![Characteristic pasting profile of starch as determined using Rapid Visco Analyzer (reprinted with the permission of Hindawi Kesarwani, Chiang, and Chen [105]).](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marta-Cappai/publication/387683664/figure/fig2/AS:11431281301212266@1735896498380/Characteristic-pasting-profile-of-starch-as-determined-using-Rapid-Visco-Analyzer_Q320.jpg)
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Received: 1 October 2024
Revised: 20 December 2024
Accepted: 25 December 2024
Published: 3 January 2025
Citation: Shoukat, R.; Cappai, M.;
Pilia, L.; Pia, G. Rice Starch Chemistry,
Functional Properties, and Industrial
Applications: A Review. Polymers
2025,17, 110. https://doi.org/
10.3390/polym17010110
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).
Review
Rice Starch Chemistry, Functional Properties, and Industrial
Applications: A Review
Rizwan Shoukat, Marta Cappai , Luca Pilia * and Giorgio Pia *
Department of Mechanical, Chemical, and Materials Engineering, University of Cagliari, Via Marengo 2,
09123 Cagliari, CA, Italy
*Correspondence: luca.pilia@unica.it (L.P.); giorgio.pia@unica.it (G.P.)
Abstract: Starch is among the most abundant natural compounds in nature after cellulose.
Studies have shown that the structure and functions of starch differ extensively across
and among botanical types, isolation procedures, and climate factors, resulting in starch
with significant variations in its chemical, physical, morphological, thermal, and functional
characteristics. To enhance its beneficial properties and address inherent limitations, starch
is modified through various techniques, resulting in significant alterations to its chemical
and physical characteristics. These structural modifications impart considerable techno-
logical and industrial versatility. In the food sector, modified starch serves as a thickener,
shelf-life extender, fat replacer, texture modifier, gelling agent, and stabilizer. In non-food
applications, it functions as a sizing agent, binder, disintegrant, absorbent, and adhesive
and is employed in construction as a sealant and to improve material bonding strength.
The demand for modified starch has surpassed that of its native counterpart, reflecting
its growing market value and the industry’s interest in products with novel functional
attributes and enhanced value. This study focuses on rice starch, highlighting its structure
and composition and their impact on physicochemical properties and functionality. Ad-
ditionally, it examines the enhancement of its techno-functional characteristics, achieved
through various modification processes.
Keywords: starch chemistry; tailoring and isolation; green polymers; functional features;
industrial applications
1. Introduction
Starch is a biodegradable and cost effective polymer widely found in cereal grains,
roots, tubers, fruits, and leaves and serves as the primary source of nutrition, comprising
60–70% of the diet for over 60% of the people worldwide [
1
–
3
]. The primary industrial
sources of starch are rice, cassava, wheat, potatoes, and maize. Starch’s nutritional com-
position emphasizes its importance due to it being an essential mineral and carbohydrate
source; starch contains vital micronutrients, including copper, iron, and magnesium, along-
side phosphorus. Starch, serving as the main storage carbohydrate in plants also holds
significant importance as a fundamental agricultural resource for humanity [
4
,
5
]. Each year,
rice and cereals, acting as primary starch roots for human consumption, collectively yield
two gigatons thereabouts. In established and industrialized territories, starch typically com-
prises, at the smallest amount, 35% of everyday caloric consumption. In numerous regions,
particularly the Eastern world (China, Japan, Korea, and Australia) and African states
(Nigeria, Guinea, and Mali), starch can contribute up to 80% of daily caloric intake, often
deriving from a singular staple crop such as rice [
6
,
7
]. Rice starch exhibits greater diversity
Polymers 2025,17, 110 https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010110
Polymers 2025,17, 110 2 of 28
compared to other cereal grains, which is significant as it enables the isolation of starch
with a wide range of functionalities. New rice cultivars are continually being developed,
with the total number now exceeding 2000 worldwide [
8
,
9
]. The optimized composition of
rice starch is responsible for its smooth texture, favorable amylose-to-amylopectin ratio,
mild flavor, white color, hypoallergenic properties, high digestibility, strong consumer
acceptance, small granules, increased paste freeze–thaw stability, and high acid resistance.
Starch is widely utilized due to its abundant availability, versatility, and adaptability to
various processes [
10
]. These distinctive properties have driven the increased demand for
rice starch across various industries.
However, natural plant-derived starch often fails to withstand extreme processing
conditions, such as high shear rates, prolonged exposure to strong acids and alkalis, or
repeated freezing and thawing cycles, making it unsuitable for many industrial appli-
cations. To resolve these challenges, various modification techniques are employed to
enhance or alter its inherent properties and introduce specialized characteristics that meet
industrial requirements [
11
,
12
]. Key modification methods include chemical processes like
oxidation, esterification, etherification, and hydroxypropylation; enzymatic processes like
dextrinization; and physical methods such as high-pressure treatment and extrusion. These
modifications enable the production of starch with tailored properties for specific appli-
cations [
13
,
14
]. Despite being widely consumed in unprocessed forms, like cereal grains
(rice) and potatoes, starch is becoming more and more prevalent in processed foods. Starch
is used in various food products as a thickening, binding, encapsulating, stabilizing, and
gelling agent in a vast range of diets, such as soups, baby foods, cooked items, puddings,
candies, ice cream, meat products, sauces, snack foods, and soft drinks [
15
–
17
]. Starch
is also an essential substrate for the synthesis of many products, such as glucose syrups
and maltodextrins [
18
]. Besides its importance in food products, starch is widely utilized
across a range of non-food sectors due to its functionalities, non-toxic characteristics, and
biodegradability. These include agricultural industrial chemicals, sealants, beauty aids,
cleansing agents, medicine, oil earth boring, thin paper making, plastics, and fabrics. Within
these industries, the distinctive ability of starch is greatly valued and actively utilized [
19
].
The different sources of starch are shown in Figure 1.
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30
intake, often deriving from a singular staple crop such as rice [6,7]. Rice starch exhibits
greater diversity compared to other cereal grains, which is significant as it enables the
isolation of starch with a wide range of functionalities. New rice cultivars are continually
being developed, with the total number now exceeding 2000 worldwide [8,9]. The opti-
mized composition of rice starch is responsible for its smooth texture, favorable amylose-
to-amylopectin ratio, mild flavor, white color, hypoallergenic properties, high digestibil-
ity, strong consumer acceptance, small granules, increased paste freeze–thaw stability,
and high acid resistance. Starch is widely utilized due to its abundant availability, versa-
tility, and adaptability to various processes [10]. These distinctive properties have driven
the increased demand for rice starch across various industries.
However, natural plant-derived starch often fails to withstand extreme processing
conditions, such as high shear rates, prolonged exposure to strong acids and alkalis, or
repeated freezing and thawing cycles, making it unsuitable for many industrial applica-
tions. To resolve these challenges, various modification techniques are employed to en-
hance or alter its inherent properties and introduce specialized characteristics that meet
industrial requirements [11,12]. Key modification methods include chemical processes
like oxidation, esterification, etherification, and hydroxypropylation; enzymatic processes
like dextrinization; and physical methods such as high-pressure treatment and extrusion.
These modifications enable the production of starch with tailored properties for specific
applications [13,14]. Despite being widely consumed in unprocessed forms, like cereal
grains (rice) and potatoes, starch is becoming more and more prevalent in processed
foods. Starch is used in various food products as a thickening, binding, encapsulating,
stabilizing, and gelling agent in a vast range of diets, such as soups, baby foods, cooked
items, puddings, candies, ice cream, meat products, sauces, snack foods, and soft drinks
[15–17]. Starch is also an essential substrate for the synthesis of many products, such as
glucose syrups and maltodextrins [18]. Besides its importance in food products, starch is
widely utilized across a range of non-food sectors due to its functionalities, non-toxic char-
acteristics, and biodegradability. These include agricultural industrial chemicals, sealants,
beauty aids, cleansing agents, medicine, oil earth boring, thin paper making, plastics, and
fabrics. Within these industries, the distinctive ability of starch is greatly valued and ac-
tively utilized [19]. The different sources of starch are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Starch source diversity in plant species.
Figure 1. Starch source diversity in plant species.
The aim of this study is to provide an in-depth analysis of the various components
and chemistry of rice starch, focusing on their influence on physicochemical properties and
Polymers 2025,17, 110 3 of 28
functional characteristics, which are comprehensively examined. It also examines various
starch tailoring and isolation techniques. The impact of modifications in the molecular struc-
ture and amylose–amylopectin ratios influence critical properties, such as gelatinization,
retrogradation, and pasting properties, are explored. Furthermore, the review highlights
emerging innovation in chemical treatments for starch modification, emphasizing how
these techniques fine-tune operational aspects of starch to enhance its performance and
utility in diverse industrial applications in food and non-food sectors.
2. Starch Chemistry
Starch, referred to as amylum, has multiple applications in food, clothing, refined
chemicals, paper production, farming, petroleum, and building engineering. In 2019, the
industrial demand for starch was estimated to have reached USD 87.93 billion [
20
]. The
worldwide starch industry is predicted to produce revenues of USD 112 billion in 2024,
with a CAGR (compound annual growth rate) of about 5.9% for the projected time frame
from 2019 to 2024 [21].
Rice starch comprises two forms of
α
-glucans, namely amylose and amylopectin (refer
to Figure 2). These polymeric compounds are stored in plant structures as starch granules
(SGs), exhibiting variations in size and shape across different species. Granules integral to
starch’s structure are specialized and unique particles. Rice starch granules stand out among
cereal grains as the smallest, displaying angular and polygonal shapes typically within
the size range of 2 to 7
µ
m. Essential chemical and physical attributes, such as the mineral
content, ratio of amylose/amylopectin, granule mean size, and distribution, significantly
influence the properties of starch [
22
]. The complex processing of starch leads to inherent
variability in structures of amylose and amylopectin molecules, resulting in diverse granule
morphologies. Interestingly, significant differences in granule form and size are connected
to a variety of functional features in various nutritional systems or depending on the
botanical origin. There can be additional connections between granule form, nutritional
properties, and manufacturing procedures. The resistant starch (a form of starch that resists
enzymatic digestion in the small intestine and is subsequently fermented in the colon),
characterized by its granule structure that enhances resistance to digestion, is beneficial for
gut health, being resistant in food processing due to lower swelling and solubility with an
elevated gelatinization temperature [
23
]. The starch constitutes between 98 and 99% of the
dry weight of the SG. Many authors have provided in-depth descriptions of the composition
and characteristics of amylose and amylopectin. Despite experimental evidence supporting
the existence of some amylose sequences branching, amylose is primarily considered to be
a polymer (straight chain) of glucose α-1,4-linked molecules [24–26].
