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African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 371
PRODUCTION AND ASSESSMENT OF THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL
PROPERTIES OF PASTA USING AGRA BANKYE FLOUR
Fraikue, F. B.1, Deha, C. I.2, Tawiah, V.3 and Barnes, R. S.3
1, 2, 3&4 Department of Hospitality Management, Takoradi Technical University, Takoradi,
Ghana.
1frances.fraikue@ttu.edu.gh
ABSTRACT
Purpose: This aimed to assess the physicochemical properties of agra bankye for pasta
production. The main objective was to determine the formulation ratio and
physicochemical properties of agra bankye pasta.
Design/Methodology/Approach: Through experimental research design, agra bankye
flour was produced using oven-drying. The product was peeled, grated, arranged onto
baking sheets and dried at a temperature of 80⁰С for 2 hours, then milled to produce the
flour. The pasta dough was prepared using a series of experiments to develop a standard
recipe using a combination of cassava flour, salt, water, and egg.
Findings: Eleven proximate and mineral components in agra bankye pasta were fat,
protein, crude fibre, carbohydrate, starch, energy, calcium, iron, manganese, moisture and
ash, affirming the product as healthy for human consumption. Agra bankye flour has more
starch and less fibre, making it stable for pasta production.
Research Limitation: Only the pasta’s physicochemical properties were assessed so that
the results could be used to convince consumers of the healthy intake of agra bankye pasta.
Practical Implication: Agra bankye pasta is very nutritious, especially because, it has high
calcium and less crude fibre. The high starch granules in agra bankye flour enable the
product to be stretchy, unlike other cassava, while less moisture influences the shelf life.
Since it is highly nutritious, more usage of agra bankye pasta for food production with
diverse nutritional fortification should be encouraged and marketed.
Social Implication: This study had immense academic benefits, bridging the knowledge
gap regarding the available literature needed to support the use of agra bankye for pasta
production. The study also created awareness of the different cassava varieties and the
type(s) suitable for pasta production.
Originality/Value: This has brought to the fore an innovation where a recipe is available
for pasta production using cassava flour and not blending it with other cereals.
Keywords: Agra bankye. cassava. formulation ratio. physicochemical. proximate
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 372
INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates, the main energy source in most human diets, comprise about 40–80% of
calorie intake and play an enormous role in human physiology. They are the paramount
energy source consumed by the human body (Schulz & Slavin, 2021; Caffall & Mohnen,
2009). The body breaks and converts most carbohydrates into sugar glucose. Some vital
organs and cells, like the brain and the red blood cells, mainly utilise glucose (Asif et al.,
2011). Carbohydrates generally give our bodies the utmost energy demanded in our day-
to-day lives, both for usual body functions such as heartbeat, breathing and digestion and
for physical activity and exercise (Quayson, 2012). These mainly include tubers and
cereals, of which most families plan their meals around (Marcin, 2019; Kitts, 2022; Eli-
Cophie et al., 2017).
Starchy root and tuber vegetables are hearty and nourishing. Roots and tubers have been
known to be an important food for thousands of years (Berkeley, 2015). They are described
as nature's buried treasures, roots, tubers, geophytes and a botanical term for plants with
their growing point beneath the soil. They are parts of a plant that usually grow downward,
anchoring the plant into the ground, where they absorb moisture and nutrients. These root
vegetables include carrots, sweet potatoes, and turnips. Tubers form at the base of roots
and store energy in the form of starch to support new stem growth for the plant. The most
common tubers are cassava potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, and yams (Berkeley, 2015; Li
et al., 2017). As these crops are grown underground, they take in a significant amount of
nutrients from the soil. They are filled with a high concentration of antioxidants, Vitamins
A, B, C and iron, helping to cleanse one's system (Mueller, 2014).
Cassava (manihot esculenta), from the perennial sturb belonging to the family
Euphorblaceae, is one of the most important staple crops found in Ghana and many other
tropical countries (Anoma & Thamilini, 2016). Cassava is the third-largest source of food
carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice and maize (Freitas et al., 2015). It is a major staple
food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over half a billion people (Freitas
et al., 2015). Dresden (2021) affirmed that cassava is a rich and affordable source of
carbohydrates prepared and eaten in various ways in different parts of the world, with
baking and boiling being the most common methods (Li et al., 2017). Mashed cassava
(fufu), cassava chips, cassava cake and cassava pasta are some dishes that can be derived
from cassava.
