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Futuristic prospects of bio-based fillers for industrial application
... Various surface treatments and coupling agents have been investigated to enhance compatibility and improve mechanical performance. The mechanical, Academy Global Publishing House thermal, and dielectric properties of composites are heavily influenced by the type, size, and content of the organic filler [9,10]. ...
Nowadays, researchers have been focused on the addition of various fiber fillers to polymers to improve the physical and mechanical properties of polymer composites. In this study, bulk density, mechanical, thermal, and dielectric properties of polyester composites reinforced with wheat bran have been investigated depending on the filler ratio. The polyester composites were prepared by using orthophthalic based unsaturated polyester resin (UPR) and wheat bran (WB) having 149 to 297 µm particle size at 50 °C. The filler ratio (wheat bran) ranged between 0 wt.% and 5 wt.%. The experimental results show that wheat bran used as organic reinforcements affected most of the thermophysical properties of polyester-based composites. As the wheat bran ratio in the composite rises, the density of the composite decreases significantly. With respect to the Shore D hardness test results, the hardness of the composite decreases as the filler ratio increases. By adding wheat bran to the polyester matrix at a high ratio negatively affects the homogeneity and porosity of the polymer matrix structure. An increase in porosity generally reduces the mechanical strength and performance of the material. FTIR spectra indicates that only a physical interaction occurs between the organic filler and the polyester. The increase of the wheat bran ratio reduces the thermal conductivity coefficient of the composite. However, in the dielectric measurements, the dielectric constant of the composite rises with increasing wheat bran content.
For the first time, the current work has carried out a chemical treatment of a novel ligno-cellulose fiber that is extracted from the bark of an unexplored plant of Careya arborea. Careya arborea (CA), a flowering tree known for its green berries, thrives in the Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan. This research was focused on extracting fibers from the bark of the Cary tree for the first time to corroborate the influence of chemical treatment on its different characteristics. These CA fibers have a high proportion of cellulose, consisting of 71.17 wt percent, together with 27.86 wt percent of hemicellulose, and a reduced density of 1140 kg/m³, making them a suitable candidate for creating lightweight applications in a variety of industries. Chemical treatment has done on the cay fiber with the concentrations of NaOH 5 (wt%), 10 (wt%), and 15 (wt%) solution mixture to improve their characteristics. Estimated the difference between Chemically processed and non-processed Cary fibers and corroborated in results. We performed a number of experiments, including FTIR, XRD, SEM, EDAX, AFM, and TGA, to fully comprehend the changing properties. Chemical testing showed that cellulose changed from its non-crystalline state to cellulose, proving that the treatment was successful in changing the fibre structure. Additionally, the thermo-gravimetric examination showed higher thermal stability 248 °C–325 °C and a rise in the crystallinity index, indicating the treated fibers’ improved potential for high-temperature applications. The treated Cary fibers exhibited excellent surface properties, promising improved adhesion, mechanical performance, offering lightweight and sustainable solutions for diverse applications.
This systematic review focuses on the exploration and advancement of sustainable and eco-friendly polymer composite materials derived from bast fibers. Bast fibers, obtained from the phloem of certain plants like flax, hemp, jute, and kenaf, represent a renewable and environmentally benign resource. Their integration into polymer based composites has gained significant attention due to the growing environmental concerns and the need for sustainable material development. The importance of this study lies in its comprehensive examination of bast fibers as viable alternatives to the synthetic fibers in polymer composite materials. By harnessing the natural strength, light weight, and biodegradability of bast fibers, this review contributes to the creation of materials that are not only environmentally sustainable but also possess enhanced mechanical properties suitable for various industrial and domestic applications.
In this study, micro-cellulosic fibers were isolated from the bark of Morinda tinctoria (MT) and characterized for the first time. The anatomical, physical, chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the M. tinctoria bark fiber (MTBF) were investigated. The mean diameter and density values were determined to be 32.013 ± 1.43 μm and 1.4875 g/cm³, respectively. Zeta potential analysis and particle size measurements provided the evidence of enhanced micro-particle behavior on the fiber's surface. Various structural characterizations confirmed the presence of polysaccharide structures, monosaccharide compositions, glycosidic residues (sugar linkages), and cohesive reactions of TMSA (Trimethylsilyl alditol) derivatives, indicating the fiber's potential for strong surface absorption properties. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed a crystallinity index of 51 % and a crystallite size of 3.086 nm for MTBF. Fourier transform infrared analysis indicated the presence of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin constituents, along with their corresponding functional groups. The calculated values of Young's modulus and tensile strength were determined to be 75.7 GPa and 746.77 MPa, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated the thermal stability of the extracted MTBF up to 240 °C. Based on these findings, the MT microfibrils derived from the bark can be considered as potential substitutes for existing synthetic composites, offering reinforcement for novel bio composites.
This review provides a thorough analysis of the progress made in smart polymer composite materials, which have recently been seen as potential game-changers in areas such as construction, aerospace, biomedical engineering, and energy. This article emphasizes the distinctive characteristics of these materials, including their responsiveness to stimuli like temperature, light, and pressure, and their potential uses in different industries. This paper also examines the difficulties and restrictions associated with the creation and utilization of smart polymer composite materials. This review seeks to provide a thorough understanding of smart polymer composite materials and their potential to offer innovative solutions for a variety of applications.
Researchers are focusing their efforts on developing high-performance bio-based composites due to increased interest in the production of natural fiber-based polymer composites utilizing novel cellulosic fillers. The primary goal of this study is to comprehend physicochemical and morphological characteristics, crystallinity, and thermal behavior of Lantana aculeata leaf cellulose (LALC) fillers. The extracted cellulose has some unique properties, such as excellent mechanical properties, lower density, bio-compatibility, heat resistance, and processability. Using X-ray diffraction, crystallinity index and size of Lantana aculeata leaf cellulose were calculated to be 73.7 and 7.42 nm, respectively. Furthermore, the morphology of the extracted LALC filler was examined using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and ImageJ software, and its average size was determined to be 69.21 nm. In addition, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed that the extracted LALC contained no other non-cellulosic components due to alkali treatment, as they isolate cellulose and minimize the presence of non-cellulosic components. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed that the surface roughness of the cellulose is less than 4.630 nm, paving the way for an agricultural residue to be transformed into a desirable cellulosic filler material for developing polymeric composites. It can also withstand temperatures of maximum up to 247.23 °C, making it a viable substitute for more traditional sources. It can be used in a variety of polymer composite applications, including packaging materials, automotive parts, and building materials.Graphical abstract
Characterization of biomass-based Cellulose derived from Lantana aculeata leave
Water pollution is a global issue because of potentially lethal toxins. Polymeric nanomaterials are making their way into water treatment processes and are being utilized to efficiently remove a variety of pollutants. Polymeric nanomaterials are a popular option for a solution because they have a high adsorption capacity and a high surface charge. Nanocomposites have recently come to the attention of those working in the field of water treatment in order to more effectively remove contaminants. Polymeric composites are based on biopolymers and are being developed. These all quickly reached the industrial standards because of their low impact on the natural world. Chitosan is one of the biopolymers that are used extensively. Moreover, it is one of the most highly preferred biopolymers. It is simple to scale up and is readily available. The incorporation of nanomaterials into the biopolymer enables better control over the shape, size, and morphology of the particle, as well as an increase in the efficiency with which contaminants are removed. This is an excellent review that examines recent developments in the formation of chitosan-based polymeric nanocomposites and their performance in removing various contaminants including heavy metals, dyes, pesticides, pharmaceutical waste, and radionuclides from water.