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30
The aim of this study is to provide an in-depth analysis of the various components
and chemistry of rice starch, focusing on their influence on physicochemical properties
and functional characteristics, which are comprehensively examined. It also examines var-
ious starch tailoring and isolation techniques. The impact of modifications in the molecu-
lar structure and amylose–amylopectin ratios influence critical properties, such as gelati-
nization, retrogradation, and pasting properties, are explored. Furthermore, the review
highlights emerging innovation in chemical treatments for starch modification, emphasiz-
ing how these techniques fine-tune operational aspects of starch to enhance its perfor-
mance and utility in diverse industrial applications in food and non-food sectors.
2. Starch Chemistry
Starch, referred to as amylum, has multiple applications in food, clothing, refined
chemicals, paper production, farming, petroleum, and building engineering. In 2019, the
industrial demand for starch was estimated to have reached USD 87.93 billion [20]. The
worldwide starch industry is predicted to produce revenues of USD 112 billion in 2024,
with a CAGR (compound annual growth rate) of about 5.9% for the projected time frame
from 2019 to 2024 [21].
Rice starch comprises two forms of α-glucans, namely amylose and amylopectin (re-
fer to Figure 2). These polymeric compounds are stored in plant structures as starch gran-
ules (SGs), exhibiting variations in size and shape across different species. Granules inte-
gral to starch’s structure are specialized and unique particles. Rice starch granules stand
out among cereal grains as the smallest, displaying angular and polygonal shapes typi-
cally within the size range of 2 to 7 µm. Essential chemical and physical aributes, such
as the mineral content, ratio of amylose/amylopectin, granule mean size, and distribution,
significantly influence the properties of starch [22]. The complex processing of starch leads
to inherent variability in structures of amylose and amylopectin molecules, resulting in
diverse granule morphologies. Interestingly, significant differences in granule form and
size are connected to a variety of functional features in various nutritional systems or de-
pending on the botanical origin. There can be additional connections between granule
form, nutritional properties, and manufacturing procedures. The resistant starch (a form
of starch that resists enzymatic digestion in the small intestine and is subsequently fer-
mented in the colon), characterized by its granule structure that enhances resistance to
digestion, is beneficial for gut health, being resistant in food processing due to lower
swelling and solubility with an elevated gelatinization temperature [23]. The starch con-
stitutes between 98 and 99% of the dry weight of the SG. Many authors have provided in-
depth descriptions of the composition and characteristics of amylose and amylopectin.
Despite experimental evidence supporting the existence of some amylose sequences
branching, amylose is primarily considered to be a polymer (straight chain) of glucose α-
1,4-linked molecules [24–26].
Figure 2. Molecular form of starch (amylose together with amylopectin).
Figure 2. Molecular form of starch (amylose together with amylopectin).
The exact positioning of amylose within a SG continues to be a topic of discus-
sion. Multiple potential locations have been suggested, such as (i) within the unformed
Polymers 2025,17, 110 4 of 28
lamellae, (ii) existing in shapeless growing bands, or (iii) intermixed or amylopectin co-
crystallization [
27
]. Amylose is hydrophilic because it takes on a helical structure and
contains hydrogen atoms within. It is because of this property that it can form clathrate
complexes, in which a host molecule encases a guest molecule. Untied fats and glyc-
eride units, particularly liquor with iodine, can all be involved in these mixtures [
28
,
29
].
According to Takeda and coworkers [
30
], amylose extracted from starchy rice exhibits
average polymerization degree of weight (DPw) and average polymerization degree of
number (DPn) values ranging from 2750 to 3320 and 980 to 1110, respectively, along with
an average chain length (CL) of 250 to 370. An analysis of iso-amylase (an enzyme that
converts branched amylopectin and glycogen into linear molecules like amylose) from six
white rice varieties was conducted using high-pressure size-exclusion chromatography
coupled with a refractive index detector and multi-angle laser light-scattering detector
(
HPSEC-MALLS-RI
). For the analytical procedure, a guard column in conjunction with two
serially connected size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) columns was employed, operating
under controlled conditions at 70
◦
C. Sample separation was conducted with detection
facilitated by multi-angle laser light scattering (MALLS) and differential refractive index
(RI) detectors. The efficacy of the SEC columns was assessed by measuring the theoreti-
cal plate count, utilizing fructose as the standard analyte. Calibration of the RI detector
was performed using a series of sodium chloride (NaCl) standards. The 90
◦
photodiode
of the MALLS detector was calibrated with high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC)-grade toluene, while the other 17 photodiodes at multiple scattering angles were
standardized relative to the 90
◦
photodiode using a dextran reference (Dextran 25,000).
The volumetric delay between the MALLS and RI detectors was accurately determined
using bovine serum albumin as the calibrant. The findings revealed molecular mass
(weight mean) (M
w
) and molecular mass (number mean) (M
n
) values varying between
5.1 to 6.9 ×105g/mol
and 1.4 to 1.8
×
10
5
g/mol [
31
]. The amylose content differs alto-
gether across rice cultivars. For example, glutinous (waxy) rice starch usually contains no
more than 1.3% amylose, while non-glutinous rice starch can contain up to 37% amylose.
The alpha-amylose centralization of processed grain is generally described as flex (waxy)
within 1–2%, low at 7–20%, average up to 25%, or above average (>25%) [
32
]. The com-
bination of amylose and iodine results in a blue-black coloration of amylose. This color
change forms the footing of frequently employed colorimetric techniques for working out
the amylose portion of a test [
33
]. Amylopectin, the major constituent of common starches,
comprises approximately 70–85% of their composition. This highly branched polysaccha-
ride is characterized by its heterogeneous structure, consisting of three distinct chain types:
A, B, and C. A-chains, linked to either B- or C-chains through
α
-(1
→
6) linkage glycosidic
bonds at their reducing terminal, are distinguished by their lack of branching. In contrast,
B-chains exhibit a branched structure, forming linkages with other
B- or C-chains
and pos-
sessing branch points where A-chains or other B-chains are attached via
α
-(1
→
6) linkages
to the O-6 position of glucosyl residues. Importantly, each amylopectin molecule contains a
single C-chain, which carries the sole reducing end of the molecule (see
Figure 3)
[
34
–
36
].
A-chains, typically composed of 6 to 15 glucose units, establishing the backbone of the
molecule. Based on their length and the number of clusters they span within the amy-
lopectin molecule, B-chains are broadly classified into four groups: B1, B2, B3, and B4.
B1 and B2 chains, generally spanning one to two clusters, exhibit shorter chain lengths.
Conversely, B3 and B4 chains, capable of traversing up to four clusters, possess longer
chain lengths, amplifying the molecule’s overall structural complexity [37].
Amylopectin is listed as a
α
-1,4-linked glucose molecule, with approximately up to
6% being an
α
-1,6-assembly at the branch positions, resulting in a high degree of branch-
ing [
38
]. HPSEC-MALLS-RI studies reveal that the M
w
obtained from numerous plants for
Polymers 2025,17, 110 5 of 28
amylopectin has been testified to be between 0.7
×
10
8
and 57
×
10
8
g/mol. Amylopectins
from waxy starches have higher molecular weights than those from normal starches, re-
flecting a more complex structure with more branched chains. Waxy amylopectins also
exhibit greater molecular densities due to the absence of long chains found in normal
amylopectins, leading to a more compact molecular arrangement [
39
]. Starch particles have
a semicrystalline nature because they contain both crystalline and non-crystalline parts.
This semicrystalline structure results from the organized arrangement of starch molecules
in a radial pattern. SGs are labeled as semicrystalline due to their combination of crystalline
and amorphous regions [11].
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 30
branching [38]. HPSEC-MALLS-RI studies reveal that the Mw obtained from numerous
plants for amylopectin has been testified to be between 0.7 × 108 and 57 × 108 g/mol. Amy-
lopectins from waxy starches have higher molecular weights than those from normal
starches, reflecting a more complex structure with more branched chains. Waxy amylo-
pectins also exhibit greater molecular densities due to the absence of long chains found in
normal amylopectins, leading to a more compact molecular arrangement [39]. Starch par-
ticles have a semicrystalline nature because they contain both crystalline and non-crystal-
line parts. This semicrystalline structure results from the organized arrangement of starch
molecules in a radial paern. SGs are labeled as semicrystalline due to their combination
of crystalline and amorphous regions [11].
Figure 3. A cluster framework for structuring the amylopectin sequence: (A–B) describes the exact
positions of A–B series in a cluster, whereas (C) represents the C-series position in the molecular
structure (reprinted with permission from Oxford university Press Wang and Bogracheva [40]).
Starch contains amylopectin, which uniquely allows the outer sequences of amylo-
pectin and amylose to create helices, which merge to create crystalline regions. The crys-
tallinity seen in amylopectin-rich starches comes from these helices within the outer se-
quences of amylopectin. In waxy and regular starches, amylose does not have a significant
effect on crystallinity. However, in high-amylose starches, its influence can be notable
[41,42]. Starches from corn, potatoes, tapioca, and wheat have been found to contain be-
tween 32 and 64% double-helical material [43–45]. In contrast, it was experimentally in-
vestigated that 63% of double-helical amylopectin was present in waxy rice starches [46].
Amylopectin structures of Indica and Japonica waxy varieties reveal distinct variations in
their chain length distributions, degree of polymerization, and branching paerns, as in-
dicated by the ratios of different chain types (F1, F2, and F3). Indica amylopectin exhibits
an average CL of 21–22 glucose units, while Japonica waxy amylopectin displays a slightly
shorter average CL of 19–20 glucose units. The DP, representing the average number of
glucose units per amylopectin molecule, is notably higher in Japonica waxy varieties (8.2–
12.8 × 103) compared to Indica (4.7–5.8 × 103), indicating a larger molecular size. Branching
paerns, represented by the ratios of F1, F2, and F3 chains, also differ between the two
varieties. Indica amylopectin shows a higher proportion of shorter chains (F2 and F3) rel-
ative to longer chains (F1), while Japonica waxy amylopectin exhibits a higher proportion
of longer chains (F1). These structural differences are further corroborated by the iodine-
binding capacity, which is lower in Japonica waxy varieties, reflecting its reduced amylose
content and higher amylopectin content with longer chain lengths. The phosphorus con-
tent, primarily in the form of glucose-6-phosphate, is relatively similar between the two
varieties. Beta-amylolysis, an indicator of amylopectin’s susceptibility to enzymatic deg-
radation, is comparable between Indica and Japonica waxy varieties. Table 1 illustrates
how the characteristics of amylopectin are influenced by the grain cultivar for various
types of rice. To increase the number of applications for starch in food, a number of
Figure 3. A cluster framework for structuring the amylopectin sequence: (A–B) describes the exact
positions of A–B series in a cluster, whereas (C) represents the C-series position in the molecular
structure (reprinted with permission from Oxford university Press Wang and Bogracheva [40]).