Over the years, many Agricultural programs and projects have developed and released
over 25 new cassava varieties (Acheampong et al., 2021). These new cassava varieties,
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 373
which have unique maturity period use and resistance needed for alternative food
production, have scarcely been researched into their state of versatility (Aristizábal et al.,
2017). Promoting a specific variety of local cassava flour instead of imported wheat flour
for pasta production ought to be investigated. Similarly, assessing the physicochemical
properties that could help marketers promote pasta made from 100% local cassava is
unavailable. Furthermore, one surety to motivate people on the intake of cassava pasta
was to have a fair idea of the nutritional contents. Against this backdrop, the study's main
objective was to produce and assess the physicochemical properties of agra bankye used
for pasta production.
LITERATURE REVIEW
General Overview of Cassava
Cassava is a woody shrub native to South America of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae
(Acheampong et al., 2021). It appears to have originated in Brazil and Paraguay, but it had
spread throughout the tropical areas of South and Central America long before the arrival
of Columbus (Cruze, 2017). It is now one of the tropical countries' most important food
crops. Cassava ranks as the sixth most important food crop worldwide, even though in
Western countries, it is little known or used (Li et al., 2017; Mueller, 2014). However, a
perennial plant, cassava is extensively cultivated as an annual crop in tropical and
subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root and as a significant source of
carbohydrates (Li et al., 2017). Cassava is predominantly consumed in boiled form, whilst
substantial quantities are used to extract cassava starch, called tapioca.
Production of Cassava
In 2018, global cassava root production was 278 million tonnes, with Nigeria as the world's
largest producer, having 21% of the world total. Other major growers known were Thailand
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Anyanwu, Ibeto, Ezeoha, & Ogbuagu, 2015).
Cassava is one of the most drought-tolerant crops that can be successfully grown on
marginal soils and give reasonable yields compared to many other crops that do not grow
well (Harish & Pragati, 2016; Hillocks, 2002). These conditions are common in certain
parts of Africa and South America. Cassava is a highly productive crop, considering daily
food calories produced per unit of land area. Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the
lower part of the stem, pulling the roots out of the ground, and removing them from the
base of the plant. The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest
(Cruze, 2017). Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately
15 cm planted before the wet season (Li et al., 2017).
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 374
Cassava undergoes post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) once the tubers are
separated from the main plant. The tubers, when damaged, normally respond with a healing
mechanism. However, the same mechanism, which involves coumaric acids, starts about
15 minutes after damage and fails to switch off in harvested tubers. It continues until the
entire tuber is oxidized and blackened within two to three days after harvest, rendering it
unpalatable and useless. The PPD is one of the main obstacles preventing farmers from
exporting cassavas abroad and generating income (Simonyan, 2014). Cassava can cause
acute poisoning when not properly cooked because of the naturally occurring cyanide
content in the raw state. If not prepared properly, tubers that are rich in carbohydrates can
even cause paralysis or death (Balagopalan, 2017).
Importance of Cassava
Cassava-based dishes are widely consumed wherever the plant is cultivated; some have
regional, national, or ethnic importance (Cruze, 2017). The root of the sweet variety has a
delicate flavour and can replace potatoes. It can be made into flour in breads, cakes and
cookies (Aristizabal et al., 2017). Cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes are important tropical
food sources (Eli-Cophie et al., 2017). The cassava plant gives the third-highest yield of
carbohydrates per cultivated area among crop plants, after sugarcane and sugar beets (El-
Sharkawy & Mabrouk, 2015). As does Africa, no continent depends as much on root and
tuber crops to feed its population. In Ghana, for example, cassava and yams occupy an
important position in the agricultural economy and contribute about 46 percent of the gross
domestic product (Kolawole & Akingbala, 2010). Raw cassava is 60% water, 38%
carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (Anyanwu et al., 2015). In a 100-gram,
raw cassava provides 670 kilojoules (160 kilocalories) of food energy and 25% of the Daily
Value (DV) of vitamin C. Cooked cassava starch has a digestibility of over 75% (Opie,
2008). The traditional methods of processing cassava roots into food have been adapted to
suit the attributes of the plant, such as root yield, spoilage, cyanide content, nutrient
content, and processability (Filbert et al., 2017).
