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Visual sensitivity, foraging behavior, and success of walleye (Sander vitreus) under ecologically relevant downwelling light conditions

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Noland Michels at University of Minnesota, Duluth
Noland Michels
Quinnlan Smith at University of Wisconsin–Madison
Quinnlan Smith
Loranzie Rogers at Harvard University
Loranzie Rogers
Thomas Hrabik at University of Minnesota, Duluth
Thomas Hrabik
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Abstract and Figures

Successful foraging of piscivores is often dependent upon light availability in their visual habitat and is often influenced by a number of abiotic and biotic factors. In north-temperate lakes, dissolved organic carbon concentrations vary greatly, thus likely influencing foraging success. To understand the impact this has on the walleye (Sander vitreus), we sought to study foraging success at various light intensities under physiologically relevant downwelling light conditions in a laboratory foraging arena. Using electroretinography to determine physiologically relevant light conditions in adult walleye, we found that fish exhibit broad spectral sensitivity that was greatest from 500 to 550 nm. Under optimal light conditions (525 nm), we next determined the reaction distance and foraging success of age-0 walleye at various light intensities. The average reaction distance of age-0 walleye increased rapidly from 12 cm in complete darkness to 27 cm at civil twilight (1 lx or 3.16 × 10¹³ photons m⁻² s⁻¹) and then plateaued, ranging from 28 to 30 cm at higher light intensities. Prey capture success of age-0 walleye was greatest under low light conditions, averaging 20.5% from nautical twilight to civil twilight at − 3° solar altitude (0.05–1 lx or 1.58 × 10¹¹–3.16 × 10¹³ photons m⁻² s⁻¹) and declined to 10–12% as light intensity increased and in full darkness. Walleye may be best suited for environments with predominantly green downwelling light and age-0 foraging was most successful at nautical and civil twilight. In north-temperate lakes, dissolved organic carbon concentrations can fluctuate interannually due to climate change. Defining preferred juvenile walleye foraging conditions allows for predictions of climate change influences on walleye habitat and age-0 recruitment.
Median irradiance (1/photons cm⁻² s⁻¹) needed to invoke the criterion response for adult walleye (Sander vitreus) from 400 to 700 nm. Adult sizes tested ranged from 261 to 437 mm. Relative spectral sensitivity was tested via electroretinography. Error bars represent the 25% and 75% interquartile ranges. n = 14
Median irradiance (1/photons cm⁻² s⁻¹) needed to invoke the criterion response for adult walleye (Sander vitreus) from 400 to 700 nm. Adult sizes tested ranged from 261 to 437 mm. Relative spectral sensitivity was tested via electroretinography. Error bars represent the 25% and 75% interquartile ranges. n = 14
… 
Average reaction distance of young-of-year walleye (Sander vitreus) to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at multiple light intensities. Trials spanned 15 min with one predator and three prey. A Michaelis–Menten function was fitted with an Rmax of 29.2726 and an α of 0.0319 (r² = 0.86). The top x-axis is shown as lux, while the bottom axis is shown in photons m⁻² s⁻¹. Each light intensity had an n = 10, and error bars represent 95% confidence intervals
Average reaction distance of young-of-year walleye (Sander vitreus) to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at multiple light intensities. Trials spanned 15 min with one predator and three prey. A Michaelis–Menten function was fitted with an Rmax of 29.2726 and an α of 0.0319 (r² = 0.86). The top x-axis is shown as lux, while the bottom axis is shown in photons m⁻² s⁻¹. Each light intensity had an n = 10, and error bars represent 95% confidence intervals
… 
Young-of-year walleye (Sander vitreus) reaction distances and angles to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) under eight different light intensities. The light intensities are as follows: A dark, B nautical twilight, C civil twilight (− 6°), D civil twilight (− 3°), E sunrise, F cloudy morning, G sunny morning, and H sunny afternoon. Reaction distance (x- and y-axis, measured in cm) was calculated as the distance from the midpoint of the prey’s body to the location between the predator’s eyes one frame prior to the initiation of a reaction. The reaction angle (circular axis, measured in degrees) was the angle formed between the reaction distance line and the line anterior to the predator’s body axis. Grey circles represent reactions, while black circles represent reactions that resulted in a successful capture of prey. Each light intensity included 10 trials, with walleye foraging for 15 min