Starch contains amylopectin, which uniquely allows the outer sequences of amy-
lopectin and amylose to create helices, which merge to create crystalline regions. The
crystallinity seen in amylopectin-rich starches comes from these helices within the outer
sequences of amylopectin. In waxy and regular starches, amylose does not have a sig-
nificant effect on crystallinity. However, in high-amylose starches, its influence can be
notable [
41
,
42
]. Starches from corn, potatoes, tapioca, and wheat have been found to con-
tain between 32 and 64% double-helical material [
43
–
45
]. In contrast, it was experimentally
investigated that 63% of double-helical amylopectin was present in waxy rice starches [
46
].
Amylopectin structures of Indica and Japonica waxy varieties reveal distinct variations
in their chain length distributions, degree of polymerization, and branching patterns, as
indicated by the ratios of different chain types (F1, F2, and F3). Indica amylopectin exhibits
an average CL of 21–22 glucose units, while Japonica waxy amylopectin displays a slightly
shorter average CL of 19–20 glucose units. The DP, representing the average number
of glucose units per amylopectin molecule, is notably higher in Japonica waxy varieties
(8.2–12.8
×
10
3
) compared to Indica (4.7–5.8
×
10
3
), indicating a larger molecular size.
Branching patterns, represented by the ratios of F1, F2, and F3 chains, also differ between
the two varieties. Indica amylopectin shows a higher proportion of shorter chains (F2
and F3) relative to longer chains (F1), while Japonica waxy amylopectin exhibits a higher
proportion of longer chains (F1). These structural differences are further corroborated
by the iodine-binding capacity, which is lower in Japonica waxy varieties, reflecting its
reduced amylose content and higher amylopectin content with longer chain lengths. The
phosphorus content, primarily in the form of glucose-6-phosphate, is relatively similar
between the two varieties. Beta-amylolysis, an indicator of amylopectin’s susceptibility to
enzymatic degradation, is comparable between Indica and Japonica waxy varieties. Table 1
illustrates how the characteristics of amylopectin are influenced by the grain cultivar for
various types of rice. To increase the number of applications for starch in food, a number of
Polymers 2025,17, 110 6 of 28
isolation techniques have been used. Nevertheless, despite their great versatility, native
starches are less often used in the food processing industry because of a few physical and
chemical flaws, including a high tendency toward retrogradation, low thermal stability, low
shear resistance, and degradation [
47
,
48
]. To attain the desired techno-functional properties,
rice starch can undergo modification using various chemical, physical, and genetic tech-
niques. Chemical modifications are commonly utilized to address the inherent variability
and limited adaptability of starch to diverse processing conditions [
49
]. When rice starch is
chemically modified, its freeze–thaw steadiness, emulsifying qualities, gel syneresis, and
gelling competence are typically reduced [31].
Table 1. Features of amylopectin identified among multiple kinds of rice [1,43,46].
Characteristics Indica Japonica Waxy
CL (average) 21–22 19–20
DPn(103)4.7–5.8 8.2–12.8
F1 85–130 120–180
F2 42–44 41–44
F3 16–17 16–17
Iodine capability (g/100 g) 1.62–2.57 0.39–0.87
P (glu-6-PO4). (µg/g) 9–28 8–13
P (all) (µg/g) 11–29 8–13
Beta-amylolysis (%) 56–59 58–59
2.1. Rice Starch Tailoring
The primary carbohydrate found in human diets and considered the fundamental
energy source for physical development and growth is starch. Amylose, along with amy-
lopectin, other trace molecules, and ash are the main constituents of starch. The starch
chemical composition was found to vary significantly (see Table 2). The insignificant
elements determine the starch purity; lower values indicate higher starch purity. These
elements are different based on the quantification techniques and starch isolation methods.
The typical moistness and protein and fat contents of the starch fractions are up to 10.62%,
0.52%, and 0.67% respectively, as stated by [
50
], and according to Ashogbon’s [
51
] findings,
are from 10 to 12%, from 0.1 to 0.70%, and from 0.4 to 0.43%, respectively. However, the
starches that were isolated from four distinct rice cultivars had fat and protein contents
that varied from 0.1 to 0.7% and 0.1 to 0.36%, respectively [
52
]. The ability of lipids to
form complexes with amylose allows for the modification of certain efficient features of
starch. For instance, the formation of lipid–amylose complexes reduces the rate of rice
starch hydrolysis, its solubility in water, its ability to swell, and the solubility and mobil-
ity of amylose to form crystals and double helices [
53
,
54
]. The starch granule-associated
proteins (SGAPs) are located both internally and on the surface of starch granules [
55
].
The extraction of the former proteins requires granule swelling and employs powerful
detergents, while the proteins on the surface can efficiently be extracted using a buffer
solution. Through a decrease in the viscosity of the developing pastes, the SGAPs can
affect the starch pasting characteristics. Nevertheless, some SGAPs, such as starch rice
granule-bound synthases, increase the stiffness in SGs, which lessens shear-triggered starch
disintegration [
56
]. Significant differences in protein expression, such as ribosomal pro-
tein and 14-3-3-like protein, were found in ten kinds of extracted SGAPs. However, their
absence may have a substantial impact on the levels of resistant, slowly digestible, and
quickly digestible rice starch [57].
Polymers 2025,17, 110 7 of 28
Table 2. Rice starch chemical compositions.
Sample Protein % Amylose % Fat % Origin
Reference
Arborio - 14.1 - Italy [58]
Yuzhenxiang - 17.2 - China [59]
Guangyou 2928 - 26.3 - China [60]
Dodamssal - 42.8 - Korea [61]
Shinkiari NTHRI - <20 - Pakistan [62]
Mushkbudji K448 0.23 30.2 0.33 India [52]
Kohsar 0.52 6.3 0.1 India [50]
Mavr - 24 - Brazil [63]
2.2. Rice Starch Isolation
In terms of grains’ overall composition, starch is the most abundant component
and constitutes the highest proportion. The isolation process for rice grain starch differs
significantly from that of other components. Because rice starch has a distinct and unique
protein composition, different methods are used for its isolation.
In the rice case, separating starch from other components, such as fat, fiber, and protein,
has led to the evolution of the method for isolating rice starch. The avoidance of amylolytic
damage in grains, their gelatinization, efficient deproteinization, and decreasing the loss of
small SGs should, therefore, be the main areas of attention [
64
]. The protein composition of
rice includes the following components in the following proportions: 5%, 3%, 80%, and
12%, respectively, of albumin, prolamin, glutelin, and globulin. These protein components
dissolve easily in different solvents/solutions. Examples include albumin in water, pro-
lamin in ethanol, globulin in salt solution, and glutelin in alkaline solution [
30
]. Henceforth,
the primary technique utilized in starch isolation involves alkali extraction
[56,57]
. The
protein composition in rice starch varies significantly across different rice varieties and
is also influenced by the purification process and the overall quality of the starch. In
Figure 4, a precise presentation of the flow diagram illustrating the alkaline-based method
of separation is presented [1].
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 30
Table 2. Rice starch chemical compositions.
Sample Protein % Amylose % Fat % Origin Reference
Arborio - 14.1 - Italy [58]
Yuzhenxiang - 17.2 - China [59]
Guangyou 2928 - 26.3 - China [60]
Dodamssal - 42.8 - Korea [61]
Shinkiari NTHRI - <20 - Pakistan [62]
Mushkbudji K448 0.23 30.2 0.33 India [52]
Kohsar 0.52 6.3 0.1 India [50]
Mavr - 24 - Brazil [63]
2.2. Rice Starch Isolation
In terms of grains’ overall composition, starch is the most abundant component and
constitutes the highest proportion. The isolation process for rice grain starch differs sig-
nificantly from that of other components. Because rice starch has a distinct and unique
protein composition, different methods are used for its isolation.
In the rice case, separating starch from other components, such as fat, fiber, and pro-
tein, has led to the evolution of the method for isolating rice starch. The avoidance of am-
ylolytic damage in grains, their gelatinization, efficient deproteinization, and decreasing
the loss of small SGs should, therefore, be the main areas of aention [64]. The protein
composition of rice includes the following components in the following proportions: 5%,
3%, 80%, and 12%, respectively, of albumin, prolamin, glutelin, and globulin. These pro-
tein components dissolve easily in different solvents/solutions. Examples include albumin
in water, prolamin in ethanol, globulin in salt solution, and glutelin in alkaline solution
[30]. Henceforth, the primary technique utilized in starch isolation involves alkali extrac-
tion [56,57]. The protein composition in rice starch varies significantly across different rice
varieties and is also influenced by the purification process and the overall quality of the
starch. In Figure 4, a precise presentation of the flow diagram illustrating the alkaline-
based method of separation is presented [1].
Figure 4. Flowchart: extraction approach for starch (adopted and modified from Verma D.K. and
Srivastav P.P. [1]).
Grains are steeped in a 0.3% sodium hydroxide solution at 25 °C for 24 h. Following
steeping, the softened endosperms are gently ground, and the resulting slurry is diluted,
stirred, and left to sele overnight to facilitate starch separation. The washing process is
repeated until the supernatant is clear and free of protein, which is confirmed using the
biuret test. The starch is then filtered through a fine nylon cloth to remove impurities,
washed to eliminate residual alkali, and collected via sedimentation and dried at 40 °C
[65]. The segregation of starch from rice also involved the use of a 0.35% NaOH solution
via the alkali extraction method [66]. The starch layer was re-slurried with H2O and fil-
tered after the rice powder (flour) was immersed in NaOH solution and stored at 4 °C for
Figure 4. Flowchart: extraction approach for starch (adopted and modified from Verma D.K. and
Srivastav P.P. [1]).
