not accessible, exible, or sucient, especially
in formal education (CN, FI, IE, SG, SE TW, the USA). For example, curricu-
lum materials in schools are mostly designed for disciplinary-oriented teach-
ing rather than the integrated STEM approach. The lack of dedicated time
for STEM education is a prevalent issue, as well as the insuciency of inter-
disciplinary collaboration among teachers. Besides the lack of an integrated
STEM curriculum, it is often observed that technology and engineering educa-
tion have been overlooked. These subjects are not often oered in all schools
throughout these countries and their accessibility could be further reduced
through the learners’ subject choices, especially when they move to higher
levels of education where there are more diverse and academic-oriented elec-
tive courses. Besides, new technologies such as AI and related materials need
further eorts to develop and deliver to increase students’ technology compe-
tency.
The third issue is related to STEM teacher education and professional devel-
522
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
opment. In most countries, the teacher education traditionally emphasizes
discipline-oriented teaching; that is, most teacher education programs still
focus on preparing teachers in a specic STEM discipline (e.g., science edu-
cation or math education). Therefore, teachers usually lack integrated STEM
competence and teaching approaches, particularly at the secondary or higher
education levels (CN, FI, DE, IE, SG, SE, TW, the USA). Some countries not
only face the problem of low teachers’ readiness to embrace integrated STEM,
but also suer from a decit in the number of qualied STEM teachers and
lack of teacher preparation to teach technology in K-12 schools. To overcome
these problems, some countries are making vigorous eorts to establish a sys-
tematic STEM teacher education program, to provide diverse and accessible
in-service training for professional development, or to encourage research on
developing a variety of STEM interdisciplinary modules in order to search for
the best practices for developing and delivering STEM education.
Fourth, students’ low interest in STEM careers and ambiguous job preferences
in STEM elds were identied as one major issue that might lead to the lag in
preparing a highly talented STEM workforce (e.g., SG, the UAE, the USA).
STEM in most countries is not an examinable subject, so even though STEM
lessons are oftentimes applied and hands-on based and are considered enjoy-
able, such enjoyment may not easily translate into pursuit of STEM higher de-
grees or careers. Inspiring students to pursue a career in STEM requires more
teachers to have some understanding of the STEM careers available, and to
be actively involved in introducing STEM careers to students, especially at an
early age.
Besides, gender stereotyping or underrepresentation of females in STEM
elds is another concern that has drawn a great deal of attention (e.g., IE, SE,
TW, the UAE, the USA). For example, representation is an important issue to
be addressed in Irish STEM education as set out through the STEM education
policy nationwide. Since a high dierential in female and male participation in
the technology-based subjects is observed, a focus has been placed in schools
523 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
from early years to higher education to increase female representation.
Sixth, the lack of a clear understanding of STEM or the lack of explicit goals
and policy for STEM education in K-12 schools is another issue (e.g., HK,
SG, TW, USA). The concept of STEM education in some countries has not
reached a consensus among the academic bodies, professional associations,
and policy making communities. The term oftentimes encompasses both the
singular and integrated disciplines, and the distinction is not clear. For ex-
ample, STEM in SG has been used to refer to the mono-disciplines and inte-
grated disciplines interchangeably, so teachers are often confused about how
it diers from what they are currently teaching as STEM subjects in schools.
As for the issue about the lack of STEM education, it diers by country. In the
USA, the goals to improve students’ achievement in science and mathematics
to cultivate STEM-related professionals are clear. On the contrary, lacking ex-
plicit goals and policy for STEM education in Taiwan is a problem, indicating
that there is a gap between policy-making and practice. More open and rigor-
ous discussions among stakeholders are needed to make a systematic STEM
policy and goals to clearly guide the implementation of STEM education at all
levels of education.
To sum up, STEM education is drawing great attention in the 10 countries,
and some of them even consider it as a priority in current education reform.
Despite the fact that the traditional education with a focus on mono-disciplin-
ary approach is dominating, a growing number of educators are aware of the
importance of applying an interdisciplinary approach to encourage students
to understand themes and ideas that cut across disciplines, to connect them
between dierent disciplines, and to extend their relationship to the real world
for better redefining problems outside of normal boundaries and generating
solutions based on a new understanding of the complex situations. Assuredly,
STEM education will continue to be promoted in these countries and will
move forward in a rapid manner as concerted eorts are made by policy mak-
ers, teachers, and the other stakeholders.
