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ATINER CONFERENCE PAPER SERIES No: LNG2014-1176
1
Athens Institute
Working Paper No. 2025-2756-01
3 January 2025
Gregory T. Papanikos
The Educational System of Ancient
Athens in Plato’s
Protagoras
Athens Institute’s Working Paper Series No. 2025-2756, 3 January 2025, pages: 1-17
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Working papers are published by the Athens Institute to stimulate discussion
on various issues. These papers are primarily based on presentations made
by the authors at various academic events organized by the Athens Institute.
All published working papers undergo an initial peer review aimed at
disseminating and improving the ideas expressed in each work. Authors
welcome comments.
This paper should be cited as follows:
Papanikos, Gregory T. (2025) The Educational System of Ancient Athens in Plato’s
Protagoras. Published by the Athens Insitute: Working Paper No. 2025-2756-
01, 3 January 2025. Pages 1-16
No.: 2025-2756-01
Date: 3 January 2025
DOI:
ISSN: 2241-2891
Previous Working Papers available at: www.atiner.gr/papers.htm
This series began in 2012 and was known as the Conference Paper Series until
2024. In 2025, the series was renamed and is now called the Working Paper Series.
Athens Institute (www.atiner.gr)
2025
Athens Institute’s Working Paper Series No. 2025-2756, 3 January 2025, pages: 1-16
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The Educational System of Ancient Athens
in Plato’s Protagoras
By Gregory T. Papanikos
The educational system of Ancient Athens has served as a model for many
subsequent educational systems. In particular, the similarities between the
Ancient Athenian and modern systems are striking. The purpose of this paper is
to explain the Ancient Athenian system and compare it with the modern system.
My focus is specifically on Plato's famous dialogue, Protagoras.
Keywords: Education, Protagoras, Plato, Ancient Athens, Lyceum, Academy,
Socrates
Introduction
I examine the ancient Athenian education system as described in Plato’s
Protagoras. Athens' system of education was organized along lines comparable to a
modern education system. As is the case today, the family played an important role
in managing children’s education for both boys and girls. Basic education, which
emphasized reading, writing, and physical fitness, began at the age of seven. A
distinction was made between learning a profession (referred to as techne in both
ancient and modern Greek) and learning to become a good citizen and manager of
one’s household.
The purpose of education is thoroughly discussed in Plato’s Protagoras, a
dialogue between the well-known sophist Protagoras and Socrates. At the time of
the dialogue, around 432 BCE, Protagoras was an older man, while Socrates was
relatively young. The central question of the dialogue is whether virtue can be taught
or if it is inherent in human nature.
In Papanikos (2025), I discussed in detail the issue of ethics as debated in
Plato’s Protagoras. This paper, building on Papanikos (2025), focuses primarily on
the organization of ancient Athens' educational system. I incorporate many visual
references from vases and other sources and employ artificial intelligence to recreate
aspects of ancient Athenian education and everyday life.
The paper is organized into four sections, including this introduction. The
second section explores the different levels of education, from elementary to more
advanced stages, which included participation in symposiums and attendance at
various schools in ancient Athens, such as Plato’s Academy and Aristotle’s
Lyceum. Each level of education is examined in a separate subsection. The third
section discusses the purpose of education in ancient Athens, and the final section
provides the conclusion.
President, Athens Institute, Greece. The author has previously taught in various Canadian, Greek and
U.K. Universities.
Athens Institute’s Working Paper Series No. 2025-2756, 3 January 2025, pages: 1-16
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The Educational System of Ancient Athens
Table 1 illustrates the education system of ancient Athens as depicted in Plato’s
Protagoras. In ancient Athens, there was no system of public education;
consequently, only wealthy families could afford to educate their children. The
system comprised five stages, which bear a resemblance to the modern education
system. In this context, I present the example of a very wealthy family in ancient
Athens whose children could progress through all levels of education.
Table 1. The Education System of Ancient Athens
Type
Preschool
Basic School
Education
Army
On the Job
Training to
learn a trade
(techne)
Academic
Education
Age
0-6
7-17
18-19
Adult life:
Poor
Families
Adult life:
Rich Families
Instructors
parents, a
pedagogue
and a nanny
Grammarian
Musicians
Gymnast
Military
Service only
for Males
Trainers
Rhetoricians
Sophists
Philosophers
Infrastructure
House
(oikos)
Private
Schools and
Gyms
Military
barracks
Workshops
Rich Houses
& Academic
Schools
Purpose
Learn read
and write.
Learn what
is good and
what is bad.