Young-of-year walleye (Sander vitreus) reaction distances and angles to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) under eight different light intensities. The light intensities are as follows: A dark, B nautical twilight, C civil twilight (− 6°), D civil twilight (− 3°), E sunrise, F cloudy morning, G sunny morning, and H sunny afternoon. Reaction distance (x- and y-axis, measured in cm) was calculated as the distance from the midpoint of the prey’s body to the location between the predator’s eyes one frame prior to the initiation of a reaction. The reaction angle (circular axis, measured in degrees) was the angle formed between the reaction distance line and the line anterior to the predator’s body axis. Grey circles represent reactions, while black circles represent reactions that resulted in a successful capture of prey. Each light intensity included 10 trials, with walleye foraging for 15 min
… 
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Vol.: (0123456789)
Environ Biol Fish (2025) 108:147–160
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10641-024-01650-y
Visual sensitivity, foraging behavior, andsuccess ofwalleye
(Sander vitreus) underecologically relevant downwelling
light conditions
NolandO.Michels · QuinnlanC.Smith · LoranzieS.Rogers ·
ThomasR.Hrabik· GregG.Sass · AllenF.Mensinger
Received: 5 July 2024 / Accepted: 3 December 2024 / Published online: 4 January 2025
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2025
Abstract Successful foraging of piscivores is often
dependent upon light availability in their visual habi-
tat and is often influenced by a number of abiotic and
biotic factors. In north-temperate lakes, dissolved
organic carbon concentrations vary greatly, thus
likely influencing foraging success. To understand
the impact this has on the walleye (Sander vitreus),
we sought to study foraging success at various light
intensities under physiologically relevant down-
welling light conditions in a laboratory foraging
arena. Using electroretinography to determine physi-
ologically relevant light conditions in adult walleye,
we found that fish exhibit broad spectral sensitivity
that was greatest from 500 to 550 nm. Under optimal
light conditions (525 nm), we next determined the
reaction distance and foraging success of age-0 wall-
eye at various light intensities. The average reaction
distance of age-0 walleye increased rapidly from 12
cm in complete darkness to 27 cm at civil twilight (1
lx or 3.16 × 1013 photons m−2 s−1) and then plateaued,
ranging from 28 to 30 cm at higher light intensities.
Prey capture success of age-0 walleye was greatest
under low light conditions, averaging 20.5% from
nautical twilight to civil twilight at − 3° solar alti-
tude (0.05–1 lx or 1.58 × 1011–3.16 × 1013 photons
m−2 s−1) and declined to 10–12% as light intensity
increased and in full darkness. Walleye may be best
suited for environments with predominantly green
downwelling light and age-0 foraging was most suc-
cessful at nautical and civil twilight. In north-temper-
ate lakes, dissolved organic carbon concentrations can
fluctuate interannually due to climate change. Defin-
ing preferred juvenile walleye foraging conditions
allows for predictions of climate change influences on
walleye habitat and age-0 recruitment.
Keywords Walleye· Thermal-optical habitat·
Foraging· Reaction distance· Spectral sensitivity
Introduction
Changes in aquatic environmental conditions, such as
fluctuating levels of primary production, suspended
sediments, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), can
Supplementary Information The online version
contains supplementary material available at https:// doi.
org/ 10. 1007/ s10641- 024- 01650-y.
N.O.Michels(*)· Q.C.Smith· T.R.Hrabik·
A.F.Mensinger
Department ofBiology, University ofMinnesota-Duluth,
1035 Kirby Drive, 207 SSB, Duluth, MN55812, USA
e-mail: miche498@d.umn.edu
L.S.Rogers
Department ofPsychology, University ofWashington,
Seattle, WA98195, USA
G.G.Sass
Escanaba Lake Research Station, Office ofApplied
Science Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources,
3110 Trout Lake Station Drive, BoulderJunction,
WI54512, USA
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
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