Finding new cellulosic materials is an absolute necessity at this time since it is the way to guarantee the manufacture of quality improved materials that can be used in the bio basedfilms for food packaging applications. This study is carried out with the intention of extracting micro-sized cellulose filler that was derived from Valoniopsis pachynema algae and, as a consequence, determining the filling capacity in biobased films. To separate the insoluble cellulose component while applying consecutive treatments, the acid hydrolysis method is the most capable one. The density of the green algae was 0.54 g/cc, and the proportion of cellulose material it contained was 6.01%. The obtained semicrystalline structures of 71.9% (crystallinity index) and 69.81 nm (crystallinity size) were validated by X-ray diffraction analysis. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectra are able to identify the presence of cellulose functional groups in the V. pachynema. The onset temperature in the thermogravimetric analysis was found to be 290 °C, and the activation energy for the cellulose was sized up at 55.93 kJ/mol. The surface properties of the cellulose were examined by atomic force microscopy, and the Ra value for the surface roughness was obtained at 33.925 µm. The size of the cellulose is governed using scanning electron microscopy, and the aspect ratio obtained is less than 3. Polylactic acid is utilized for the biobased film preparation with the microcrystalline celluylose filler.
Leachable plasticizers made of petroleum are causing growing environmental and health concerns because they are so dangerous to the environment. Therefore, searching for novel biodegradable plasticizers is of increasing interest of researchers across different domains. So, there is a need to develop bio-based plasticizers from natural sources. Within this context, Agave sisalana act to be real alternatives to the chemical plasticizers because they are biocompatible and biodegradable. In light of these aspects, in this work, we explored a green plasticizer from Agave sisalana, a renewable resource. In this report, a compound was isolated from the residue after extracting from sisal leaf and its structure was investigated. Thermal investigations (TGA), X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were used to assess its chemical stability and structure. The surface morphology of A. sisalana was examined in detail by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size is analyzed by using SEM/EDAX. The results show that the novel bioplasticizers have better qualities than the other traditional plasticizers. The crystallinity index and crystallinity size values of the A. sisalana leaf plasticizer were calculated through X-ray-diffraction for the isolated biomaterials. This exposed its amorphous-crystalline nature. The particle size of the extracted plant material was examined. The kinetic activation parameter was calculated by using TGA/DTG studies. The plasticizing effect of this novel bioplasticizers was also studied by reinforcing this with PLA matrix for biofilm manufacturing for futuristic applications. The conducted investigation showed that these bioplasticizers could be suitable for applications in the bioplastics sector.
Bio-based materials with high-performance are being explored extensively at the moment for improving the specific properties of reinforced polymer composites and thereby to extend the life-span of composite-based goods. Bio-fillers are one of the sought materials in the polymer composite industry for use in a wide range of matrix systems. At the same time, the annoying release of various agro-wastes into the environment prompt many researchers or scientists to utilize such wastes effectively for sustainable development by aiming zero-waste concepts. Since the current study was intended to utilize an agro-industrial waste from mustard (Brassica juncea) seed oil cake for the extraction cellulosic micro fillers and its characterization for understanding the applicability of it for polymer composite formulation, along with reducing environmental pollution. The isolation of micro cellulose was accomplished by chemical treatments and its characterization was done through physico-chemical (density, FT-IR, XRD, UV-visible spectroscopy), morphological (SEM, EDX, AFM), and thermal (TGA) means. Relatively low density (1.572 g/cm³) revealed its aptness against synthetic reinforcements for light-weight polymer composites. Likewise, high cellulose content (93.49%) with very less hemicellulose (4.97%) and lignin (0.83%) contents offers good mechanical properties to the fillers. The functional group examination revealed the presence of chemical moieties as hydroxyl, carbonyl, methyl, carboxyl, and alkene groups that confirmed the occurrence of high-functionality cellulose. Although, high crystallinity index (79.3%), desired thermal stability (206 °C), significant surface roughness (23.570 nm), and agreeable particle size (20.02 μm) make the material as a superior reinforcing one. Moreover, the extracted organic material is mainly composed of carbon (45.73 wt.%) and oxygen (41.11 wt.%) with a total yield percentage of 41±1.10 wt.%. Despite of these specific properties, the obtained micro-cellulose could be a viable alternative for synthetic or other bio-based reinforcements in synthesizing eco-friendly polymer composites.
Plasticizers are additives used to ensure flexibility to polymer blends and thereby to increase their processability. As the typical plastic component phthalates and other fossil-based components contribute environmental issues since such compounds are not biodegradable. To overcome these problems, researchers began to focus on biodegradable thermoplastics and plasticizers. Plasticizers is a highly branched polysaccharide stored in plants as an alternative to currently used non-biodegradable plasticizing compounds. In the light of this, the present study has experienced a novel bio-plasticizer from Pedalium murex (PM), a medicinal plant and analyzed its plasticizing effects using number of characterization studies as density, FT-IR, XRD, TGA, AFM, SEM, etc. It is found that the material is thermally stable up to 262 °C and possess good surface roughness of 31.804 nm, which are the required features for composite or bio-filmmaking. The final residue of the PM plasticizers during TGA is about 51.48%, showing the existence of silica that accomplish desired mechanical and thermal properties. Although, the PM plasticizers have good CI and CS values of 6.5% and 460.3 nm, respectively. On the other hand, FT-IR analysis demonstrated that amylose and amylopectin have a broad band at 3326 cm⁻¹, where amylose predominates in the amorphous regions while amylopectin predominates in the crystalline zones. The PLA/1.0% PM plasticizer film exhibited high tensile strength, tensile modulus, and slightly low elongation % of 22.21 MPa, 12.29 MPa and 22.74%. The present study accomplished that the obtained bio-plasticizers hold good plasticizing effect, compatible and biodegradable nature. Since plasticizing samples were created utilizing natural and environmentally safe raw materials, which makes them an excellent alternative to traditional non-biodegradable plasticizers.
In this work, the effects of graphene particles, which were used as a filler for hybrid flax fiber and aerial root banyan fiber (ARBF)–reinforced epoxy composites at different sampling compositions (M4–M7), on the physical and mechanical characteristics of the epoxy composites, such as tensile, flexural, Shore D hardness, water absorption activities, and morphology were studied. The accumulation of graphene particles improved the tensile strength, flexural strength, and hardness but significantly decreased the percentage of water absorption. The ideal ratio of fibers and graphene particles for improved epoxy hybrid epoxy composites is also discussed in this study. The presence of graphene in flax/Banyan/epoxy composites acts as a flame retardant, and the combustibility decreases as the graphene level rises. The best mechanical property value was obtained with 2% graphene particles in the 19% ARBF, 19% flax fiber with 60% (M4 constituent) epoxy-reinforced hybrid composites. The results showed that a hybrid composition of 2% graphene content plays an important role and improves the strength of the hybrid composite.