Cassava is often used as a substitute for wheat flour, especially to make bread, cakes, pasta
and dumplings (Cruze, 2017). It is also used to make starchy custards and puddings. In
countries where wheat has to be imported and is in limited supply, bread is made by mixing
cassava flour with wheat flour (James, 2012). Cassava flour's starchy texture makes it an
excellent thickener, and it is used to thicken soups, baby foods, puddings, sauces and
gravies (Harish & Pragati, 2016). According to Kolawole and Akingbala (2010), cassava
is made into fermented and unfermented products. Fermented products include cassava
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 375
bread, flour, fermented starch, fufu, lafun, akyeke, agbelima, and gari. In contrast, the
unfermented products include tapioca, cassava chips and pellets, unfermented cassava flour
and starch. Food uses of cassava include flour in gluten-free or gluten-reduced products
like bread, biscuits, and many more.
Varieties of Cassava
Numerous cassava varieties have unique cycles, uses, yields and CMV resistance. As
others are starchy and floury, others are used for breakfast dishes and baking. They are
used in the fresh (boiled and eaten as whole or pounded) and the processed state (grits,
chips, flour, fermented dough, grated and dry fried). Also, some are tolerant, susceptible
and resistant and, among all, have the highest yield, such as CRI-Agra bankye, dudzi and
abrabopa (FAOSTAT 2019; MoFA, 2019; Acheampong et al., 2021; Adjei-Nsiah & Sakyi-
Dawson, 2012; Castro, 2017; Venturini et al., 2016; Zidenga, 2012; Willy, 2010; Abass et
al., 2014). Table 1 exhibits some varieties and yield uses.
Table 1: Cassava Varieties Released in Ghana and their Characteristics
Crop: Cassava (Manihot Esculentum Crantz)
Name
Cycle
(month)
Yield
(t/ha)
Uses
CMV
Resistance
Afisiafi
12-15
28-35
Starch, flour, gari
Tolerant
Abasafitaa
12-15
29-35
Starch, flour, gari
Tolerant
Tekbankye
12-15
30-40
Fufu, Ampesi, gari
Susceptible
Dokuduade
12
35-40
Starch, gari
Resistant
Agbelifia
12
40 –
45
Starch, gari
Resistant
Essam
Bankye
12
40 –
50
Flour, Gari
Resistant
Bankyehemaa
9 – 12
40 –
50
Flour, Gari, Fufu
Resistant
Capevars
Bankye
9 – 12
40 –
50
Flour, Gari, Fufu,
Starch
Resistant
Bankyebotan
12-15
25-30
Flour, gari, starch
Tolerant
Eskamaye
15-18
16-23
Tuo, konkonte
Tolerant
Filindiakong
15-18
16-20
Tuo, konkonte
Tolerant
IFAD
12-15
30-35
Starch, fufu
Tolerant
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 376
Ampong
12
40-50
Flour, Starch, fufu
Resistant
Broni Bankye
12
40-50
Flour, bakery product
Resistant
Sika Bankye
12
40-50
Flour, Starch
Resistant
CRI-Duade
Kpakpa
12-15
60
Poundable, Flour,
starch
Resistant
CRI-Amansan
Bankye
12
57
Flour and Bakery
product
Resistant
CRI-Agra
Bankye
12
63
Starch, Flour
Resistant
CRI-Dudzi
12
49
Starch, Flour
Resistant
CRI-
Abrabopa
12-15
40
Starch, Flour
Resistant
CRI-
Lamesese
12
50
Poundable,
Beta Carotene, Flour
Tolerant
Source: FAOSTAT (2019); MoFA (2019); Acheampong et al. (2021); Adjei-Nsiah & Sakyi-
Dawson (2012); Castro (2017); Venturini et al. (2016); Zidenga (2012); Willy (2010);
Abass et al. (2014)
Description of Agra Bankye
Agra bankye, also known as CRI-Agra Bankye is a compact plant in shape with cream pulp
and cortex colour. It has a potential yield of 35-60 t/ha and a dry matter of 32% (Parma et
al., 2017). The petiole of Agra bankye, the leaf's stalk attaching to the stem's blade, is
purple. Also, it has a light brown colour stem and root skin (Acheampong et al., 2021).