Develop mind
(soul?) and
body. Courses
Grammar,
Gymnastics &
Music (guitar,
lyre)
Learn about
the city of
Athens and
citizens’
obligations
Learn a
trade to earn
a livelihood
Learn how to
be a good
citizen with
ethos and
virtue and/or
learn the
political art
(techne)
Source: Author based on Plato’s Protagoras.
Preschool Education within the Household
Image 1 depicts a wealthy family's house, where the family shown in Image 2a
lived together. The family played a crucial role in the education of their children—
both boys and girls—much like families do today. Initially, when the children were
under six years old, their education was provided by both parents, supported by a
pedagogue and a nanny.
A pedagogue was distinct from an educator (or teacher) in the modern sense of
the term. Etymologically, the word "pedagogue" derives from the Greek words
παιδεία (paideia, meaning "education" or "child-rearing") and ἀγωγή (meaning
"guidance" or "leading"). Thus, a pedagogue not only assisted students with learning
but also guided them in developing ethical behavior.
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The wife managed the household and raised the children (Image 2b). She had
a special room called the women’s quarters (γυναικωνίτης) (Image 2c), where the
women of the household worked and taught young girls household management
skills, as well as basic grammar, music, and dance (Image 2d).
Image 1. A House of a Rich Family in Ancient Athens
Source: http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/html/8547/2174/istoria_d-dimotikouhtml-empl/ind ex3_22.html
Image 2a. Family
Image 2b. Babies
Source: https://shorturl.at/oeB0b
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Image 2c. Women’s Quarter
Image 2d. Dancing
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Education Outside the Home
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Around the age of seven, boys began attending school, accompanied by a
pedagogue. At school, they learned to read and write, practiced a musical
instrument, and engaged in gymnastics to strengthen their bodies. Three types of
teachers oversaw their education: a grammatist (γραμματιστής) for reading and
writing, a music teacher (κιθαριστής), and a gym teacher (παιδοτρίβης).
Image 3a depicts a teacher instructing a student on a musical instrument—a
harp in the left image and a flute in the right image—while other teachers are shown
teaching reading (left image) and writing (right image). Image 3b illustrates a scene
from a gymnasium, where two teachers are training the youth.
Image 3a. Scene from a School I
Image 3b. Scene from a School II
Source: https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafraseis%20a%20gym/a02xm.htm
Image 4 depicts a room within the gymnasium (Palaestra) and image 5 shows
the floor plan of an ancient Greek gymnasium. The central area of the gymnasium
consists of a square space surrounded by columns that form porticoes on all four
sides. Surrounding these colonnades are rooms with various functions.
The rooms on the left side, labeled "philosophers' rooms," were likely used for
academic discussions. To the right of the gymnasium are rooms designated for
activities such as youth training, a room equipped with training bags, and baths. On
the far-right side of the gymnasium is the stadium, while the remaining area is
covered with trees.
Image 4. A Scene from a Gymnasium (Palaestra)
Source: https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafra seis%20a%20gym/a02xm.htm
Athens Institute’s Working Paper Series No. 2025-2756, 3 January 2025, pages: 1-16
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Image 5. The Floor Plan of an Ancient Gymnasium (Palaestra)
Source: http://photodentro.edu.gr/aggregator/lo/photodentro-aggregatedcontent-8526-4089
Learning a Trade
Most Athenian families could not afford to send their children to school due to
two main costs. The first was the direct expense of paying teachers. The second was
the opportunity cost of attending school, as most children had to work to support the
family income and therefore lacked the time for formal schooling. Interestingly, the
etymology of the word "school" (σχολείο) originally meant "leisure" or "free time."
Only those who did not need to work for a living could attend school, at least up to
the level of academic education. Notably, the modern Greek word for "work"
(δουλεύω) shares its root with the word for "slave" (δούλος).
In ancient Athens, the economy was predominantly agrarian. While Athens
produced some agricultural products, herding was rare. Another significant
component of the Athenian economy was craftsmanship and trade, with mining also
playing a crucial role. Xenophon’s Oeconomicus (401 BCE) offers an excellent
overview of the Athenian economy at the end of its golden age. Image 6 illustrates
various professions from ancient Athens.