Cellulose present in natural plant sources has better potentials to replace traditional synthetic fibers. However, a lack of knowledge and awareness on cellulose hinders efforts to fully utilize this extremely biodegradable resource. This study aims to extract and characterize the microcrystalline cellulose (MC) obtained from Pandanus tectorius leaves. The MC particles are extracted with the aid of alkaline and chemical treatment. The extracted MC powder is in pure white color and further investigated with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM) to understand its physicochemical properties and surface morphology. The band gap energy of exfoliated MC was 4.21 eV; with crystallinity index and degree of crystallinity of 76.8% and 81.4%, the dislocation density is calculated as 0.002. Thermal stability of MC particle was up to 470 °C; further increment in temperature degrades the MC particles. The obtained results depict that exfoliated MC particles have better band gap, and it can be used for food packing industries, and furthermore, this type of waste plant weeds can be converted in to useful MC particles to be used as a filler material in developing polymer matrix composite.
The present study referred to the lightweight cenosphere filled, and epoxy composites (0, 7.5, 15, and 22.5 vol.%.) developed with the help of the hot compression moulding process. To ensure the strength of composites, the prepared system was analyzed with tensile, flexural, impact properties, and dynamic mechanical characteristics discussed. Cenosphere-filled composites attained the maximum tensile strength of 19.5 MPa, which is 60% better than the neat epoxy. Adding cenosphere particles increases the tensile, flexural, and impact strength at a superior level. Dynamic mechanical analysis revealed that in 22.5 vol.% of cenosphere reinforced composites, energy dissipation and maximum storage modulus of 6 MPa was enhanced. The surface morphologies of the fractured specimens were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM). The morphological investigations indicate a good state of particle distribution in the epoxy matrix.
Microcrystalline cellulose, which is widely used in a variety of industries, including those in the food, pharmaceutical, medical, cosmetic, and polymer composites sectors, is becoming increasingly valuable as a result of the rising need for fossil-fuel alternatives. These eco-friendly particles are capable of being utilized as filler materials in polymer composite development also. The present study deals with the extraction of cellulose particles from the Millettia pinnata plant through series of chemical treatments and their characterization. Alkaline and chemical treatment are used to remove the microcrystalline cellulose particles. The isolated microcrystalline cellulose powder is pure white color, and its physicochemical characteristics and surface morphology were further examined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Ultra violet visible spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, Scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy analysis respectively. The isolated microcrystalline cellulose has a band gap energy of 4.21 eV, crystallinity index of 87.3%, and dislocation density estimated at 0.0019. Up to 530 °C, the resultant microcrystalline cellulose particle is thermally stable; however, as the temperature rises, the microcrystalline cellulose particles become less stable. Further, the results show that derived microcrystalline cellulose particles have a better band gap and may be employed in the food packaging industry. Additionally, these types of waste plant weeds can be transformed into functional microcrystalline cellulose particles and used as filler materials in the creation of polymer matrix composites.
Biodegradable films with better attributes are gaining popularity nowadays. They could replace petroleum-based polymers. This work choose microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from the Borassus flabellifer flower as the filler. Polylactic acid (PLA) was used as the matrix to create biocomposite films via a solution-casting technique. The filler percentages may range from 1% by weight to 5% by weight. Physical properties (density, thickness, and moisture content), chemical structure, FTIR, XRD, TGA, UV, water absorption, biodegradability test, scanning electron microscopy, particle size analysis, surface roughness, tensile testing, and antimicrobial tests were all conducted on the films. FTIR and XRD were utilized to characterize the structural makeup and crystallinity index of the manufactured PLA/MCC biofilms. As evident by FTIR, hydrogen bonding is quite robust because of the PLA/MCC interfacial exchanges. A thermogravimetric study determined that the thermal breakdown temperature of biofilms ranged from 259.79 to 350 °C. Incorporating MCC at a concentration of 1% by weight raised the tensile strength by 11.36% and the elastic modulus by 13.86%. It is fascinating to see the elongation percentage drop linearly with added filler. In conclusion, the SEM analysis shows that PLA and MCC may work well together. With a higher MCC concentration, PLA/MCC biofilms can take in more water. Biofilms buried for 75 days saw a weight loss of 8.5% (5 wt% of MCC) due to the MCC loading in the PLA matrix. These results demonstrate that PLA/MCC biofilms can be used in packaging applications, which was hypothesized before this study.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of addition of carbonized coconut shell powder on the mechanical properties, biodegradability, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and water absorption properties of Snake Grass Fiber (SGF)/epoxy composites. The hand layup method was employed to produce the samples, and a 40 wt% of SGF with 30 mm optimum length reinforced with epoxy resin is taken as base material. In addition, Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) powder was used as the filler varying from 2.5 to 10 wt%. The results show that mechanical characteristics, such as tensile and flexural strength, are enhanced with the addition of CSA up to 5 wt%, and then the phenomenon has been changed. However, the impact and hardness values increased with an increase in the CSA filler content up to 10 wt%. Thermogravimetric analysis studies have reported that 10 wt% of CSA addition shows a maximum char yield of 16.56%. The biodegradability of the composite was proportional to the amount of CSA reinforcement. Meanwhile, composites shows reduced thermal conductivity with the addition of CSA. Since, the thermal diffusivity increased with the addition of CSA. Scanning electron microscope analysis was performed to identify the reason for the decrease in the mechanical properties of the specimens (beyond 5 wt% of CSA addition) through failure mode analysis.
The hand layup-cum-compression moulding method was employed to create a novel polyester-based hybrid composite by reinforcing basalt/banana fibres with a sesame oil cake-derived cellulose (sesame cake cellulose, SCC) filler, and its mechanical, moisture absorption, thermal and analytical characteristics were investigated as a function of SCC weight percentage (0–10 wt.%). The polyester matrix fabrication method, volume fractions, and varying percentages of SCC filler were used to create five types of hybrid composites. The structure modification was investigated using analytical methods such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). From the information collected for this study, the supplement of SCC significantly enhanced the mechanical and thermal properties because it provided the greatest load transfer among the fillers, fibres, and polyester matrix components. The outcomes of thermal stability investigation revealed that the newly created polyester-based hybrid composites were more robust to temperature changes than the pure polymer sample. The extreme tensile, flexural, and impact properties of the composites with 5 wt.% SCC were 48.83.89 ± 3.073 MPa, 234.14 ± 9.3.6 MPa, and 70.93 ± 3.8 kJ/m2 respectively. The SEM study further showed that there was homogeneous distribution degree of matrix-reinforcement bonding.