524
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany
(DE)
Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
Emirates
(UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Major trends
in STEM
education
1. Indigenous
ways of
knowing and
learning have
been taken
up
2. EDI in STEM
education
has been
advocated
3. Expanding
the STEM
cluster, like
STEAM,
STEAMD
(design),
STEM-H
(health), etc.
4. Alternatives
to STEM
(STS & STSE)
have been
considered
5. Resolving the
neglect of
T&E in STEM
1. Imple-
menting a
national core
curriculum
emphasizing
STEM com-
petences
2. Applying the
phenome-
non-based
approach to
education,
including
STEM educa-
tion
3. Emphasizing
learning of
transversal
competen-
cies as a
part of STEM
education
4. Emphasizing
science and
engineer-
ing careers
in middle
school cur-
ricula
5. Strengthen-
ing networks
to support
STEM Edu-
cation
1. STEM educa-
tion is involv-
ing partners
from outside
of schools
2. Promotion
of women in
STEM educa-
tion is a key
3. Digitization is
increasingly
included in
STEM educa-
tion
4. Clustering
and arrang-
ing of indi-
vidual offers
for school
education
5. Vocational
education
makes a ma-
jor contribu-
tion to STEM
education
1. Official P\
positioning of
STEM: more
a curriculum
renewal than
a formal
discipline of
learning
2. Authentic
hands-on
problem
solving as a
core learning
experience
in STEM
3. Diversifying
implementa-
tions for pro-
moting STEM
education by
schools
4. The evolving
popularity of
iconic items
in STEM
promotion
5. Variation in
channels
of capac-
ity building
for STEM
curriculum
change
1. Emphasiz-
ing holistic
competency
development
2. Increasing
representa-
tion in STEM
3. Enhancing
provision of
inclusive and
integrated
STEM envi-
ronments
4. Promoting
connected
STEM learn-
ing experi-
ences
5. Increasing
awareness of
pedagogies
to compli-
ment STEM
learning
6. Incorporating
STEM policy
into school
assessment
to achieve
targets
1. Reform-
ing STEM
through
STEM educa-
tion review
2. Increasing
the momen-
tum for STEM
education
professional
development
3. Meeting the
increasing
demand for
STEM-related
jobs
4. Creating
a culture
to support
lifelong
learning and
a versatile
workforce
5. Accelerat-
ing efforts
to increase
the number
of women in
STEM
6. Increasing
research into
STEM educa-
tion
1. Increased
emphasis
on STEM
in formal
education
2. Increased
responsivity
to technology
in society
3. Increase in
STEM-related
activities for
students and
preparation
for teachers
4. Female
students
continue
to outper-
form male
students in
compulsory
school STEM
education
5. Continued
national in-
vestment and
prioritization
of research
in STEM
1. Cultivation
of female
talents in
STEM fields
2. Organiza-
tions and
institutions
help with
develop-
ing STEM
teacher train-
ing
3. Great atten-
tion on STEM
learning out-
side schools
4. Proposal of
a well-struc-
tured STEM
instruc-
tional design
model
5. Development
of a context-
based
assessment
system in
STEM educa-
tion
6. Applying dig-
ital devices
in STEM edu-
cation
1. The
increased
demand
for STEM in
education
has been
implemented
through na-
tional policy
and reform
2. Project-
based
learning has
been ad-
opted as the
main STEM
instructional
strategy
3. The curricu-
lum integra-
tion has been
pursued
4. STEM career
aspirations
have been
explored
5. Culturally-
embedded
resources
have been
provided
1. STEM educa-
tors will use
more eLearn-
ing video
services
even after the
pandemic is
over.
2. STEM educa-
tors will
incorporate
social media
into their
classrooms
3. STEM educa-
tors will use
more artificial
intelligence
(AI) in the
classroom
4. Increase the
importance
of STEM
education
5. Increased
teacher train-
ing in STEM
education
Table 3 A summary of trends and issues in STEM education for the 10 countries
525 A Comparison of STEM Education Status and
Trends in Ten Highly Competitive Countries
Comparison
Components
Countries
Canada (CN) Finland (FI) Germany
(DE)
Hong Kong
SAR (HK) Ireland (IE) Singapore
(SG) Sweden (SE) Taiwan (TW)
United Arab
Emirates
(UAE)
United States
of America
(USA)
Major issues
in STEM
education
1. Isolated
STEM
subjects in
schools and
rarely inte-
grative STEM
courses
2. STEM
education
is not easily
accessible
or accom-
modated
3. MST pre-ex-
ists as core
to STEM;
rethinking
MST con-
figurations is
challenging
4. Too many
alternatives
to STEM, like
MST, STS,
etc.