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Image 6. Examples of Ancient Athenian Professions and Trades
Marble Crafter
pottery
workshop
shoe craft shop
Shoe-maker
Sandal Maker
Spinner
Dyer
Loom-wrokers
Carpenter
Miners
Fisherman
Fishmonger
Hunters
Butcher
Metal Workers
Farmer
Pickers of Olives
Merchant
Barber
Water Carriers
Midwife
Medical Doctor
Perfumer
Metallurgy
Dyer
Sources:
1. https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafraseis%20a%20gym/a03xm.htm
2. https://anaskafh.arsakeio.gr/stadia-zwhs-sthn-arxaia-ellada/
3. http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/html/8547/2290/Istoria_A-Gymnasiou_html-empl/index_05_05.html
4. https://www.ime.gr/chronos/05/gr/society/craft_workshops.html
Among the professions depicted in Figure 6 are those from Socrates’ time.
Interestingly, Socrates' mother was a midwife, a profession many believe inspired
his development of the dialectic, also known as the maieutic method. One of
Socrates’ teachers was a female philosopher named Diotima, mentioned in Plato’s
Symposium. Socrates was well known for his belief in gender equality, asserting
that, if given the same education and training, women could achieve the same
accomplishments as men. His father was a sculptor, and although Socrates did not
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have to work, he served in the Athenian army, fighting in three wars between 431
and 422 BCE. He earned a reputation for bravery in battle and was considered a
model citizen. Notably, he refused to escape from prison to avoid his death sentence,
arguing strongly that society cannot function without its citizens obeying the law.
Athens was home to many artisans who worked in small workshops. Like
today, these artisans were concentrated in specific areas, often with open-front shops
so potential customers could see them and their products. One famous district in
ancient Athens, which still exists in downtown Athens today, was Kerameikos, an
area known for its potters who produced ceramics.
Service in the Athenian Military
All free citizens of Athens were required to serve in the army. As mentioned
earlier, Socrates served in the Athenian military and fought in three wars. Military
service was considered a civic duty. All young men reaching adulthood were
required to serve the city as soldiers for two years. The first year was spent in a
barracks, where, under the guidance of city officials (a deacon and ten jailers), they
practiced discipline and learned the city’s traditions. During the second year of their
military service, they served as border guards. In the 5th century BCE Athens fought
many wars including inside the city (Image 7). At the end of their service, they took
an oath pledging their devotion to the gods and the city’s welfare.
Image 7. A Battle Under the Parthenon Created by AI
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
After completing their military service, they began a new life as free citizens
with many rights and obligations. The wealthiest Athenians could spend their free
time pursuing what we would today call academic education.
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Academic Education
The final level of education in ancient Athens corresponded to what we would
consider a university education today. There were two main types of institutions
offering this level of education. The first type consisted of formal schools, the most
famous being Plato's Academy (Image 8) and Aristotle's Lyceum (Image 9), which
operated for nearly a thousand years. Images 10 and 11 recreate these two schools
using artificial intelligence (ChatGPT)
Image 8. Plato’s Academy
Then
… and Now
Image 9. Aristotle’s Lyceum
Then
… and Now
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Image 10. Plato’s Academy Recreated by AI
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
Image 11. Aristotle’s Lyceum Recreated by AI
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
The second type of advanced education took place in symposiums, gatherings
hosted by wealthy men in their homes. These gatherings were held in large rooms
with seating arrangements similar to those depicted in Images 12 and 13. The
dialogue examined in this paper occurred during a symposium hosted at the home
of Kallias, a wealthy Athenian.
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Image 12. The Seating in a Symposium
Source: Sykoutris (1976, p. 31*).
Image 13. The Room of a Symposium
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
Plato’s dialogues reveal that many philosophical discussions took place in
various open areas, such as the marketplace and the port of Piraeus. Images 14 and
15 depict these settings, with the marketplace situated under the Acropolis Hill and
the port of Piraeus respectively.
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Image 14. The Ancient Athenian Market
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
Image 15. The Ancient Port of Piraeus
Source: AI (ChatGPT) created.
From the above analysis, it is clear that there was a significant distinction
between rich and poor families in ancient Athens. The sons of very wealthy families
were educated to serve as politicians, as some, like Protagoras, believed that virtue
could be taught. In contrast, most Athenian citizens, who were not wealthy, pursued
other paths, such as trade.
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In ancient Athens, there was also a clear distinction between episteme and
techne, as highlighted in Plato’s Protagoras. Techne referred to craft or art, which
was learned through practice, while episteme referred to theoretical knowledge.
The Purpose of Academic Education in Ancient Athens
In the dialogue of Protagoras, it becomes evident that the purpose of education
at all levels extends beyond learning to read and write; it is also to discern between
what is good and what is bad. Protagoras, in a compelling speech, outlines this
purpose of education (325c-326e).
However, I wish to make some essential observations on what is discussed in
Plato’s Protagoras. One of the primary challenges in translating philosophical texts
is that words often carry multiple meanings.