Grains are steeped in a 0.3% sodium hydroxide solution at 25
◦
C for 24 h. Following
steeping, the softened endosperms are gently ground, and the resulting slurry is diluted,
stirred, and left to settle overnight to facilitate starch separation. The washing process is
repeated until the supernatant is clear and free of protein, which is confirmed using the
biuret test. The starch is then filtered through a fine nylon cloth to remove impurities,
washed to eliminate residual alkali, and collected via sedimentation and dried at 40
◦
C [
65
].
The segregation of starch from rice also involved the use of a 0.35% NaOH solution via the
alkali extraction method [66]. The starch layer was re-slurried with H2O and filtered after
the rice powder (flour) was immersed in NaOH solution and stored at 4
◦
C for two days.
Polymers 2025,17, 110 8 of 28
The remaining fluid was appropriately disposed of. After filtering, the slurry was allowed
to settle at 4
◦
C for 24 h to remove the residue that remained. The starch was then dried in
a hot microwave at 40
◦
C for 24 h. Rice starch isolation has traditionally been accomplished
through the alkali isolation method; however, this approach generates large amounts of
alkaline waste and is, therefore, inappropriate [
67
]. Moreover, a comparison between
the alkali and other isolation techniques has been studied. The four isolation techniques
employed by Zhong et al. were protease, NaOH 0.1%, NaOH 0.4%, and 1% sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS) [
68
]. Based on the isolation techniques used, rice starch was isolated for the
study and its pasting and rheological properties evaluated. Comparing protease and NaOH
(0.1%) techniques to the treatment with NaOH (0.4%) and SDS, reduced elastic moduli,
peak pasting temperatures, and stresses were studied in the non-sticky starch paste batches.
But the elastic moduli of sticky starch paste were unaffected by the isolation techniques
in any appreciable way. However, the protease–starch paste did have a greater yield
stress and lower shear viscosity than pastes made using alternative techniques. Similar
outcomes were noted in the evaluation of functional characteristics of starch extracted
from long-grain rice using alkali and neutral protease treatments. Specifically, alkali-
treated starch exhibited a higher swelling rate compared to enzymatically treated starch,
although the maximal viscosity pasting decreased [
69
]. Wang identified an alternative way
(high-intensity ultrasound coupled with SDS or alone) for rapid rice starch separation that
eliminates the need for any chemical agents, unlike the conventional alkaline-based route.
The sonication system does not affect the amylose content or thermal aspects. Additionally,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that sonication had not caused any alterations
to the starch surfaces [
70
]. The freeze–thaw infusion method has been applied recently in
intriguing work to improve the extraction efficacy of starch frombreached rice. This process
makes it easier for enzymes to enter substrates quickly, which increases the efficiency of
enzymatic reactions both favoring and independent of the substrate surface. The starch
extraction yield of the food-grade protease-related freeze–thaw infusion method was
higher at 69.31% compared to the alkali treatment and protease treatment alone, which
achieved extraction efficiencies of 66.81% and 61.74%, respectively. Moreover, the pasting,
thermal features, and shape of the isolated rice starches were not affected by the extraction
procedure [
71
]. Thus, the freeze–thaw infusion process presents itself as a viable and
effective substitute for the conventional alkali approach in extraction.
2.3. Rice Starch Variation and Modification
To optimize its working features for use in food, starch can undergo modifications via
physical, chemical, or enzymatic approaches. These processes modify the physicochemical
properties of natural rice starch [
6
]. Many modern approaches, including dual modification,
oxidation, etherification, cross-linking, and esterification, are employed to amend the
physical characteristics and starch thermal transition behavior, with cross-linking agents
being the most significant technique. However, the plant origin of the starch and the
cross-linking agent used determine the cross-linking and its effects. The cross-linked starch
exhibited a reduced retrogradation rate and elevated gelatinization temperatures, attributed
to decreased amorphous chain mobility within the starch granule due to the formation
of intermolecular bridges [
72
]. Acetic anhydride, anhydrides of adipic and ethylic acids,
oxyhalide of phosphorus (POX
3
), STMP (Na
3
P
3
O
9
), STPP (Na
5
P
3
O
10
), ethylene oxide, and
oxolane-2,5-dione are, in general, utilized foremost in chemical amendment procedures.
Other treatments include esterification and chemical reactions with H
2
SO
4
and HCl; a H
2
O
2
bleaching process, KMnO
4
, and hypochlorite (NaOCl) oxidation; and other treatments
employing various combinations of these chemical processes [73].
Polymers 2025,17, 110 9 of 28
2.3.1. Rice Starch Cross-Linking: Exploring Bond Formation
The SG resists heat, shearing, and acids more effectively as a result of the cross-
linking process [
74
]. Cross-linking refers to the formation of covalent bonds between starch
molecules by targeting the hydroxyl groups present on amylose and amylopectin chains,
facilitated by specific cross-linking agents. Quite a few agents (chemicals), including acetic–
adipic combined anhydrides, epichlorohydrin (ECH), POCl
3
, STPP, STMP, and a mixture
of STMP and STP, are used in the cross-linking process to modify the native rice starch.
Nevertheless, the U.S. no longer uses ECH for food-grade purposes because chlorohydrins
are known to be carcinogens. It is worth noting that because of the molecular assemblies of
cross-linked coordination, the nature of the cross-linking driving force primarily influences
the functional properties of modified rice starch [
34
]. Because of intermolecular links,
cross-linked starch exhibited a lowered retrogradation speed and increased gelatinization
temperature, which are related to the reduced mobility of amorphous sequences in SGs [
75
].
Moreover, cross-linking resulted in improved pasting clarity and increased starch swelling
power, while concurrently reducing the apparent content of amylose [
76
]. According to [
77
],
POCl
3
-induced cross-linked SGs showed reduced solubility and freeze–thaw stability but
an increase in the gelatinization temperature and shear stability. Conversely, [
78
] observed a
decrease in the gelatinization temperature of cross-linked rice starch compared to the native
equivalent. This is explained by the fact that there was less gelatinized starch remaining
after cross-linking. It is true that cross-linked sticky and non-sticky starches have divergent
functions; non-sticky starch showed negative effects, while waxy starch experienced an
increase in the pasting temperature and gelatinization via cross-linking treatment. However,
the cross-linking process for both waxy and non-waxy rice starches resulted in decreased
swelling power and solubility while enhancing shear stability [
79
]. Cross-linking agents
enhance rice starch stability and resistance to heat, acid, and shear by forming covalent
bonds between molecules, although they may reduce solubility. In contrast, ethylene oxide
introduces hydroxypropyl groups, improving the hydrophilicity, solubility, and freeze–
thaw stability while reducing retrogradation. Thus, cross-linking is best for structural
integrity, while hydroxypropylation improves solubility and reduces gel hardening.
2.3.2. Rice Starch Oxidation
When a certain amount of an oxidant reacts with starch at a controlled pH and
temperature, starch gets oxidized. The industrial production of oxidized starch, which has
uses in the culinary field and auxiliary allied fields involving gluing and film formation,
is facilitated by the usage of hypochlorite, one of several oxidizing agents. Oxidized
starch was prepared by suspending starch (100 g, dry basis) in distilled water (150 mL) at
30
◦
C, adjusting the pH to 8.5 with NaOH, and adding sodium hypochlorite (2.5% w/w)
while maintaining the pH with H
2
SO
4
. After 30 min, the slurry pH was adjusted to
6.5–7.0
and then centrifuged, washed, and dried at 45
◦
C for 48 h. Oxidized, cross-linked
rice starch was first cross-linked with epichlorohydrin (0.3%, w/w), followed by NaOCl
addition and a pH adjustment to 8.5. Cross-linked, oxidized rice starch was prepared by
oxidizing starch with NaOCl, adjusting the pH to 10.0 with NaOH, and then cross-linking
with epichlorohydrin. Both products were recovered by centrifugation and drying [
80
].
Oxidized starch is useful as an outer sizing agent and coating adhesive and can be added to
foods with primary flavors like mayonnaise, salad dressing, and lemon curd [
16
]. An and
King [
81
] discovered that the pasting characteristics of rice starch treated with ozone (O
3
)
and starch oxidized with minimal concentrations of chemical oxidizing compounds were
similar. Due to hypochlorite generating substantial alkaline wastewater and producing
minimal oxidized starch by degrading starch into low-molecular-weight molecules, it is
preferable to use environmentally friendly oxidants such as ozone.
Polymers 2025,17, 110 10 of 28
2.4. Rice Starch Dual Modification
Enhancing the desired properties of starch can be achieved through dual-modification
techniques, specifically oxidation and cross-linking. Research has already explored these
methods on starches from corn, potatoes, sago, tapioca, and wheat [
48
]. There have been
several studies on the physicochemical properties of controlled modified rice starches
reported [
74
,
82
]. Undoubtedly, modified starches possess the necessary functional features
for food handling; however, they also possess certain unwanted attributes. Additionally,
the cross-linking shows a higher tendency toward retrogradation. Both the shear resistance
and starch paste viscosity are greatly reduced by oxidation [
83
]. Hence, chemical and other
forms of dual modification play a crucial role in enhancing starch characteristics, thereby
improving their functionality for numerous applications.
Ethanoylation/oxidization, cross-linking/basic esterification, or cross-linking/ethanoylation
are the primary examples of the dual chemical modifications captured by the systems of dual
modifications, which incorporate enzymatic and physicochemical methods [
84
,
85
]. Better
freeze–thaw stability was achieved by chemically modifying starch through cross-linking
and phosphorylation [
51
,
86
]. Recently, sodium hypochlorite was used to oxidize rice starch,
and epichlorohydrin was used to cross-link it. However, the oxidation and cross-linking
processes were unable to significantly alter the shape of the SG. Compared to raw starch,
the cross-linked and oxidized starch showed decent paste transparency, lower solubility, and
reduced swelling power. Among oxidized cross-linked, native, oxidized, and cross-linked
starch, the oxidized, cross-linked starch exhibited the lowest retrogradation tendency and the
highest shear resistance. These findings imply that the undesired characteristics of native,
oxidized, and cross-linked rice starch might be mitigated by dual modification [80,87].
3. Morphological Characteristics
The SEM-identified morphological development attributes of rice SGs present an
understanding of the correlation between rice starch gene variants and fragment shapes [
88
].