The interest in developing bio-based composite materials had grown up with the context of maintaining ecological integrity by introducing new eco-friendly materials. The present study investigated the suitability of a novel Furcraea selloa K. Koch leaf fiber (FSLF) for composite reinforcement instead of existing synthetic harmful fiber materials. The identification for exploration of novel natural fibers with significant properties is a great challenge for researchers, due to their accessibility in polymer composites eco-friendliness and sustainability. Indeed, physicochemical, thermal, mechanical, and morphological features were established through this study, low density (810 kg/m³), high crystallinity (56.7%), high thermal stability (350°C), good tensile strength (650 ± 23 MPa) were the notable features of FSLF that facilitate its further use for composite reinforcement. Moreover, good surface roughness with fewer impurities and low microfibril angle also prove its sustainability in composite reinforcement. This study suggests that the potential properties of FSLF would be a suitable alternative to commercially important synthetic fiber, in the highest seeking-fibers as reinforcement.
Every
year, the food industry generates a large amount of waste, which prompts researchers to come up with a solution to efficiently manage the issue to support zero-waste concepts. After oil extraction, many oilseed cakes remain in the oil-processing industry as a waste. Converting this oilseed cake into value-added products would reduce environmental pollution and production costs. Oilseed cakes are high in fiber and contain a lot of non-starch polysaccharides. Azadirachta indica A. Juss neem oil cake (NOC) is a low-cost agricultural waste material produced during the oil extraction process of neem seeds. It is a dark brown powder that contains cellulose as well as other components such as hemicelluloses, proteins, and lipids. In this investigation, cellulose was extracted from the NOC, and comprehensive characterization was carried out. The polymer composite industry is in search of biofillers to incorporate with various matrices. As neem cake cellulose (NCC) is an entirely biodegradable material, it was considered for this study. To ensure its suitability in polymer composite industries, physicochemical, morphological, thermal, and spectroscopy analyses were carried out on NCC. Higher cellulose content (73.53%), better crystallinity (66.23%), lower density (1.59 g/cm3), considerable thermal stability (335.71 °C), kinetic activation energy (83.06 kJ/mol), particle size (17.93 µm), and good surface roughness (47.004 nm) make NCC suitable to be incorporated as a biofiller material in polymer matrices to manufacture eco-friendly composites.
Use of agricultural waste for biocomposite is one of the main concerns of researchers because the waste is an abundant, economic, and eco-friendly source. Agro wastes of Cymbopogon flexuosus plant shoot (CFPS) from an oil extraction industry was analyzed for its feasibility as reinforcement in a metal matrix composite and as a lignocellulosic filler in a polymer matrix composite. In this study, non-carbonized and carbonized CFPS wastes were characterized by using a combination of spectroscopic and chemical techniques. The carbonized CFPS is rich in SiO2 along with other traces of hard ceramic particles as authenticated by X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy. The presence of siloxane and silanol elemental groups was also confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy data. Similarly, Fourier transform infrared and the X-ray diffraction spectroscopy analysis on powdered non-carbonized CFPS waste confirmed the semi-crystalline nature of the CFPS with a higher crystallinity index. Moreover, the non-carbonized CFPS had a rough surface, as confirmed by atomic force microscope and scanning electron microscope analyses. Hence, the experimental data highlighted the feasibility of the CFPS waste as filler and a substitute for silica-based inorganic fillers/reinforcement for composites in enhancing its properties.
Understanding the basic properties of natural fibers is important to determine the optimal intended uses for instance as high-quality bio-composite raw material. This review describes the characteristics, and potential uses of some natural fibers in order to improve their sustainability and economic values. The natural fibers have low density and high strength to weight ratio and reduction make them potential as light weight composite and reinforcement materials. The microstructure and chemical compositions of fibers affect the mechanical properties with the fiber cross-sectional area is the most variable influencing the fiber strength. Natural fibers are easy to absorb water due to the presence of hemicellulose that give hydrophilic properties make them less compatible in the interaction with matrix with hydrophobicity properties. Higher cellulose content and crystallinity tend to result better strength properties of fiber while lignin is since versa. Besides that, fiber anatomical characteristics vary between different and same species that affect on the the density and mechanical properties. The other factors namely environmental conditions, method of transportation, storage time and conditions, and fiber extraction affect the size and quality of the natural fibers.
A novel epoxy-based composites were fabricated by reinforcing pineapple/flax (PF) fibers and peanut oil cake (PCF) filler using the hand layup cum compression moulding technique and investigated its mechanical, water absorption and wear properties as a function of wt.% of PF fibers (20–40 wt.%) and PCF (1–3 wt.%). The XRD and FTIR results proved the presence of lignocellulosic nature in PCF. Mechanical test results showed significant enhancement in the properties after the addition of PCF. The maximum tensile, flexural and impact properties of 37. 89 MPa, 70.28 MPa and 96.99 J/m were observed in the composites having 20 wt.% of PF and 2 wt.% of PCF. Taguchi based optimization observed a lower specific wear rate (SWR) with 2 wt.% PCF/20 wt.% PF/5 N load and 1500 m sliding distance (SD) combination. The ANOVA results proved the significance of PCF, PF fiber, sliding distance, and load for SWR in this experimentation. The Taguchi optimized results observed a lower coefficient of friction (COF) in 2 wt.% PCF/20 wt.% PF/5N load/500 m SD combination. SEM results displayed surface deformations in the wear-tested composites.
Natural fiber composites expected to be in great demand in the coming years due to increased consumer awareness to reduce the waste and environmental pollution. Bagasse fibers available in plenty as an agro-residue and bio composites derived from such renewable resources offer potential for scale-up and value addition. This review provides an insight on current research trends on development and characterization of bagasse-based composites. Various chemical treatment methods and processing techniques used to improve the mechanical, thermal, acoustic, and aging properties of sugarcane bagasse reinforced composites are summarized in the review.
Composite materials reinforced with biofibers and nanomaterials are becoming considerably popular, especially for their light weight, strength, exceptional stiffness, flexural rigidity, damping property, longevity, corrosion, biodegradability, antibacterial, and fire-resistant properties. Beside the traditional thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, nanoparticles are also receiving attention in terms of their potential to improve the functionality and mechanical performances of biocomposites. These remarkable characteristics have made nanobiocomposite materials convenient to apply in aerospace, mechanical, construction, automotive, marine, medical, packaging, and furniture industries, through providing environmental sustainability. Nanoparticles (TiO2, carbon nanotube, rGO, ZnO, and SiO2) are easily compatible with other ingredients (matrix polymer and biofibers) and can thus form nanobiocomposites. Nanobiocomposites are exhibiting a higher market volume with the expansion of new technology and green approaches for utilizing biofibers. The performances of nanobiocomposites depend on the manufacturing processes, types of biofibers used, and the matrix polymer (resin). An overview of different natural fibers (vegetable/plants), nanomaterials, biocomposites, nanobiocomposites, and manufacturing methods are discussed in the context of potential application in this review.