1
Choosing one meaning over another
may not always capture Plato’s intent accurately. Many scholars of Plato’s works
have noted this issue. Allow me to provide a few illustrative examples.
One of the family duties is to teach their children. The exact words used in
Plato’s Protagoras are “διδάσκουσι καὶ νουθετοῦσιν”. This is usually translated as
“teach and advise.” This reflects the scope of education that a wealthy Athenian
family would provide for their children. The word διδάσκουσι is straightforwardly
translated as “teach,” so no issue arises here. However, translating νουθετοῦσιν as
“advise” is not entirely precise. In the dialogue, another term, βουλεύω, appears,
meaning “advise, think, consult,” among other interpretations. When Protagoras
responds to Socrates’ question about what a student would learn from him, he says,
εὔβουλος, meaning, “I’ll make him prudent.”
By contrast, the word νουθετοῦσιν conveys something closer to “setting
someone’s mind,” “exhorting,” “warning,” or “advising,” which aligns more
closely with what a family might do for a child. Etymologically, it combines νους
(nous) and θέτω (set), suggesting that the purpose of education is not so much to
instill virtue (ethos) as to teach the child that certain words and actions are “BAD”
and others are “GOOD.” A child should do the “GOOD” because failing to do so
incurs “PUNISHMENT.” Often, it is the fear of punishment that drives people to
act as though they possess ethos.
This distinction is not necessarily explicit in the dialogue. Rather, it seems that
the discussion revolves around cultivating ethos through teaching. But what is to be
taught? There is an inherent ambiguity in the discussion. Protagoras argues that
children should be taught to distinguish between good and bad; if they act well, they
are rewarded, and if they act poorly, they are punished. Socrates, on the other hand,
has a different perspective: he speaks of making a child good and implies that this
cannot be achieved through teaching alone.
Protagoras states early on that he teaches sophism. But what exactly does this
discipline entail? In Protagoras's own words (318a):
1
In Papanikos (2021a), I used five verses from Homer’s Odyssey to demonstrate how various
interpretations of this epic poem can emerge based on the translation of key words. In many cases, it
is a matter of interpretation to discern what Homer intended to convey and what was actually in his
mind.
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If you become my student, here is what
you will get: every day that you listen
to my teaching, you will go home
improved, and the next day, the same
will happen. Day by day, you will keep
progressing until you reach your best.
ἔσται τοίνυν σοι, ἐὰν ἐμοὶ συνῇς, ᾗ ἂν
ἡμέρᾳ ἐμοὶ συγγένῃ, ἀπιέναι οἴκαδε
βελτίονι γεγονότι, καὶ ἐν τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ
ταὐτὰ ταῦτα· καὶ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας ἀεὶ
ἐπὶ τὸ βέλτιον ἐπιδιδόναι.
The purpose of school education is to learn something new each day to foster
improvement. However, Socrates found this idea vague. Vagueness, he noted, is
characteristic of sophism, particularly when educating future politicians. This is
why the objective of sophism was to teach students rhetoric, making them effective
public speakers.
Socrates immediately responded by pointing out that, while this may sound
insightful, any academic instructor could make a similar claim, regardless of their
subject area. He then poses a pointed question: if someone attends a lecture on
sophism, how exactly will they improve? For instance, Socrates observed that if a
student follows the teachings of a painter, they will learn to paint, and if they follow
a music instructor, they will learn to play a musical instrument. But what, precisely,
would a student of sophism improve upon?
Protagoras is compelled to reply that he teaches εὐβουλία, aiming to enable the
student to manage both their household affairs (οἰκίαν) and the city’s affairs
(πόλεως) (318e-319a):
The lesson teaches how to best govern
private affairs within households and
how to become stronger in both action
and speech in public affairs.
τὸ δὲ μάθημά ἐστιν εὐβουλία περὶ τῶν
οἰκείων, ὅπως ἂν ἄριστα τὴν αὑτοῦ
οἰκίαν διοικοῖ, καὶ περὶ τῶν τῆς
πόλεως, ὅπως τὰ τῆς πόλεως
δυνατώτατος ἂν εἴη καὶ πράττειν καὶ
λέγειν.
This statement is too general and could even encompass the profession of a
manager. In fact, the phrase οἰκίαν διοικοῖ can be translated as "business
management," since the words οἰκίαν and οἰκείων refer to household and private
affairs in the context of business.