However, another significant technique that has been adopted to investigate the anatomy
of starch is laser diffraction. Table 3presents the geometry and dimensional aspects of rice
starches. The polyhedral (PH) form, alongside the precise curves and sides devoid of any
openings, were seen in different varieties using light and SEM (such as smooth, uneven,
sharp, irregular, and asymmetrical patterns). A single peak mode (unimodal) in the size
pattern was observed in all breeds [
89
]. The overall dimension and form of SGs differ based
on the breed and source of each variety [
90
]. The study by Cai et al. [
89
] found asymmetrical,
sharp curves, having a PH geometry with no surface flaws in grains. Gani et al. [
52
] found
that the SG had an asymmetrical look with a PH geometry. Moreover, a few of the SGs
had a spherical pattern. As reported by [
91
], an SG has an asymmetrical PH geometry.
These sphere-structured granules have a polygonal circular form that is bound rigidly and
has a relatively clean surface. Multiple types of rice had SG lengths ranging up to 6.7
µ
m.
The environment, farming strategies, breeding variability, and the conversion of starch all
contribute to grain particle uniqueness [
92
]. The maximum dimension size was observed
up to 8
µ
m. A visual representation of the crystal structure of SG is shown in Figure 5
(the scheme is reproduced from [
93
]). In Figure 5, starch granules display alternating
semicrystalline (soft) and crystalline (hard) shells at the lowest organizational level, with
thinning shells toward the exterior and an off-center hilum. At a higher level, blocklets are
arranged along amorphous radial channels with smaller blocklets in the semicrystalline
shells. The second-highest level reveals blocklets containing amorphous crystalline lamellae
with amylopectin polymers depicted within them. The role of amylose–lipid and protein
interactions in organizing amylopectin chains is highlighted.
Polymers 2025,17, 110 11 of 28
Table 3. Rice starch geometry, appearance, and dimension in granular form.
Appearance and Geometry Dimension (µm) Reference
Polyhedral (PH), uneven, and sharp edges 3.9 to 4.5 [89]
PH 4.0 to 5.2 [52]
PH and asymmetrical 1.0 to 8.0 [94]
PH and uneven 1.5 to 6.1 [16]
PH and irregular 1.5 to 5.8 [75]
PH and smooth pattern 1.53 to 6.7 [91]
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 30
Table 3. Rice starch geometry, appearance, and dimension in granular form.
Appearance and Geometry Dimension (µm) Reference
Polyhedral (PH), uneven, and sharp edges 3.9 to 4.5 [89]
PH 4.0 to 5.2 [52]
PH and asymmetrical 1.0 to 8.0 [94]
PH and uneven 1.5 to 6.1 [16]
PH and irregular 1.5 to 5.8 [75]
PH and smooth paern 1.53 to 6.7 [91]
Figure 5. A visual representation showing the arrangement of a SG (reprinted with permission from
Elsevier Gallant, Bouchet, and Baldwin [93]).
4. Rice Starch Functional Features
Rice starch is a key molecule because of its unique features and qualities. Understanding
these qualities helps to optimize different formulations. This overview focuses on how rice
starch turns into a gel, expands, and stays stable, as well as its effects on texture.
4.1. Rice Starch Rheology
A material’s rheological properties refer to how it deforms and its flow paerns in
response to stresses. The principal metric for determining rheological properties in starch
Figure 5. A visual representation showing the arrangement of a SG (reprinted with permission from
Elsevier Gallant, Bouchet, and Baldwin [93]).
4. Rice Starch Functional Features
Rice starch is a key molecule because of its unique features and qualities. Understand-
ing these qualities helps to optimize different formulations. This overview focuses on how
rice starch turns into a gel, expands, and stays stable, as well as its effects on texture.
4.1. Rice Starch Rheology
A material’s rheological properties refer to how it deforms and its flow patterns in
response to stresses. The principal metric for determining rheological properties in starch
Polymers 2025,17, 110 12 of 28
is viscosity, which is applied as a thickener. Several studies have used rheological and
gelatinization methodologies to determine these attributes [
95
–
97
]. The most widely used
device for studying the viscoelastic nature of starch is the dynamic rheometer [
98
]. In
characterizing gel, the storage and loss moduli (G’ and G
′′
) are employed. G
′
(storage
modulus) can be used to compute the energy stored in the material and recovered during
each cycle, whereas G
′′
(loss modulus) quantifies the energy lost or dissipated during a
sinusoidal deformation cycle. In the process of hot starch dispersing, both the storage
modulus (G
′
) and loss modulus (G
′′
) reach their peak values at a specific temperature,
followed by a decline with continued heating. The initial increase in G
′′
is attributed to
swelling due to amylose leaching, which allows the system to accommodate its full capac-
ity [
65
,
99
]. Rice starch with higher amylose levels (18.86%) yields stronger gel structures,
reflected in higher G
′
(45.24
×
10
2
Pa) and G
′′
(4.83
×
10
2
Pa) values. Lower amylose
content starch (7.83%) shows weaker gel properties with reduced G
′
(26.30
×
10
2
Pa) and
G
′′
(
3.50 ×102Pa
) values. Weak internal organization and negatively charged phosphate
groups in the starch granules also contribute to these rheological differences. [
97
]. Accord-
ing to [
100
], G
′
readings for multiple forms of rice ranged from
53 ×104to 17.5 ×104Pa
under heated conditions. The paste and thickener forms have the potential to be tested for
rheological aspects, including the creep, flow behavior, mechanical bandwidth, viscoelastic-
ity, as well as thickening power [
16
]. Measuring stress based on the applied acceleration
rate can help evaluate the nature of flow [
94
]. The rheological behavior of rice starch reflects
a balance between elastic (G
′
) and viscous (G
′′
) properties influenced by its molecular
composition gelatinization and retrogradation. Higher G’ linked to high amylose content
indicates stronger gelation and a solid-like structure, while higher (G
′′
) typical of low amy-
lose or gelatinization reflects greater fluidity. Understanding these dynamics is essential for
optimizing rice starch functionality in industrial applications.
4.2. Rice Starch Pasting Properties
Starch pasting properties describe its response to heat and water during processing,
encompassing parameters such as peak viscosity, trough breakdown, final viscosity, and
setback viscosity, which are measured with a Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and rheometer
apparatus. RVA analysis involves the meticulous preparation of milled rice samples, includ-
ing grinding, sieving, and blending a defined amount with distilled water. Using the RVA,
the temperature is cycled from 50
◦
C to 95
◦
C and back to 50
◦
C over approximately 17 min.
Key viscosity metrics, including the peak, hot paste, cool paste, breakdown, setback, and
consistency viscosities, are measured alongside the pasting temperature and peak time
(see Figure 6). These properties offer crucial insights into starch’s cooking and processing
performances, guiding its application across diverse industry sectors, functioning as a
disintegrant, stabilizer, texturizer, and surface sizing and thickening agents [
27
,
65
,
100
,
101
].
Cooking starch in the presence of water leads to an absence of the crystalline domain
and the expansion of its outermost layer. Starch’s warm pasting thickness is influenced
by complex development (amylose–lipid), expanding, and leaching [
102
]. At the storage
temperature, a mixture containing group acetyl in watery starchy dispersions reduces
cohesion and discoloration by breaking links across amylopectin along with its outer
links, plus amylase sequences. According to [
74
], modified starch exhibits greater past-
ing transparency over those that are natural. Heating starch in an excess of H
2
O causes
amylose swelling, resulting in a thick paste. Pasting, which can occur before or after
gelatinization, is a useful route to explore the functional characteristics and structural
properties of starch. Its utility in commercial uses is defined by the thickened response
and viscose conduct [
103
]. The G. Zag and K. Quder rice planted at extreme elevations
of the Kashmir Valley with hardened freezing environments exhibits starch with higher
Polymers 2025,17, 110 13 of 28
amylose/amylopectin ratios. The SG displayed high pasting temperature (75–87
◦
C) and
extreme time variations between 5.4 and 7.2 min. [
91
]. When rice starch was subjected to
green tea polyphenolic compounds, the maximum temperatures and the enthalpy of gela-
tinization lowered, and this was owed to polyphenol–starch interlinking. Furthermore, tea
polyphenolic compounds improved the starchy gel’s freeze–thaw resilience and hydrating
qualities, preventing retrogradation [104].
Polymers 2025, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 30
extreme time variations between 5.4 and 7.2 min. [91]. When rice starch was subjected to
green tea polyphenolic compounds, the maximum temperatures and the enthalpy of ge-
latinization lowered, and this was owed to polyphenol–starch interlinking. Furthermore,
tea polyphenolic compounds improved the starchy gel’s freeze–thaw resilience and hy-
drating qualities, preventing retrogradation [104].
Figure 6. Characteristic pasting profile of starch as determined using Rapid Visco Analyzer (re-
printed with the permission of Hindawi Kesarwani, Chiang, and Chen [105]).
4.3. Rice Starch Swelling Intensity
When the starch is boiled in an excess of H
2
O, H bonds break, disrupting its crystal-
line form. The H
2
O molecules establish H bonds with the exposed -OH groups of amyl-
ose/amylopectin. This causes enhanced solvability and swelling. The solvability and
swelling intensity indicate the level of connection among starch sequences as well as
within the SG glassy and crystal-like states [106]. Starch swelling precedes the elimination
of dual refraction before solvability [65]. The cycle extent of this connection is controlled
by the shaping arrangement of amylose or amylopectin, the SG contents, along with sev-
eral important parameters [19]. Amylose–lipid interactions suppress swelling, whereas
the swelling tendency of SG is predominantly dependent on the amylopectin configura-
tion. Amylose, on the other hand, acts as a diluting agent in this process [42]. The swelling
ability fluctuates with the temperature in both waxy and standard rice SGs. Standard rice
SGs swell in two phases. Amylose has no effect on swelling during the first phase, which
occurs around 55 and 85 °C. However, the existence of shorter amylopectin units (DP
n
up
to 9) increases the swelling capacity within 55–65 °C. Amylose lowers the swelling
strength during the second phase, when temperatures range from 95 up to 125 °C. Shorter
amylopectin sequences influence SG swelling in this initial phase, whereas amylose leach-
ing affects the process in the second phase [107]. The swelling strength of starch is deter-
mined by its ability to retain water through hydrogen bonding. Once gelatinized, the hy-
drogen connections across cells of starch are destroyed and substituted with H
2
O/H bonds
[108]. Techawipharat [109] investigated the swelling capacities of different waxy and com-
mon rice starches, finding that waxy starch presented a beer swelling strength of 27%
compared to ordinary rice starch, which was 15.5%. Granules of waxy rice starch demon-
strated greater flexibility and were more prone to breakdown when swollen and densely
packed [110]. Ordinary rice SGs were less prone to breakage, indicated less swelling, and
appeared stiffer. Furthermore, very lile leachate was seen from ordinary rice SGs, sug-
gesting that amylose remained the predominant substance that was released within the
Figure 6. Characteristic pasting profile of starch as determined using Rapid Visco Analyzer (reprinted
with the permission of Hindawi Kesarwani, Chiang, and Chen [105]).