In response to the increasing demand for diesel fuel and its shortage, biodiesel has emerged as a potential alternative. This review thoroughly examines the physicochemical characteristics of biodiesel from several generations using a variety of feedstocks. The study reveals that biodiesel with low concentrations of poly-unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) and long-chain saturated FAME exhibits favorable characteristics, including improved performance, oxidation stability, and operability at low temperatures. Many technologies have been used to produce biodiesel, but the transesterification process has proven to be the most cost-effective and efficient approach, producing the maximum amount of biodiesel, making it the technique of choice for commercial bio-production. The paper presents an in-depth examination of biodiesel production methods, explaining production patterns influenced by elements such as reactant mass transfer restrictions, feasibility in upstream processes, and downstream processing ease. Furthermore, third generation feedstocks, especially algae-based sources, outperform their predecessors due to their higher energy content, significant oil content, and ecologically harmless characteristics. The article additionally covers a variety of catalysts, including ionic liquid catalysts, enzyme catalysts, nano catalysts, and heterogeneous and homogeneous acid/base catalysts. Following a detailed evaluation of various reactor designs, the research concludes that using a supercritical method has tremendous promise for biodiesel synthesis. This comprehensive overview not only examines the benefits and drawbacks of various biodiesel production methods, but it also contributes to a better understanding of the factors influencing biodiesel production trends, thereby encouraging the development of sustainable and efficient biodiesel technologies.
Natural fiber composites are gaining interest in many industries, particularly the automotive and aerospace industries. One of the critical secondary activities required to produce a near‐perfectly shaped product is machining. The majority of product components had to be assembled before they could be used. This article reviews the various conventional and non‐conventional machining processes and its influential parameters investigated by various researchers. Non‐traditional machining is now proving to be a better choice than traditional machining. Non‐traditional machining has several advantages, including the absence of thrust force, chatter or vibration, minimal tool wear, and lower frictional heat. Delamination is the major issue occurring in the conventional machining processes like drilling. Researchers are more focused on the non‐conventional machining processes like abrasive water jet machining. Joining of natural fiber reinforced composites is another aspect discussed in this article. Adhesive joining is the most preferable joining method in the natural composites. The joining technique is also influenced by the intricacy of the materials to be bonded. Microwave joining and induction joining processes are the new methods of natural composites joining. This review also covers the various joining processes in the natural reinforced composite materials.
Utilizing poultry wastes, particularly chicken feathers, in biopolymer composites is seen as an important aspect
in lowering the environmental pollution and paving a new path to sustainability. The main objective of this
experimental study is to develop polymer composites reinforced with waste chicken feather fillers and evaluate
their physical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics. The composites were fabricated through an open mold
casting process using bio epoxy (SR-33 Greenpoxy) as the matrix and chicken feather filler as a reinforcement in
three distinct weight fractions (2.5, 5, and 7.5 wt%). To evaluate the effects of filler content on the mechanical
properties of the fabricated bio-epoxy composites, they were subjected to tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness
tests. The findings from the experimental studies demonstrated that the composites containing 2.5 wt% of
chicken feather filler had improved mechanical properties, thermal stability, and crystallization behaviour. The
thermal attributes of samples included a greater melting point, lower recrystallization temperature, higher glass
transition temperature, and quicker crystallization rates. The Scanning Electron Microscope analysis of the
fracture surface morphology of the biocomposites showed a better interfacial adhesion between the filler and
matrix. It could be concluded from the results that the waste chicken feather can be used as potential filler reinforcements
for begetting natural composites for various low- and medium-density structural and non-structural
applications.
Keywords: Chicken feather, Waste filler, Natural composites, Bio epoxy, Waste to wealth, Characterization
The growing demand for sustainable materials is driving the adoption of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) from renewable plant sources. This study investigated the isolation of MCC from Rosa indica petal (RIP) waste via acid hydrolysis. RIP was pretreated with alkali extraction and bleaching prior to acid hydrolysis. Chemical analysis revealed the composition of pretreated RIP was 79.56 wt.% cellulose, 9.87 wt.% hemicelluloses, and 5.69 wt.% lignin. Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed reduced peaks at 3332.88, 2851.95, and 1577.75 cm ⁻¹ after alkali treatment, indicating removal of hemicelluloses and lignin. X‐ray diffraction (XRD) found the crystallinity index of the isolated Rose indica petals cellulose (RIPC) MCC was 72.31%, suggesting effective purification. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed RIPC MCC had a decomposition temperature of 296.65°C, superior to raw RIP at 211.25°C. In addition, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed RIPC MCC had fibrous morphology with fiber diameters ranging from 16.2–22.4 nm. In summary, RIPC MCC with high purity, crystallinity and thermal stability was successfully isolated from RIP waste via acid hydrolysis. The high performance of RIPC MCC demonstrates the potential of RIP leftovers as a renewable source for MCC production. RIPC MCC could serve as a promising reinforcement filler in nanocomposites due to its advantageous properties.
Due to the extreme threats as environmental and health issues caused by the petroleum-based leachable plasticizers, researchers among different domains are more interested in finding unique biodegradable plasticizers from natural sources. The present study used Nelumbo nucifera leaf to extract novel biopolymers as viable substitutes for chemical plasticizers. The biopolymers extraction was carried out through chemical means and its physico-chemical and morphological characterization were carried out to confirm its plastic nature. The polymers extracted possess a low glass transition temperature (77.17 ◦C), good thermal stability (230 ◦C), low density (0.94 g/cc), good surface roughness (34.154 μm), low crystallinity index (25.1%) and moderate crystallite size (16.36 nm). The presence of an organic polymer with specific chemical groups as olefinic
alkenes, epoxide, imino/azo groups, and hydrophobic organic siloxane groups, signify that the material is a condensed phenolic derivative. Furthermore, bio-film was formulated using NLP and
poly lactic acid (PLA) matrix to evaluate its plasticizing effect and film-forming ability. Variation in specific properties of film was noted after bio-plasticizer addition, where tensile strength (20.94 ± 1.5 MPa to 19.22 ± 1.3 MPa) and Young’s modulus (1.462 ± 0.43 GPa to 1.025 ± 0.52 GPa) was found to be decreased whereas increased the percentage of elongation at break (26.30 ± 1.1% to 39.64 ± 1.6%). In addition, decreased glass transition temperature (Tg) (59.17 ◦C),
good surface compatibility, and increased flexibility of NLP-PLA film in contrast to pure PLA film authorizes the plasticizing effect of bio-plasticizers on PLA. Since the extracted bio-plasticizers could be a suitable replacement to harmful synthetic plasticizers for lightweight packaging applications in bioplastics sector.