Agra bankye is highly resistant to CMD. Moreover, it is best cultivated in forest and
coasted savannah areas and is ideally used for starch and flour. It also has a high-keeping
quality as it contains less fibrous properties and can hold moisture (Kubala, 2022; Sachdev,
2021).
Nutritional Components of Cassava
Nutritional components of cassava comprise carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals
and water. Table 2. exhibited a compilation of nutrients from authors (USDA nutrient
database, 2020; Bradbury & Holloway, 2013; Tsuen et al., 2013; Favier, 2013; Lancaster
et al., 2013; Kubala, 2022 & Sachdev, 2021).
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 377
Table 2: Nutritional Value of Cassava
Food Nutrients Quantity
Energy 130kcal - 160kcal
Carbohydrates 31g - 39.2 g
Sugars 1.5g - 1.9g
Dietary fibre 1.3g - 1.9g
Fat 0.1g - 0.3g
Protein 1.0g - 1.4g
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) 0.72mg - 0.087mg
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 0.34mg - 0.048mg
Niacin (Vitamin B3) 0.048mg - 0.854mg
Vitamin B6 0.088 mg
Folate (Vitamin B9) 27 μg
Vitamin C 20.6 mg - 33mg
Calcium 16 mg - 26 mg
Iron 0.27 mg - 3.5mg
Magnesium 21 mg
Phosphorus 27 mg - 47mg
Potassium 271mg
Sodium 14 mg
Zinc 0.34 mg
Water 60 ml
Sources: USDA nutrient database (2020); Bradbury & Holloway (2013); Woot - Tsuen et
al. (2013); Favier (2013); Lancaster et al. (2013); Kubala (2022); Sachdev (2021)
Production of Pasta
Pasta is an ancient food, defined as a type of dough extruded or stamped into various shapes
for cooking (Anyanwu et al., 2015). It is economical, easy to prepare, has a longer shelf
life, and is consumed worldwide in many different ways. Pasta products are normally made
from amber durum wheat, milled into semolina, and mixed with water, salt, eggs, vegetable
oil, and sometimes vegetable colouring (Anyanwu et al., 2015; Cruze, 2017).
In recent days, pasta formulations including non-wheat ingredients like sweet potato flour
and tapioca starch have been reported. The dough is made into different shapes and sizes
and then dried and stored (Harish & Pragati, 2016).
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 378
Pasta is a type of food typically made from an unleavened dough of wheat flour mixed with
water or eggs, formed into sheets or other shapes, and then cooked by boiling or baking
(Padalino, Conte & Del Nobile, 2016). Rice flour or legumes such as beans are sometimes
used instead of wheat flour to yield a different taste and texture or as a gluten-free
alternative (Harish & Pragati, 2016; Laleg, Cassan et al., 2016).
Regarding nutrition, cooked plain pasta is 31% carbohydrates, 6% protein, and low in fat,
with moderate amounts of manganese, but pasta generally has low micronutrient content
(USDA, 2012). Pasta is divided into two broad categories: dried (pasta secca) and fresh
(pasta fresca) (Dreselen, 2021). Most dried pasta is produced commercially through
extrusion, although it can be produced at home. Fresh pasta is traditionally produced by
hand, sometimes with simple machines (Marcella, 2018). Both dried and fresh pasta come
in some shapes and varieties. Pasta is made using hand-rolled or extruded methods (Cruze,
2017). Most types of pasta contain two simple ingredients: flour and eggs. Alternatively, it
is sometimes made with just flour and water. The flour and egg (or water) are kneaded until
it forms a dough, then rolled out and cut into various shapes (James, 2012). This sums up
the first method. The second method, extrusion, is how most types of pasta sold
commercially are made (Martinsdottir, 2010). The dough is put through a machine that cuts
the pasta into various shapes, long or short. The recipe may vary, but the egg is typically
omitted for water, and semolina flour is often used instead of all-purpose flour (James,
2012).