4.3. Rice Starch Swelling Intensity
When the starch is boiled in an excess of H
2
O, H bonds break, disrupting its crys-
talline form. The H
2
O molecules establish H bonds with the exposed -OH groups of
amylose/amylopectin. This causes enhanced solvability and swelling. The solvability and
swelling intensity indicate the level of connection among starch sequences as well as within
the SG glassy and crystal-like states [
106
]. Starch swelling precedes the elimination of
dual refraction before solvability [
65
]. The cycle extent of this connection is controlled by
the shaping arrangement of amylose or amylopectin, the SG contents, along with several
important parameters [
19
]. Amylose–lipid interactions suppress swelling, whereas the
swelling tendency of SG is predominantly dependent on the amylopectin configuration.
Amylose, on the other hand, acts as a diluting agent in this process [
42
]. The swelling ability
fluctuates with the temperature in both waxy and standard rice SGs. Standard rice SGs
swell in two phases. Amylose has no effect on swelling during the first phase, which occurs
around 55 and 85
◦
C. However, the existence of shorter amylopectin units (DP
n
up to 9)
increases the swelling capacity within 55–65
◦
C. Amylose lowers the swelling strength
during the second phase, when temperatures range from 95 up to 125
◦
C. Shorter amy-
lopectin sequences influence SG swelling in this initial phase, whereas amylose leaching
affects the process in the second phase [
107
]. The swelling strength of starch is determined
by its ability to retain water through hydrogen bonding. Once gelatinized, the hydrogen
connections across cells of starch are destroyed and substituted with H
2
O/H bonds [
108
].
Techawipharat [
109
] investigated the swelling capacities of different waxy and common rice
starches, finding that waxy starch presented a better swelling strength of 27% compared to
ordinary rice starch, which was 15.5%. Granules of waxy rice starch demonstrated greater
flexibility and were more prone to breakdown when swollen and densely packed [
110
].
Ordinary rice SGs were less prone to breakage, indicated less swelling, and appeared stiffer.
Furthermore, very little leachate was seen from ordinary rice SGs, suggesting that amylose
Polymers 2025,17, 110 14 of 28
remained the predominant substance that was released within the granulation [
111
]. In
contrast, the exudation from waxy rice SGs was substantial and principally composed
of amylopectin [42].
4.4. Rice Starch Light Transmittance
Measuring light transmittance through starch means checking how much light goes
through a starch solution or paste. This allows us to understand things like how thick it is,
how clear it looks, and how strong its gel is. In food processing, like making gels/jellies
and fruit pastes, having a clear starch paste is crucial. It helps ensure the right stability for
finer quality goods [
101
]. Additionally, Gani [
52
] documented cloudy ratings ranging from
0.3% to 0.6%, illustrating the various starch architectures brought about by variations in
pasting quality and turbidity. The clearness is influenced by factors such as starch origin,
amylose/amylopectin, biological/chemical transformation, and the insertion of solutes.
It has been shown that the quality of the paste deteriorates with a reduced storage
duration, both for native and processed starches. Compared to native starch, either oxi-
dized or double-modified starches exhibited greater transmission percentages from diverse
starch sources. This is primarily due to the organic replacement of carbonyl and carboxyl
(
-CO/-CO2H
) groups with hydroxyl group (-OH). The paste clarity was reduced due to
storage time in both native and modified starches. However, due to unsuitable gelatiniza-
tion, decreased swelling activity, and the interconnected SGs, the paste produced poorer
paste clarity than the native version, causing light to be scattered instead of mitigated by
the resulting compact particles [
112
]. Rice starch exhibits high light transmittance due
to a smaller granule size and low retrogradation, while starches from other source (corn,
potatoes, etc.) show moderate to low transparency due to having larger granules and
higher retrogradation or phosphate content.
4.5. Temperature and Gelatinization Features
Starch gelatinization transforms granular starch to a gel-like consistency through
heating and water absorption. This process involves both amylose and amylopectin, with
gelatinization starting at 60–70
◦
C and progressing up to 90
◦
C or higher. Elevated temper-
atures speed up gelatinization, thickening the gel as the starch granules swell. However,
excessive heat can cause the gel to become too soft and watery. Cooling solidifies the
gel, with texture influenced by both heating and cooling temperatures. Repeated heating
and cooling can increase the gel density due to amylose retrogradation, underscoring the
importance of temperature in determining the final texture.
The different thermal attributes of the starches that come from rice are illustrated
in Table 4. Boiling starch in H
2
O induces the molecular and geometrical shifts within
them, including swelling due to H
2
O absorption, amylose leaching into the H
2
O phase,
and the disruption of the crystalline state caused by the breakup of amylopectin dual
helices [
113
]. DSC, FT-IR, NMR, polarized light microscopy, thermomechanical analysis, as
well as techniques like X-ray scattering are essential methods used to determine the starch
gelatinization temperature [
114
–
116
]. The change in amylose phases; the form, shape, and
placement of SGs; as well as the internal organization of segments inside the SG, cause such
variations in the temperature during gelatinization [
65
]. The gelatinization temperature
transition states (T
p
, T
c
, and T
o
) are also influenced by the crystallized state’s molecular
configuration [
117
]. There exists a beneficial link between the amylose concentration and the
gelatinization temperatures [
118
]. Type-A starches have a higher gelatinization temperature
than type-B, and their enlarged temperature transition states are brought on by their
advanced crystallinity form, which maintains their structural integrity and increases the SG
resistance to gelatinization [
119
]. The term “Hgel” refers to the breakdown of the structural
Polymers 2025,17, 110 15 of 28
double-helical sequence, illustrating how the forces linking within amylopectin crystals
form vary, resulting in double-helical sequences. This, in turn, leads to irregular meeting
points of H bonds within molecules [
120
]. Several studies have confirmed the gelatinization
capabilities of rice SGs [
65
,
89
,
94
,
121
]. Due to its higher water-binding capacity, inulin (a
polysaccharide) increased all three gelatinization transition temperatures of rice SGs by
approximately 3
◦
C when added [
122
]. The peak and final temperatures of rice starch were
elevated when an additional electric field was applied, although these values decreased as
the field strength increased [103].
Table 4. Rice starch thermal features.
Proportion (wt:wt) H2O: Starch Heating Speed (◦C·min−1) Tc(◦C) To(◦C) Tp(◦C) Hgel (J/g) Reference
3:1 10.00 71–79 56–64 61–75 9–13 [89]
3:1 10.00 147–156 37–40 61–74 24–29 [16]
2:1 10.00 74–78 66–67 61–74 8–12 [65]
3:1 10.00 83–90 59–62 61–74 11–19 [94]
2:1 10.00 72–76 60–63 65–68 10–11 [121]
2:1 10.00 62.4 84.4 74.57 9.43 [122]
T
c
= conclusion gelatinization temperature; T
o
= onset gelatinization temperature; T
p
= peak onset gelatinization
temperature; Hgel = gelatinization enthalpy.
5. Applications
Starch finds diverse applications across multiple sectors due to its functional properties.
In the food industry, it serves as a thickener and stabilizer in products like sauces and gluten-
free foods and helps maintain moisture and texture in baked goods such as cakes and bread.
It also enhances the structural integrity and flavor of snacks, sweets, and processed foods.
In construction, rice starch is utilized in eco-friendly adhesives and binders, leveraging
its natural adhesive capabilities. In cosmetics, its absorbency and smooth texture make
it essential for powders and creams. The textile industry employs rice starch as a sizing
agent to improve fabric finishes and yarn quality. In paper production, it functions as a
binder and coating agent, enhancing paper strength. In pharmaceuticals, rice starch acts as
a binder and disintegrant in tablets, ensuring consistent drug release. Additionally, rice
starch is crucial in the development of biodegradable plastics, providing a sustainable
alternative to conventional materials.
5.1. Building Materials
Starch’s comparatively lower structural integrity and durability, compared to conven-
tional building materials like concrete, steel, and wood, limit its primary use in construction.
However, starch-based materials can serve as additives or binders in applications such
as plasters, mortars, and adhesives. These materials may offer advantages like improved
workability, adhesion, and moisture resistance. Ongoing research explores starch-based
biodegradable alternatives for specific building needs, particularly in temporary and sus-
tainable structures, aiming for environmentally friendly solutions.
Several studies proved that bio-based building materials have positive environmental
impacts like carbon sequestration, biodegradability, reduction in energy consumption, and
eco-friendly features [
123
–
126
]. In [
127
], five natural starch types, along with mortars con-
taining clay minerals such as kaolinite and illite, were used to investigate the interactions
between natural clays and starches. The samples were prepared with sand and clay dry-
mixed at 70% and 30% in a weight percentage composition. The amount of starch used in
preparation of the samples was 1% with 13.6% of water and 5% with 13.5% of water by dry
weight composition of sand and clay. The mortar was thoroughly mixed at 62 rpm for 60 s,
followed by an additional mix at 93 rpm for half a minute. Starch with a high amylopectin
Polymers 2025,17, 110 16 of 28
content notably enhanced the mechanical properties of kaolinite mortars. Comparative
analysis revealed that rice starch formed stronger hydrogen bonds with kaolinite than
maize starch, leading to superior structural reinforcement. Porosimetry confirmed that
rice starch optimized the arrangement of grains and clay particles in the kaolinite matrix,
enhancing its structural integrity. Molecular-level analysis revealed effective interaction
between rice starch and clay [
127
]. The starch-based composites were synthesized by com-
bining starches, including sticky rice starch, with sand, hemp shives, and water followed
by compaction into molds and microwave heating to facilitate starch gelatinization. To
improve water resistance, the StarchCrete samples were coated with paraffin and carnauba
wax through immersion in melted wax. The hemp shive ratio significantly influenced
the material’s properties, with an optimal ratio of 0.5 achieving the highest compressive
strength of 2.8 MPa. Higher ratios resulted in reduced strength due to weaker bonding
and an increase in hemp shives lowered both the density (from 1383 to 618 kg/m
3
) and
thermal conductivity (from 0.52 to 0.15 W/(m
·
K)), enhancing insulation. Paraffin wax
coating further enhanced water resistance and durability. Statistical analysis (ANOVA,
p< 0.05
) confirmed the significance of these effects, with StarchCrete outperforming other
natural fiber composites in compressive strength, positioning it as a promising material
for sustainable construction applications [
128
]. The combination of sticky rice and lime
as primary binder with plant fiber as a supportive additive was used in diverse zones of
China. In Shaanxi province, a higher proportion of waxy rice was incorporated into the
binder mixture. Official buildings, signifying their importance and prestige, employed a
binder containing up to 3.6% waxy rice. Domestic structures, while still benefiting from the
binder’s properties, utilized a slightly lower concentration, up to 1.9%. Conversely, Shan-
dong province demonstrated a different approach. Both official and domestic buildings
employed a binder with a lower waxy rice content, reaching up to 1.2% and 1.3%, respec-
tively. Mechanical tests showed better performance of mortar in lime with sticky rice. The
crystal morphology analyzed using SEM indicated that a rich amount of sticky rice changes
the irregular prismatic pattern, whereas H
2
O evaporation and internal transportation were
seen in samples with a small quantity of sticky rice, resulting in greater porosity [
129
].