The main goal of this research is to utilize sustainable and eco-friendly basalt materials for the fabrication of bio-based thermoplastic composites. This will help to keep up with ecologically balanced factors. There have been several studies on natural fiber reinforced with different polymer matrices during the past 10 years. As a result, the academics and experts expressed concern about the environmental imbalance. By keeping these points, an attempt was made to fabricate basalt fillers reinforced polylactic acid composites with the maximum weight ratio (30 wt %), and the tribological study is conducted for the fabricated composites. In this study, the Taguchi and analysis of variance (ANOVA) approaches have been used to analyze the coefficient of friction (COF) and specific wear rate (SWR) of polylactic acid composite reinforced with constant 30 wt% basalt fillers. The morphology, particle size, and elemental composition of the basalt fillers are examined using scanning electron microscopy, a particle size distribution analyzer, and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, respectively. The tribology tests are conducted with Pin-on-Disk Tribometer following the ASTM G99 standard, following the L 18 orthogonal array design, which was developed using the statistical program MINITAB-19. The selected parameters for the analysis are basalt (wt %), load (N), speed (rpm), and distance (m) under dry conditions. For PLA samples, the optimum parameters in response to COF is found to be 0 wt% basalt, 3 N load, 100 rpm speed, and 100 m distance; for the SWR output, the optimum parameters are 30 wt% basalt, 6 N load, 100 rpm speed, and 150 m distance. The consistent observation is that adding basalt fillers has not significantly reduced COF but has contributed more to SWR reduction with PLA composite. The best COF value for PLA samples is obtained with low sliding distance. The typical observation across all COF graphs is that the COF value first seems to be lower due to a smoothened polymer surface, rises throughout an experiment, and then stabilizes with very little variance. Regardless of the processing parameters, the depth of wear steadily increases with increasing load as observed in 2D depth profiles. The neat PLA polymer morphology that gives the illusion of deep grooves and many tracks dispersed over a single worn surface shows how the maximum parameter influence is more obvious on the surface of the sample. Overall, the results suggest that thermoplastic composites are feasible for the manufacturing of paper mill rollers.
For the past ten years, there has been a trend toward strengthening polymer composites with the help of natural fibers derived from plant and animal sources, which has led to ecological imbalance. Hence, to maintain the ecological balancing factors, the researchers and industrial experts are concentrating on the reinforcement of naturally available mineral materials in polymer products to minimize the polymer percentage and boost the economic feasibility of products with lightweight properties. In fact, incorporating basalt mineral into different polymer matrices is a highly creative notion that might open up some very interesting, uncharted territory. Basalt helps to create a pollution-free environment and balance ecological challenges by reducing the polymer ratio in the objects without many changes in their core properties. Basalt is desirable because of its outstanding thermal and mechanical characteristics, simplicity of processing, affordability, and lack of toxicity. Concerning these points, the current study aims to fabricate mineral particles (basalt) reinforced (30 wt%) different polymers (synthetic epoxy, bio-epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester, polylactic acid, polypropylene, and high-density polyethylene) composite for lightweight
thermal applications. The casting technique was used for the fabrication of thermoset polymer composites, whereas compression molding was employed to fabricate thermoplastic composites after an internal mixing process. The fabricated composites are subjected to thermogravimetric, thermomechanical, and dynamic mechanical analysis to analyze the thermal stability of the resultant composites. The Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that most of the samples exhibited good thermal stability with the addition of 30 wt% basalt fillers. As a result of moisture content as well as certain volatile compounds, if any, only a minimal weight loss in the range of 30 °C to 130 °C was seen at the early phase of heating for all neat and composite samples. The Thermomechanical analysis findings showed that basalt reinforcement at 30 wt% in synthetic epoxy, Polylactic acid, Polypropylene, and High Density Poly Ethylene polymers causes a reduction in dimensional variations up to 70 °C. This is because the basalt particles, particularly in the hard
glassy area, limit the passage of molecules at lower temperatures. The higher stiffness of the basalt particles has significantly contributed to the viscoelastic properties of all the thermoset and
thermoplastic composites. Because of the extreme closeness and thick packing of the components, which are in a dormant condition, the glassy areas in particular have a greater storage modulus. Based on these outcomes, these basalt-reinforced composites can be employed for lightweight thermal applications, which have the advantage of economic and eco-friendly features
Plasticizers are frequently employed as additives due to the poor strength of polymers. Many plasticizers are currently available in liquid form and as compounds derived from fossil fuels. These materials are not appropriate for the environment, which may have negative consequences on humans and other resources. Comparing liquid plasticizers to solid plasticizers, there exists an uncountable number of liquid plasticizers. Accordingly, our research based on the extraction of plasticizer from plant-based sources. The leaves of Pandanum tectorius are utilized for this purpose, and the plasticizer is extracted from the leaves via chemical processes such as amination, alkalization, and surface catalysis. To comprehend the properties of the plasticizer, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Ultraviolet Spectroscopy, and X-Ray diffraction analyses were performed. Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrum analysis are used to determine the surface morphology of the isolated plasticizer. Thermogravimetric and differential thermogram analysis curves are used to examine the heat degradation behavior of the plasticizer. To examine the plasticizing effect of the plasticizer, a bio polymer polylactic acid is utilized and its mechanical properties are investigated. With a 5% loading of plasticizer, the tensile modulus and Young's modulus of composite films decreased, while the elongation break percent (70.46%) increased. The isolated plasticizer was soluble in water, and organic solvents, and had a molecular weight of 444.72. Plasticizer's glass transition temperature was also investigated and determined to be 73.46 °C. The plasticizer is reinforced with PLA to check the plasticizing effect and the reinforcement interface is also discussed using scanning electron microscope analysis.
The applications of composite materials had grown significantly over a certain period due to their weight-saving and cost-effective parameters. The use of synthetic materials and synthetic polymers for developing composite materials over the years has created a lot of hazardous effects on the environment. Nowadays, environmentally friendly materials like natural fibers obtained from plants have gained much attention due to their remarkable properties. These natural fibers were employed in developing lightweight composites to replace synthetic fibers in various engineering applications. Various natural fibers were resources to be used as reinforcements in polymer composites. To date, no works provide a complete review of physico-chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the recently identified natural fiber resources. There was always a demand for the availability of renewable resources of plant fibers. The current work reviews the recently identified natural fibers over the past five years (2018-2022). Furthermore, the review focuses on the processability, properties, and application suitability of lightweight composite structures. Additionally, the vital information from this comprehensive review will aid industries and researchers with a keen knowledge of the recently identified available potential plant fibers. This knowledge helps to develop environmentally friendly composites ensuring a pollution-free environment and moving towards a greener society.
Owing to the exceptional characteristics such as sustainability, biodegradability and environment friendly characteristics natural fibers are a dominant force in a variety of composite sectors. Among the many fruit fibers, Areca fruit husk fiber (AFHF) stands out and has been discovered in considerable quantities being rejected by tobacco processing enterprises. The investigation of AFHFs, helps to utilize the wealth out of iste in an eco-friendly nature for reinforcement in polymer composites. In light of this, the current work deals with AFHFs collected from agricultural enterprises and processed as raw fibers, which were further combined with unsaturated polyester resin to create a natural polymer composite material. Additionally, using Taguchi’s design technique, an orthogonal array is constructed by including process parameters and their stages when conducting testing. The influence of various fiber widths on various gauge distances has been discussed, as well as the optimal width and span for defining the possible tensile strength using Taguchi’s single response analysis. Additionally, the mechanical assets of manufactured natural fiber composites were evaluated using ASTM criteria to perceive whether it can be employed as a substitute reinforcement in polymer composite products.