Types of Pasta
There are so many types of pasta. Luckily, they are grouped into a handful of categories:
short pasta, long pasta, sheet pasta, stuffed pasta, and dumpling pasta (Grafiati, 2023). Long
pasta can be hand-rolled or made with an extruder, but many types of short pasta (not all)
have to be made with an extruder to create their unique shapes (Simonyan, 2014). Long
Pasta is long, thin ribbons and strand pasta shapes. They are best when cooked with creamy
sauces with only very small, chunky ingredients (Cruze, 2017). Examples of long pasta are
Angel’s hair, Bucatini, Fettuccine, Spaghetti, Linguine, Pappardelle, Tagliatelle, and
Vermicelli (Li et al., 2017). Shorter noodles come in a variety of shapes. It works great
with thicker and chunkier sauces with meat and vegetables (Laleg et al., 2016). Because of
their unique shapes, most short types of pasta are made with an extruder machine that cuts
the shapes with a mould (Cruze, 2017); some long pasta is a radiator, rotini, elbows, penne,
rotelli, rigatoni (Li et al., 2017). Sheet pasta is sheet pasta noodles that are thin and flat,
like a sheet of paper (Laleg et al., 2016; James, 2012). examples of sheet pasta are lasagne,
filled pasta, and jumbo shells.
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 379
METHODOLOGY
The research design adopted for the study was experimental, and specifically, laboratory
work was undertaken to ascertain the physicochemical properties of agra bankye pasta. Agra
bankye was explicitly purchased from CSIR, Fumesua in Kumasi, Ashanti Region, Ghana
and other raw materials; egg and salt were purchased from the local market. Production of
Agra bankye flour began when it was washed, peeled, grated onto a baking sheet and
allowed to dry in the oven for two hours at a temperature of 80⁰С. As the product turned
crispy, it was removed, cooled and milled to attain the flour needed for pasta production.
With some modifications, this recipe was adapted from Kolawole (2021) and Fraikue,
Barnes and Tawiah (2022).
Production of Agra bankye pasta was adopted from Dagostino (2020), Grafiati (2023),
Padalino et al. (2016), Cruze (2017) and James (2012) with some moderations. Specifically,
the recipe used for agra bankye pasta was adopted from James (2012). The researchers went
through laboratory work to assess the physicochemical properties of Agra bankye pasta to
ascertain the proximate and mineral properties. The product was analysed and discussed
using frequency and distribution tables.
Production of Cassava Pasta from Agra Bankye
Ingredients
Agra bankye flour 400g
Salt 1.5gram
Egg 25ml
Water 175ml
Method
*Pour Agra bankye flour into a bowl and salt.
*Bind the flour with egg and water to form a dough.
*On a clean, flat surface, knead the dough and allow it to rest.
*Grate dough to get fine granules or pass it through the chip machine for desired shapes.
*Arrange it on a baking sheet and dry it in an oven of 800C for 2 hours.
*When dried, allow it to cool
*Blend to get a smooth texture for laboratory assessment
Source: Researcher Recipe 2023: James (2012)
Determination of the physicochemical properties of a product is broadly dependent on two
main groups of nutritional properties. These include the proximate and mineral analyses (Al
et al., 2022). The proximate analysis mainly assesses a product's protein, fat, crude fibre,
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 380
carbohydrate moisture and ash (NCBI, 2014). The mineral content depends on the specific
minerals present in a product (Drago, 2017). Proximate analysis of flour products affects
their functional properties and performance in different food applications. According to
Tian, Wang, Wang, Sun, Wang, Ma and Qian (2022), flour product sizes are often
associated with improved mixing, hydration and textural attributes of food products.