An amylose content of 21.5% in starch was used in mortar samples with a grain sand
size up to 0.25 mm and natural wax. The starch samples were shown to be 30 MPa for
compressive strength, with elastic moduli <2 GPa, a 0.20 MPa tensile strength, and good
water-resistant capacity. The coating with high-molecular-weight compounds enhanced
the durability of bio-based building materials [
130
]. The 65% starch binder solution and
hemp were mixed properly and used in the preparation of prismatic and cubic samples.
Hemp/starch composites exhibit a lower density compared to lime-based composites. This
density difference is not proportional to the hemp shive content, indicating a non-linear
relationship. This suggests a complex interplay between hemp shive incorporation and
the resulting composite density, exceeding a simple linear correlation and tensile strength
of 0.11 MPa. The stress/strain is linear, whereas Young’s modulus is non-linearly ob-
served. Five percent hemp with starch binder enhanced the mechanical properties in this
study [
131
]. In Gacoin et al.’s study [
132
], bio-based insulation materials were synthesized
from viticulture byproducts (grape pomace, stalks, skins, and crushed stalks) combined
with starch at a 20% mass ratio. The composites exhibited a moderate compressive strength
(3.0–5.9 MPa), a Young’s modulus of
11.7–36 MPa
, and a thermal conductivity of approxi-
mately 0.075 W/(m
·
K). The starch/grape pomace composite showed superior compressive
strength. These grape pomace-based composites demonstrate promising mechanical and
thermal properties, making them viable for insulation materials in public buildings [
132
].
Similarly, beet pulp- and starch-based composite building materials have shown good
Polymers 2025,17, 110 17 of 28
mechanical properties [
133
]. The mechanical properties of a NaCl–starch binder have
shown improvements of 600% with 1% starch and 137% with up to 10% starch [134].
5.2. Cosmetics
Starch has a variety of functions in cosmetics, contributing to product texture and
functionality. Its absorbent features make it exceptionally useful in formulations designed
to control oil and moisture on the skin and hair. It is used for a variety of purposes,
including for stabilizing/as a controller, dusting/bath powder, thickening, gel developing,
and for adjusting sensory qualities [
135
]. Compounds originating from rice hold the ability
to address skin-related issues. Extracts obtained from rice bran ashes not only enhance
melanin production but also provide protection against UV-induced skin damage [
136
]. The
positive consequences of an oil-in-water bath moisturizer were amplified by incorporating a
zero-lipid bath composition containing a rice starch additive. Bathing in rice starch-infused
water for fifteen minutes twice a day significantly boosted the healing ability of injured skin
by 20%. Whenever powdered starch was incorporated into a bathing liquid, individuals
with atopic dermatitis experienced enhancements in the integrity of their skin barrier [
137
].
The mixture of rice starch and moringa extract at a ratio of 3:1 was used in cream body
scrub, and the findings reveal high antioxidant activity, physical valuation, spreading
capacity, and pH, fulfilling the high standards of the product [138].
5.3. Textile Sector
Rice starch exhibits remarkable versatility in the textile industry, particularly in textile
sizing, a crucial process in which yarns receive a protective coating before weaving. This
coating enhances yarn strength, smoothness, and abrasion resistance during weaving.
Moreover, it improves the weaving efficiency and fabric quality while also aligning with
sustainable textile manufacturing practices due to its environmentally friendly nature.
Additionally, rice starch finds application beyond sizing, being utilized in finishing treat-
ments to impart desired fabric properties such as softness, wrinkle resistance, and moisture
management [
139
,
140
]. Utilizing DORB (de-oiled rice bran) as both a fabric desizer and a
component in cleaning soap has been proven effective. Optimal results were observed at
37
◦
C and pH 8.0 over a 96 h incubation period with 1.5% (w/v) maltose. The study indicates
that the combined laundry power of detergents and enzymes surpasses their individual
effectiveness, highlighting the necessity of
α
-amylase as a key ingredient in cleaning deter-
gent formulations [
141
]. The starch was grafted with acrylamide with 2-(methacryloyloxy)
ethanol to boost its resistance to abrasion and minimize hairy yarn appearance [
3
]. To create
multifunctional textiles, the clothing industry is shifting toward sustainable manufacturing
methods, aiming to reduce chemical usage, employ cost-effective equipment, streamline
production processes, and minimize wastewater generation [
142
]. The advancement of
functional textiles depends greatly on nanofinishing techniques and the application of
biopolymer layers. For instance, to impart shrink-resistant features to wool clothing with-
out compromising its inherent characteristics, coating it with biopolymers such as gums,
chitosan, and starch has emerged as a promising sustainable alternative to energy-intensive
treatments like UV rays and ozone [
143
]. The ZnO starch nanocomposites serve as active
finishers, providing textiles with antibacterial and UV-shielding capabilities [3].
5.4. Paper Production
Starch is essential in numerous stages of the paper-making process, serving in binding,
sizing, surface treatment, strength enhancement, and retention. Its versatility and effec-
tiveness make it a highly valued additive in paper manufacturing, enhancing the overall
quality of paper products [
144
]. The food sector ranks first in starch usage, amounting to
USD 21.1 billion, while the paper industry follows closely behind [
3
]. By impeding the cap-
Polymers 2025,17, 110 18 of 28
illary action in fibers to absorb fluids, a sizing agent diminishes the fluid absorption of dry
paper, resulting in precise, cost-effective, and uniform printing surfaces. Moreover, sizing
influences the surface-bonding capacity, uniformity, printer compatibility, and minimizes
roughness and fuzzing while also decreasing interface porosity. However, the insoluble
features of natural starch in most liquids at normal temperatures and its inadequate H
2
O
barrier characteristics limit its application in the paper synthesis system [
145
]. Modified
starches play a crucial role in surface sizing solutions, improving paper’s smoothness,
water repellency, and strength. Specifically, amphiphilic starch materials containing both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups interact with paper fibers, forming a coating that
enhances water repellency.
As far as binders are concerned, they are like glue for pigment particles on paper,
sticking them together and to the paper’s coating. After pigments, they’re the second most
common component for soft-tinted paper [
14
]. Colorful papers use two forms of binder:
one helps keep the coating smooth and holds water, while the other does most of the
sticking. The main binder is made from synthetic material, while the helper binder is made
from bio-based materials like starch [
146
]. The intractable nature of natural starch and its
reduced viscosity after boiling and storage make it unsuitable for use as a binder. Moreover,
upon exposure to water during production, starch infiltrates the paper matrix, resulting
in binder migration and significant alterations in the porosity of the paper [
147
], while
modified starches can be tailored for specific applications in paper synthesis by altering
their molecular structure [
148
]. The positively charged (cationic starch) form of modified
starch is used to enhance fiber bonding in paper. It is especially useful for increasing
retention of fine particles and fillers during the paper-making process and the chemically
altered (oxidized starch) to increase its solubility and make it more suitable for surface
sizing and coatings. It provides excellent film-forming properties, leading to a smoother
surface finish.
5.5. Bio-Based Plastics
Rice starch is widely employed in bioplastic forming as both a biodegradable filler and
a reinforcing agent. When combined with biopolymer matrices, starch-based bioplastics
present superior mechanical properties, biodegradability, and sustainability compared to
conventional petroleum-based plastics.
Rice starch enhances the flexibility, moisture resistance, and processability of bioplastic
materials, expanding their utility across diverse sectors including packaging or wrapping.
Overall, rice starch plays a crucial role in driving the development of eco-friendly bioplastic
alternatives [
149
]. The rice containing starch and glycerol mixed at a high temperature
present better tensile power and viscoelasticity of the derived bioplastic with heat treat-
ment [
150
]. Rice flour containing 93% starch is a promising candidate for bio-based plastics.
By cross-linking starch with sodium trimetaphosphate (at a 1–3% concentration) along with
a plasticizer, improved biodegradability and tensile capacity (
4.3 MPa
) have been demon-
strated [
151
]. Adding oxidized cellulose improved the strength of the cellulose–starch-based
bioplastic. This happened because of more
−
COO
−
groups and less crystallinity. It shows
that the properties of bioplastics are greatly affected by their functionality [149].
5.6. Pharmaceuticals
Rice starch is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry as an excipient in tablet
preparations, serving as a binder, disintegrant, and filler. It binds tablet ingredients to-
gether for uniformity and cohesion, facilitates tablet dissolution and drug release in the
gastrointestinal tract, and adds bulk to tablets for compression. Rice starch’s inert nature,
affordability, and compatibility with active pharmaceutical ingredients make it a popular
Polymers 2025,17, 110 19 of 28
choice for pharmaceutical formulation [
3
]. Cadexomer iodine is a commercially available
starchy product composed of a three-dimensional structure of cross-linked hydrophilic
starch composite. The product soaks up fluid and debris from the injury, releases iodine
to cleanse it, and shows resistance against bacteria [
152
]. Starch is increasingly utilized in
bone tissue composite production due to its low cost, compatibility with biological systems,
abundance of hydroxyl groups for bonding to hydroxyapatite (HA), and the ability to
modify it to meet specific composite production requirements. Scientists have studied
mixing hydroxyapatite (HA) with starch to create an effective replacement [
153
]. Due to the
accessibility of starch hydroxyl groups, natural starch can be employed in the development
of hybrid printed products. By combining starch with gelatin nanoparticles and biological
collagen, a 3D printed bio-ink was successfully created [154].