In the current work, the influence of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) filler loadings on the physical, mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of pine fiber (PF) reinforced polyester composites were analyzed. The fillers loaded PF/polyester composites were fabricated using casting technique. The results revealed that the volume percentage voids in the filler‐loaded composites was less as compared to neat PF/polyester composites due to filler occupancy in the air gaps of fabricated composites. The tensile strength increment in neat PF reinforced composites (10–30 vol%) was prompted by the polyester's ability to wet PF perfectly thereby building a good and dense interfacial bond between the polyester and PFs. However, the elastic modulus and elongation values were higher for filler‐loaded PF/polyester composite (PF3/CCP10). The composite PF3/CCP10 also exhibited maximum flexural and impact strengths due to the ability of filler particles to support the stress transfer between matrix and fiber, also the strong interfacial bonding due to the chemical treatment of PFs. The fillers‐loaded composites exhibited an acceptable hardness value due to the resistance of filler particles against indentation force towards deformation. Fillers improved the thermal resistance of PF reinforced polyester composites, especially the PF3/CCP10 composite having a maximum amount of filers loading. Scanning electron microscopy morphological analysis reveals the strong interfacial adhesion in filler‐based composites with lower void contents, resulting in superior adhesion characteristics between fibers and polyester matrix.
A critical review of the articles dealing with biochar in terms of the reuse of biomass waste in building materials and its impact on material properties was conducted using five different electronic databases; thirteen articles were selected for this critical review. Biochar was used as a replacement for cement and aggregate in cementitious composites and as an addition in wood polypropylene composites and plasters. The biochar dosages ranged from 0.5% to 40%; in most composites, the addition of biochar increased strength and reduced thermal conductivity and the bulk density of fresh mortars. Also, biochar dosages of 0.5–2% decreased, while dosages of 10–40% increased water absorption and penetration on cementitious composites. The selected studies mainly introduced biochar use in building materials as a means of biomass waste reduction and its reuse for various purposes, while carbon footprint reduction was addressed in only a few of them. Biochar-containing building material's capability of capturing CO2 from the air was also observed (0.033 mmol CO2 gbiochar⁻¹ to 0.138 mmol CO2 gbiochar⁻¹). The results also showed that mortars with CO2-unsaturated biochar had better mechanical and physical properties than mortars with CO2-saturated biochar. Selected studies showed biochar-containing building materials have a great potential for carbon footprint reduction. However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies about biochar use in building materials concerning climate change mitigation.
Natural fibers have the potential to replace artificial fibers in structural applications. The abrasive wear performance of natural fiber–reinforced polymer composite has not been investigated in many studies. This study discusses the specific wear rate of Cissus quadrangularis stem fiber (CQSF)/epoxy with coconut shell ash (CSA) composite using a three-body rubber wheel wear test rig. The results were analyzed by using Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. The input parameters are velocities (0.75, 1.5, and 2.25 m/s), abrading distances (400, 600, and 800 m), applied loads (10, 20, and 30 N) and CSA filler (0, 5, and 10 wt.%), and the output response is specific wear rate. The average mean signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio under ‘lower-the-best’ condition for specific wear rate is 35.54 dB. The filler addition significantly reduced the specific wear rate at 5 wt.% of CSA addition. The influence of filler on specific wear rate is higher than other input parameters followed by load, abrasive distance, and velocity. The experimental and predicted values of the specific wear rate for the optimum input parameters were 5.36 × 10–3 and 5.17 × 10–3 mm³/Nm. The worn surfaces were examined with the help of scanning electron microscope (SEM) images.
In recent days, natural fiber reinforced polymer composite is more popular due to its extensive properties suitable for various potential applications. The attention towards natural fibers is because of low cost, biodegradable, recycla-bility, nonabrasive, combustible, lightweight, and nontoxic properties. However , there is a need for furthermore fundamental knowledge for the raw materials processing and fabrication of composite structures, which is still challenging in current days. Natural fiber sources exist all over the world, which is obtained from animals, plants and minerals. The quality of the natural fibers depends on the extraction methods and different processing techniques. These natural fibers surface characteristics could be enhanced by selecting suitable surface treatment and chemical treatment. These fiber treatments reduce the water intake percentage, improve the adhesive nature, and enhance the overall performance of resulting polymer composites. Among all the chemical treatments, alkaline treatment (NaOH) is the most preferred chemical treatment because of its effectiveness and its low cost. This review article proposes the natural fibers detailed classification, composition, structure , properties, and extraction methods, chemical and surface treatments. We also summarize the previous research work findings on the fibers treatment, properties of natural/natural hybrid polymer composites and natural/synthetic hybrid polymer composites with applications.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant activity, morphological, thermal, crystallinity and flow characteristics of antioxidant‐enriched microcrystalline cellulose obtained from the almond shell (AE‐MCC‐AS). The results indicated that AE‐MCC‐AS could be a natural food additive that exhibited good thermal stability, crystallinity, antioxidant and flow characteristics. The antioxidant activity of AE‐MCC‐AS was determined based on the oxidative stability of mayonnaise during 56 days of storage at 25°C. The oxidative stability of the mayonnaise was monitored by measuring primary oxidation products (peroxide value), secondary oxidation products (TBARs value) and induction time (Rancimat method). According to the PV and TBARs results, AE‐MCC‐AS at the concentration of 0.6% showed better effect on preventing oil oxidation than BHT and α‐tocopherol. Besides, the results revealed that AE‐MCC‐AS had a moderate impact on the sensory characteristics of mayonnaise.
Herein, in the present review we developed and investigated a comprehensive review of advanced composite materials based on thermoplastic polymers, elastomer polymers and thermosetting polymers. These advanced composite materials were reinforced by organic and/or inorganic fibers and formulated using various fillers such as organic, mineral and metallic. Further, we present the development and the synthesis of several macromolecular matrices namely polycarbonate, polyhexamethylene sebacic, polyether sulfone, polyether ether ketone, polyether ketone ketone, polyether imide, polyethylene terephthalate, phenoplasts, epoxy resin and polyurethane. The advantage of composite materials formulating is to have excellent mechanical performances, high thermal resistance, good fire behavior, high impact resistance, best abrasion resistance, exceptional electric insulation and good rigidity. Then, composite materials formulation were examined and discussed in detail.
Crafting ecological materials from green resources is posing a significant challenge for the researchers and scientists around the globe and has resulted in the development of nanocellulose materials which has paved the way for enriching the basic knowledge and many opportunities on developing biobased materials. This has augmented the utilization of carbohydrate-based organic materials and successfully replacing conventional non-renewable materials. Cellulose nanomaterials (CNMs) belonging to the newer emerging field of nanomaterials are finding increasing interest among the investigators owing to their environmentally sustainable
characteristics like biodegradability, biocompatibility, and potential availability in abundance at a cheaper price. The present review article intends to provide a detailed insight about the advancements and various challenges postured in the field of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs). The article further discusses about different cellulose fiber extraction sources & their methods, purification processes employed, various sample preparation & drying
techniques used for CNCs and CNFs. The article also outlines the various characterization methods practiced for scrutinizing CNCs and CNFs when used in polymer matrix composites. Finally, the
benefits of using the CNMs in several potential applications such as paper, oil & gas industries, food packaging & structural sectors, conducive ink and water purification areas, medical and printed electronic fields are highlighted in this extensively reviewed article
In this article, mechanical and tribological characterization of Cissus quadrangularis stem fiber (CQSF)/epoxy resin particulate with and without coconut shell ash (CSA) powder was carried out. The materials were fabricated by the hand lay-up method. Epoxy and 30 wt.% CQSF with 40 mm fiber length were taken to fabricate the base material, and CSA was separately added at 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt.%. In this way, five materials were fabricated for mechanical and tribological investigation. The tribological characterization was analyzed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) using Design-Expert software, and pin-on-disc wear testing machine was used to calculate the specific wear rate of the materials under different experimental conditions. A design table was created for four factors and three levels using full factorial central composite design. The maximum tensile (110.31 MPa) and flexural (136.11 MPa) strength obtained at 5 wt.% CSA addition and after that reduced. The maximum hardness (98 HRRW) and impact strength (20.03 J/cm²) were obtained at 10 wt.% CSA particulate-filled CQSF/epoxy composite. CQSF/epoxy with 5.9 wt.% CSA filler yielded better specific wear rate (6.67 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/Nm) compared with other compositions, which was found in the RSM technique. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were taken to identify failure mechanisms for the specimen.