Protein content determination is a significant component of flour products and contributes
to their structural and functional properties. Protein content affects dough elasticity, texture
and the formation of gluten, which is crucial for bread making and other baked goods
(Awuchi et al., 2019). Moisture content determination: According to Ojo et al. (2017), the
moisture component of flour products influences their shelf life, storage stability and
texture. Optimal moisture levels are essential to prevent microbial growth, enzymatic
activity and undesirable changes in product quality.
Determining starch contents and properties is the primary carbohydrate component of flour
products. The starch content and its properties, such as gelatinisation temperature, swelling
power, and viscosity, impact flour-based foods' textural characteristics, stability, and
cooking properties (Cornejo-Ramirez et al., 2018).
Fat content determination of flour products affects their sensory attributes, such as taste,
texture and mouthfeel. Fat also contributes to the functional properties of dough, including
its rheological behaviour and gas retention during baking (Rezaian, 2013). According to
Czaja et al. (2020), Ash content determination indicates the presence of inorganic elements,
such as calcium, magnesium, potassium and iron, which contribute to nutritional value and
functionality.
The mineral content plays a significant role in the physicochemical properties of flour
products. Minerals are inorganic substances essential for the proper functioning of the
human body and are required in small quantities for various physiological processes (Dereje
et al., 2020). In flour products, minerals contribute to the overall nutritional values and can
influence the final product's texture, colour, and flavour (Aidoo et al., 2022).
Iron content determination is one crucial mineral found in flour products. Iron is essential
for forming haemoglobin in red blood cells, which carry oxygen to different body parts. In
flour, iron can affect the colour of the product, giving it a slightly darker appearance. It also
contributes to the overall nutritional content, making the flour more beneficial for
individuals with iron-deficiency anaemia (Field et al., 2021).
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 381
Calcium content determination is another important mineral found in flour products.
Calcium plays a vital role in bone health and is necessary for properly functioning muscles
and nerves (Shkembi & Huppertz, 2021). In flour, calcium can contribute to the product's
texture, affecting its moisture absorption and retention properties. It also helps form gluten,
a protein that gives dough elasticity and structure (Codina et al., 2018).
Phosphorus content determination is another mineral component of flour products. It is
involved in energy metabolism, DNA synthesis and bone mineralisation. In flour,
phosphorus contributes to the flavour and colour of the final product. It also plays a role in
the leaving process, as it interacts with leavening agents such as yeast to promote
fermentation and gas production, leading to a light and airy texture in baked goods (Cordell
et al., 2009).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This production of agra bankye flour began with cleaning, peeling and grating of the
cassava onto a baking sheet. This was baked for two hours at a temperature of 80⁰С. After
the product was dried, it was milled and sifted into flour. Later, agra bankye pasta dough
was made from the formulation ratio of 400 grams agra bankye flour: 1.5 grams salt, 25
millilitres egg and 175 millilitres water. This was further grated into grits and then oven-
dried for two hours at a temperature of 80⁰С. The agra bankye pasta grits sent to the
laboratory assessed the physicochemical properties. Here, two samples sent to the
laboratory produced two different results, as seen in Table 3. The results revealed that there
were eleven (11) parameters present in agra bankye pasta. Out of the eleven, eight (8) were
categorised under proximate nutrients: fat, protein, crude fibre, carbohydrate, starch,
energy, moisture and ash, while three, calcium, iron and manganese, were mineral
nutrients. This indicated that agra bankye pasta was nutritious like other cereal and
tuberous pasta. The average gramme, microgramme, and millilitres of the dual results from
the laboratory assessment were further compared to basic cassava used for pasta.
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 382
Table 3: Physicochemical Properties of Agra Bankye Flour
Parameter Method Unit Result
Moisture Based on AOAC 32.1.03 l/100ml 8.23
Modified 8.17
Ash Based on AOAC 32.1.05 g/100g 2.87
2.84
Total Fat Based on AOAC 4.5.01 g/100g 1.76
1.50
Protein Based on AOAC 4.2.09 g/100g 3.67
3.80
Crude Fibre Based on Pearson’s Composition g/100g 0.93
and Analysis of Foods 9th Edition 1.18
Total Carbohydrate By difference g/100g 82.54
82.61
Energy Based on Atwater factor Kcal/100g 362.68
358.74
Iron Based on 2,2-bipyridyl Colorimetric mg/100g 13.13
12.81
Calcium Based on AOAC 4.8.03 mg/100g 63.82
63.44
Starch Based on Ewer’s g/100g 70.06
70.52
Manganese Based on AOAC 9.1.01F g/100g 0.71
0.81
Field Survey, 2023
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 383
Table 4. revealed a comparative study of nutrients between agra bankye and cassava.