5. Full mem-
bership in
clusters is
not easy;
T&E are
neglected
1. The teacher
education
tradition
emphasizes
discipline-
oriented
teaching
2. Discipline-
based
curricula
emphasize
teaching
of STEM
subjects as
separate
subjects
3. Curriculum
materials
emphasize
disciplinary-
oriented
teaching
4. Interdis-
ciplinary
collabora-
tion among
teachers is
insufficient
5. Second and
third cycles
of education
emphasize
disciplinary
orientation
1. The govern-
ment lacks
control of
the teaching
activities
2. The STEM
education is
determined
by local
available
partners
3. The concept
of separated
S.T.E.M. is
dominating
in German
schools
4. The regular
education
system lacks
technology
education
5. Germany’s
teachers lack
integrated
STEM-
competence
6. The infra-
structure of
Germany's
schools is
inadequate
1. Positioning
and the clarity
of the vision
and actions of
STEM curricu-
lum change
2. The challeng-
ing status of
learning in
practical prob-
lem-solving
with tangible
outcomes
3. Implication of
the “partial cur-
riculum” status
of the STEM
implementation
4. Effect of iconic
item on the
purpose and
course of the
STEM imple-
mentation
5. The challenged
effectiveness of
supports and
enrichments
from PDPs
6. “What will
STEM be in the
near future?”:
A cautionary
probing into the
momentum of
STEM Promo-
tion in schools
1. Accessibility
and achieve-
ment for
STEM learn-
ers need to
increase
2. The critical
role of STEM
teachers has
not drawn
enough at-
tention
3. Lack of an
integrated
STEM ap-
proach
4. A lack of
flexibility in
STEM sub-
ject offerings
5. Gender
stereotyping,
curriculum
accessibility,
and resourc-
ing of STEM
education
are three
major chal-
lenges in
STEM culture
1. Lack of a
clear under-
standing of
STEM
2. Insufficient
protected
time for
STEM
3. Low levels
of teacher
readiness
to embrace
integrated
STEM learn-
ing
4. Low interest
in STEM
careers
5. Conflicting
assessment
demands for
STEM learn-
ing
6. Rigid
traditional
structures
of STEM
in higher
education
1. There is a
deficit in
the number
of qualified
teachers
2. Females are
underrep-
resented in
STEM fields
at upper
secondary
and higher
education
levels
3. Lack of dedi-
cated time
for STEM
education
subjects
4. Ambiguity in
the Technol-
ogy subject
5. Lack of
teacher
prepared-
ness to teach
Technology
1. Lack of ex-
plicit STEM
education
goals and
policy in
K-12 educa-
tion
2. Lack of
systematic
STEM teach-
er education
program
in higher
education
3. Teachers’
challenge
of adopting
hands-on
activities in
online STEM
education
4. Lack of
varied STEM
interdis-
ciplinary
modules
5. Diversity
issues in
classrooms
1. Lagging in
preparing
highly tal-
ented STEM
workers in
the past
2. Traditional
learning
strategies are
not suitable
for prepar-
ing a STEM
workforce
3. Isolated (S,
T, E, and M)
concept of
STEM educa-
tion
4. Students’
ambiguous
job prefer-
ences in
STEM fields
5. New tech-
nologies
such as AI
and related
materials
are still in
the develop-
ing stage in
schools
1. The need
for STEM
education is
questioned.
2. The best
practices for
developing
and deliver-
ing STEM
education
are still being
searched for.
3. Improving
student
achievement
in STEM
requires a
major reform.
4. Inspiring
students to
pursue a ca-
reer in STEM
requires
more teach-
ers’ active
involvement.
5. Most teacher
education
programs are
still focused
on preparing
teachers in
a specific
STEM disci-
pline.
6. Lack of quali-
fied STEM
teachers.
Table 3 (continued)
526
Status and Trends of STEM Education in Highly Competitive
Countries: Country Reports and International Comparison
References
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petitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness/
National Academy of Sciences. (2011). Successful K-12 STEM education:
Identifying eective approaches in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics. National Academy Press.