Demands for reducing energy consumption and environmental impacts are the major driving factors for the development of natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs) in many sectors. Compared with synthesized fiber, natural fiber provides several advantages in terms of biodegradability, light weight, low price, life-cycle superiority, and satisfactory mechanical properties. However, the inherent features of plant-based natural fibers have presented challenges to the development and application of NFRCs, such as variable fiber quality, limited mechanical properties, water absorption, low thermal stability, incompatibility with hydrophobic matrices, and propensity to agglomeration. Substantial research has recently been conducted to address these challenges for improved performance of NFRCs and their applications. This article reviews the recent advancements of plant-based NFRCs, focusing on strategies and breakthroughs in enhancing the NFRCs’ performance, including fiber modification, fiber hybridization, lignocellulosic fillers incorporation, conventional processing techniques, additive manufacturing (3D printing), and new fiber source exploration. The sustainability of plant-based NFRCs using life-cycle assessment and the burgeoning applications of NFRCs with emphasis on the automotive industry are also discussed.
There is an array of methodologies to prepare nanocellulose (NC) and its fibrillated form (CNF) with enhanced physicochemical characteristics. However, acids, bases or organosolv treatments on biomass are far from green, and seriously threaten the environment. Current approach to produce NC/CNF from biomass should be revised and embrace the concept of sustainability and green chemistry. Although hydrothermal process, high-pressure homogenization, ball milling technique, deep eutectic solvent treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis etc., are the current techniques for producing NC, the route designs remain imperfect. Herein, this review highlights the latest methodologies in the pre-processing and isolating of NC/CNF from lignocellulose biomass, by largely focusing on related papers published in the past two years till date. This article also explores the latest advancements in environmentally friendly NC extraction techniques that cooperatively use ball milling and enzymatic hydrolytic routes as an eco-efficient way to produce NC/CNF, alongside the potential applications of the nano-sized celluloses.
The characteristics of natural fiber reinforced composites such as light weight, non-abrasive, nonflammable, nontoxic, low cost and biodegradable have grabbed the attention of current researchers in the area of composites. The objective of this study is to examine the interlaminar shear strength of the polyester based wood and woven jute hybrid composite. To accomplish this objective, the following parameters such as (i) wood density, (ii) wood weight ratio, (iii) woven jute type, (iv) number of jute layers, (v) cryogenic treatment duration and (vi) alkaline treatment duration, each at three different levels were picked and optimized using the Taguchi method. The fibers were pretreated with 5% of NaOH solution for different length of time to reduce the moisture absorption. The L27 orthogonal array was selected for the chosen parameters and the required composite materials were fabricated using hand lay-up techniques. The fabricated composites were then subjected to cryogenic treatment by immersing in liquid nitrogen at 77 K for different period of time. The interlaminar shear strength of the fabricated hybrid composites was done according to ASTM standard. The morphological features and degree of dispersions of fibers into the matrix of the fabricated hybrid composites were further studied and discussed.
Fiber-reinforced polymers have emerged as one of the most popular methods to improve the polymers’ characteristics owing to their prominent properties. This study aimed to investigate the properties of cellulose microfibers (CMF), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) extracted from hemp stalks, then their effect as reinforcement for the PVA-polymer. CMF have been extracted from hemp stalks with a diameter and yield of 16.96 µm and 63 %, respectively. Needle-shaped CNC were obtained from CMF using sulfuric acid hydrolysis at two hydrolysis times, while CNF exhibited a web-like structure obtained using TEMPO-oxidation followed by mechanical treatment. Cellulose derivatives were utilized to develop cellulose-based PVA composites; their transparency, chemical structure, thermal stability and mechanical properties were investigated. The incorporation of nanocellulose demonstrated a significant increase in mechanical properties compared to the neat PVA. The extracted nanocellulose could be used as nanofillers for the preparation of transparent and mechanically strong PVA-based nanocomposites.
Corncob, a cellulose-rich byproduct, has been regarded as an agricultural waste during the corn production. How to utilize cellulose from corncob at value-added utilization has attracted more and more environmental and industrial interest. In order to evaluate the characterization of natural corncob cellulose, in this study, the corncob cellulose was obtained by treating with the conventional treatment method with dilute acid/sodium chlorite, which adopted in papermaking industry. The morphology, degree of polymerization (DP), crystallinity, size distribution and pore structure of as-prepared corncob cellulose were analyzed. The results showed that the particle size of the cellulose isolated directly from corncob had reached micron level, with a medium diameter of 83.34 μm. And the corncob microcrystalline cellulose (CC-MCC) had a higher DP (581), a lower crystallinity (52.82%), wider particle size distribution and higher economic viability in comparison with commercial microcrystalline cellulose (C-MCC). Interestingly, there were some mesopores into the CC-MCC wall, which facilitated the follow-up application. This study proves that the porous microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) can be directly obtained from corncob, which is not only beneficial to reduce the cost of traditional MCC, but also conducive to the value-added utilization of corncob.
In this work peanut oil cake extracted Cellulose Micro Filler (CMF) is used for the advancement of mechanical and thermal properties in natural fiber composites. This fiber powder was used in enhancing the applications of Pineapple (P)/Flax (F) natural fiber epoxy composites. The X Ray Diffraction (XRD) results of CMF showed improved Crystalline Index (Crl) of 70.25° and crystalline size of 5.5 nm. FTIR results confirmed the rich cellulose content in functional groups of filler with peaks at 1058 cm-1, 1162 cm-1, 1370 cm-1 and 1428 cm-1. Mechanical results showed a positive impact with incorporation of CMF in PF hybrid fiber composites. Thermal stability results showed enhancement in the degradation temperature, residual %, endothermic peak and enthalpy by the incorporation of CMF. In the 30% PF combinations degradation temperature T50, T70, T70 enhanced from 387.73-391.08°, 434.81-454.81° and 468.91-553.36° by the filler substitution. Similarly residual % increased from 17.69-24.35%. The combination with 35% PF showed enhancement in degradation temperature, residual percentage, endothermic peak and enthalpy with filler addition up to 3%.