5.7. Bakery and Dairy Items
Starch plays a crucial role in bread preparation, absorbing approximately 64% of the
liquid used. Additionally, it serves as an inert additive within the consistent protein struc-
ture during the maturation of the dough. Throughout the dough’s fermentation process,
it functions as a continuous network of both carbohydrates and proteins. Moreover, the
interaction between wet gluten and aggregating SGs influences the rheological properties
of the dough. Furthermore, granule morphologies may also play a role in retaining gas
bubbles within the dough. Gas bubbles could be supported by a tiny granule, but they are
destabilized by granules bigger than the gas walls of the cells. Additionally, during preser-
vation, retrogradation impacts the bread’s texture and quality [
155
]. Similar to bread, the
traits of biscuits are greatly affected when cross-linked carbohydrates are substituted [
156
].
Upon baking, the cross-linking process increased the heat strength, decreased the viscosity,
and decreased the biscuit’s weight along with raising its stiffness [
157
]. Further research
has been conducted on using starch as a substitute for fat in baked goods [
158
]. The study
found that altering the levels of substituted cross-linked starch negatively affected both
the growth and durability of the dough. However, an 8% starch replacement had no ap-
preciable effect on the muffins’ baking characteristics, such as the weight loss, specific
volume, moisture levels in the crumb, or coloring metrics. Additionally, muffins containing
an 8% substitution of starch displayed high acceptance ratings and textural properties
that were comparable to those of the standard recipe [
157
]. Dairy-based goods contain
starch, which serves as a stabilizer and imparts a smooth consistency and taste. It is being
investigated extensively for use as a thickener in yogurt production to give milk curd a
more palatable texture and to lessen apparent flaws and ruptures [
159
]. The addition of
acetylated starch demonstrably increased yogurt firmness and imparted a finer, more ho-
mogeneous microstructure. Furthermore, the incorporation of acetylated starch improved
the flow characteristics of the yogurt. Moreover, the hydrogen bonding between proteins
and starches could enhance the rheological properties of yogurt containing starch [
160
]. Ice
cream, characterized by its significant fat content, is commonly derived from milk. The
effects of incorporating varying amounts of cross-linked citric starch, up to 2%, into ice
cream with different fat concentrations were studied. The study participants found that the
inclusion of 1% starch resulted in notable sensory improvements and enhanced the texture
of ice cream, making it the texture of standard ice cream (containing 11% fat). Increasing the
starchy content improved the firmness and freezing–thawing durability of the ice cream,
while substituting 5% fat helped retain its smoothness [161].
5.8. Processed Food
Rice starch is widely used in meat and food processing for its versatile and adaptable
properties as a binder, extender/filler, fat substitute, yield improver, moisture retainer, and
Polymers 2025,17, 110 20 of 28
emulsifier [
162
]. Heat-induced expansion of SGs in the protein-based hydrogel matrix is
potentially favorable in meat emulsions. Moreover, in the process of gelatinization, SGs will
consume liquid, improving the meat item’s capacity to retain water [
163
]. When starch is
heated with protein (myofibrillar), the SGs spread and gelatinize, filling the protein networks
that contain myofibrillar. Water adheres to the blend, contributing to the formation of the
texture of the myofibrillar gel protein [
164
]. The incorporation of starch can enhance the
water-binding capacity of meat patties. The introduction of starch influenced the water-
binding properties of pig patties, resulting in improved shear values, which, in turn, reduced
the thawing loss and enhanced the binding capacity to water.
5.9. Challenges and Future Directions
Despite rice starch being used in many applications because of its chemical charac-
teristics and related properties (Table 5), it still presents several challenges for industrial
uses, which are due to its low amylose content, controlled gelling properties, and sensi-
tivity to retrogradation. To address these issues, future innovations can involve genetic
and innovative modification techniques and enzyme treatments to enhance its functional
properties. Additionally, it has the potential for sustainable applications (green chemistry
and biodegradable materials). However, significant research gaps persist in optimizing
the extraction methods, modification techniques, and exploring emerging applications.
Overcoming these challenges will enhance the versatility of starch and broaden its potential
across various industrial sectors.
Table 5. Summary of chemical, physical, and structural properties of rice starch along with
its applications.
Features Remarks References
Chemical composition
Rice starch is primarily composed of amylose (linear polymer) and
amylopectin (branched polymer). The ratio of these components affects
properties like its gelatinization, pasting features, swelling properties,
rheology, and light transmittance behavior.
[22,33–38]
Granule structure
It is characterized by small granules (2–7
µ
m) with polyhedral (PH) shapes.
[22,90]
Gelatinization
Gelatinization occurs between 60 and 90 ◦C or higher, involving water
absorption, granule swelling, and amylose leaching. Amylose content and
crystallinity affect the gelatinization temperature and texture.
[65,117,120–123]
Swelling properties
Starch granules swell upon heating in water, breaking hydrogen bonds and
forming new ones with water molecules. Waxy rice starch has a higher
swelling capacity than ordinary rice starch. Amylose acts as a diluting
agent and suppresses swelling in later phases.
[42,106,108–111]
Pasting features
Rice starch responds to heat and water during processing. Key parameters
include the peak viscosity, breakdown, final viscosity, and setbacks. It is
influenced by amylose–lipid complexes, starch modifications, and
additives like polyphenols. It is known for having high paste clarity and
stability. These properties influence starch’s functionality in applications
such as thickening, stabilizing, and texturizing across various industries.
[27,65,74,100–102]
Rheology
Rice starch exhibits viscoelastic behavior. The storage modulus (G
′
) reflects
elastic properties, and the loss modulus (G
′′
) represents viscous dissipation.
Higher amylose content enhances G′, indicating stronger gelation.
[94,97,100]
Light transmittance
High light transmittance is due to its small granule size. Chemical
modifications improve transparency, while storage reduces clarity. It is
influenced by the amylose/amylopectin ratio and starch origin.
[52,101,112]
Modifications
Physical, chemical, and enzymatic modifications enhance specific
properties. Cross-linking enhances its resistance to heat, shear, and acids.
Hydroxypropylation improves solubility, hydrophilicity, and freeze–thaw
stability. Oxidation and dual modifications improve stability and clarity.
[72,73,77,80,82,86,87]
Polymers 2025,17, 110 21 of 28
Table 5. Cont.
Features Remarks References
Applications
Building materials: It is used in plasters, mortars, and adhesives;
biodegradable options improve sustainable construction. Rice starch
enhances mechanical strength, while hemp/starch composites insulate
effectively. Wax coatings boost durability.
Cosmetics: It controls oil and moisture as an absorbent, stabilizer, and
thickener, enhancing skin care.
Textiles: It strengthens yarns and improves abrasion resistance; starch
nanocomposites add antibacterial properties. It supports sustainable
production by reducing chemical use with UV shielding.
Paper production: It binds, strengthens, and sizes paper; modified starches
enhance smoothness and bonding. Cationic and amphiphilic variants offer
advanced water repellent properties.
Bio-based plastics: It enhances biodegradability and flexibility;
cross-linking boosts mechanical properties. It serves as a filler and
reinforcing agent for sustainable plastic innovations.
Pharmaceuticals: It functions as a binder and filler in tablets and supports
bone tissue with composites. Cadexomer iodine aids wound healing; it
maintains its integrity in medical applications.
Food industry: It thickens, stabilizes, and emulsifies in processed foods;
cross-linked starch improves texture. Gelatinization ensures water
retention and quality in meat and dairy products.
[3,127–164]
6. Conclusions
Starch constitutes nearly ninety percent of the total mass of grains, serving as the
primary component in rice. Despite appearing chemically straightforward, starch stands
out as one of the most intricate carbohydrates, marked by numerous unresolved investi-
gations regarding its metabolism, core structure, and the interplay between its structure
and physical features. Amylose is a key component of rice starch along with amylopectin.
Starch is found in a particular semicrystalline form with the thinnest SG (2 to 7
µ
m). Starch
granules typically exhibit a polyhedral shape with sharp edges and can feature either asym-
metrical or smooth patterns. Although the popular technique for separating rice starch is
alkaline extraction, it produces an extremely saturated alkaline sewage. As an alternative,
high-purity starch is separated using enzymatic and various physical techniques, avoiding
the release of harmful byproducts. Starch is insoluble in cold water, but upon cooking
in an aqueous solution, the starch granules expand, and hydrophilic segments leach out,
undergoing a phase transition toward gelatinization. The features of rice starch are changed
by the proportion of amylose to amylopectin and also by the branched patterns of the
amylopectin. After hydroxypropylation, native starch demonstrates enhanced swelling and
solubility, but its viscosity decreases, while cross-linked starches exhibit reduced expan-
sion and dissolution, indicating improved pasting attributes. Conversely, dual-modified
starches offer superior attributes compared to native starches, with the order of dual modifi-
cations also influencing the starch’s traits. Chemically treated starches are well suited for a
broad spectrum of commercial applications. Nonetheless, their standards must be elevated
to facilitate their flexible functionality within the food sector, such as sugar coating, as
well as serving as thickening agents, fat replacements, and pharmaceuticals supplements.
In non-food sectors, they are used in cosmetics, as building material additives, plastic
items, and in paper production before utilization. Future research on rice starch should
focus on advancing modification techniques and sustainable methods. Investigating novel
applications in emerging fields like nanotechnology and optimizing extraction processes
will significantly expand its industrial potential.
Polymers 2025,17, 110 22 of 28
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.S., M.C., G.P. and L.P.; methodology, R.S., M.C., G.P.
and L.P.; validation, L.P. and G.P.; formal analysis, R.S. and M.C.; investigation, R.S., M.C. and L.P.;
data curation, R.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.S.; writing—review and editing, R.S., M.C.,
G.P. and L.P.; visualization, R.S., M.C., G.P. and L.P.; supervision, G.P. and L.P. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the Universitàdegli Studi di Cagliari. R.S.
performed his research in the framework of the International Ph.D. in Innovation Sciences and
Technologies at the University of Cagliari, Italy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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