1
This is why the word "economics" is derived from the synthesis of οἶκος and
νέμω. While νέμω has various meanings, in this context, it signifies "to rule" or "to
manage." In ancient Greece, the word οἶκος denoted business, as eloquently
described by the 8th-century BCE poet Hesiod.
2
1
In modern business environment, the pressure of performance forces many business leaders to
compromise ethical principles. This important issue is not examined here even though is of
tremendous importance and relates to what was already mentioned “white collar” crime. On this issue
see the study by Ngcobo & Reddy (2024)
2
Hesiod wrote two works, Works and Days and Theogony. The first can be considered, in modern
terms, an economic and business textbook, while the latter is a metaphysical work explaining the
origins of the gods and the creation of the world. Both of Hesiod's works, along with Homer’s Iliad
and Odyssey, have been used as standard texts for educating future generations of Greeks and non-
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The works of Homer and Hesiod were standard "textbooks" in the academic
education of both the ancient Greek and non-Greek worlds. However, Socrates is
not satisfied with this general response and directly asks Protagoras (319a):
"If I understand your words correctly,"
I said to him, "it seems to me that you
are speaking about the political
profession and promising to make
people virtuous citizens."
Ἆρα, ἔφην ἐγώ, ἕπομαί σου τῷ λόγῳ;
δοκεῖς γάρ μοι λέγειν τὴν πολιτικὴν
τέχνην καὶ ὑπισχνεῖσθαι ποιεῖν ἄνδρας
ἀγαθοὺς πολίτας.
And Protagoras admits this (319a):
"That is precisely the profession I
practice, my dear Socrates," he
replied.
Αὐτὸ μὲν οὖν τοῦτό ἐστιν, ἔφη, ὦ
Σώκρατες, τὸ ἐπάγγελμα ὃ
ἐπαγγέλλομαι.
This is a masterful example of Socrates' dialectical method. He achieves his
goal by compelling Protagoras to admit that what he does is, in fact, to make men
good citizens (ποιεῖν ἄνδρας ἀγαθοὺς πολίτας). Socrates then responds sarcastically
(319a):
really very beautiful profession you
possess if you possess
Ἦ καλόν … τέχνημα ἄρα κέκτησαι,
εἴπερ κέκτησαι
At this point, Socrates introduces his hypothesis that people are taught to
become good citizens through instruction in the political art. The discussion then
takes an unexpected turn, shifting to a more general conversation about goodness,
which they refer to as ἀρετή (virtue). The word itself shares the same root as ἄριστος
(the best) and, as a political concept, appears in the term "aristocracy." It contrasts
with democracy in that, in a true aristocracy, the best rule, whereas in a democracy,
the people rule. Both systems have their darker sides: democracy can devolve into
ochlocracy, and aristocracy can deteriorate into oligarchy.
1
In summary, the purpose of teaching is to cultivate skills in individuals based
on what a teacher imparts. For instance, if you follow the lessons of an architect,
you would expect to become an architect. But what if you follow a sophist like
Protagoras? According to him, sophists teach the youth how to effectively manage
their own households and become good citizens who can oversee their city’s affairs.
Socrates, however, holds a different view and claims that ethics and morality cannot
be taught. This philosophical issue goes beyond the scope of this paper. It is further
discussed in Papanikos (2025).
Greeks alike. On Greeks see Papanikos (2024). I have written a series of four papers interpreting
Hesiod’s first work as an economics textbook (see Papanikos 2023, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). I have also
written a paper examining ten meetings mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey (see Papanikos 2021b).
1
On the issue of democracy see Papanikos (2020, 2022d, 2022e, 2022f). Many studies have examined
the issue of politics, law and ethics; see for example Nartey (2024).
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Conclusions
The education system of ancient Athens is similar to the modern system, with
the key difference being the scale, particularly in terms of the number of students
educated today. In ancient Athens, education was private, and only the wealthiest
citizens could afford to provide it for their children. Wealth was a significant
determinant in the provision of education. In contrast, today, governments provide
free elementary and secondary education. In some countries, such as Greece, even
tertiary education is free of charge. Furthermore, similar to the compulsory military
service in ancient Athens, basic education today is mandatory, including both
elementary and secondary education.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on a larger study entitled “Ethics and Academic Integrity:
Lessons from Plato’s Protagoras,” published in the Athens Journal of
Humanities and Arts in 2025. An earlier version of this working paper was
presented on 13 November 2024 at MLC College in Ljubljana, Slovenia, and
at the 12th Annual International Conference on Humanities & Arts in a Global
World, held on 3–4 January 2025. I am indebted to the participants of both
events for their valuable comments. Any remaining errors are solely the
responsibility of the author.
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