Comparatively, as agra bankye contained eleven nutrients, cassava contained nine
nutrients. Agra bankye contains ash of 2.86g/mg and manganese of 0.76g/mg, but cassava
does not. The study showed that agra bankye pasta had more starch (70.29g/mg) than
cassava flour (12.16g/mg). This confirmed what was cited by Lancaster et al. (2013),
Kubala (2022), and Sachdev (2021), who attested that CRI-Agra bankye contains starch
and flour. The lower fibre content in agra bankye (1.06g/mg) promotes the keeping quality
of agra bankye pasta, which enables it to last longer and makes it stable better than cassava
(1.3g/mg - 1.9g/mg).
Table 4. Comparison between Agra Bankye Pasta and Cassava Nutrient
Parameter Unit Agra bankye Fresh Cassava
Moisture ml /100ml 8.2 60
Ash g/100g 2.86 ----
Total Fat g/100g 1.63 0.1 - 0.3
Protein g/100g 3.69 1.0 - 1.4
Crude Fibre g/100g 1.06 1.3 - 1.9
Carbohydrate g/100g 82.58 31 - 39.2
Energy Kcal/100g 360.71 130 - 160
Iron g/100g 12.97 0.27 - 3.5
Calcium mg/100g 63.63 16 - 26
Starch g/100g 70.29 12.16
Manganese g/100g 0.76 -------
Field Survey, 2023
African Journal of Applied Research
Vol. 10, No. 2 (2024), pp. 371-388
http://www.ajaronline.com
http://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.01.12.2024.20
Special Issue: Applied Research Conference of
Technical Universities in Ghana 2024
Received: December 16, 2023
Peer reviewed: June 25, 2024
Revised: December 26, 2024
Published: December 2024
ISSN: 2408-7920
Copyright ⓒ African Journal of Applied Research
Arca Academic Publisher 384
Still on Table 4, agra bankye pasta contained substantially higher nutrients of moisture,
iron, protein and total fat. Additionally, the difference between the nutritional gap for
calcium (63.63g/mg), carbohydrate (82.58g/mg), and energy (360.71Kcal/g) for agra
bankye has cassava producing one-third of the same nutrients for calcium (16 - 26g/mg),
carbohydrate (31 - 39.2g/mg) and energy (130 - 160Kcal/g). Nonetheless, the study's
findings affirmed that minerals such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc and many
others, which were present in other cassava, according to literature, were not available in
agra bankye pasta. This was evident in the review outlined by the authors, USDA nutrient
database (2020), Bradbury & Holloway (2013); Woot- Tsuen et al. (2013); Favier (2013);
Lancaster et al. (2013); Kubala (2022) and Sachdev (2021). Calcium in agra bankye pasta
provides a stretchy state that helps form gluten and gives the dough its structure of
elasticity.
CONCLUSION
Agra bankye, resistant, starchy and floury, can be used alone (100%) to produce pasta.
Eggs, milk, beans or any other protein can be added to the production to increase the protein
content. The physicochemical properties of agra bankye contained eleven (11) nutritional
parameters. Although agra bankye is deficient in magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc
as compared to other cassava flour, it is nutritious and convenient to use for pasta.
Furthermore, it is also established that agra bankye is a suitable cassava variety for pasta
production due to its starchiness and less fibrous status of this species. Additionally, less
moisture content in agra bankye influences the shelf life. Practically, agra bankye has high
calcium and less crude fibre. The starch granules enable it to be stretchy, unlike other
species of cassava, and it has a longer shelf life due to its less moisture content. Since it is
highly nutritious, there is more usage of agra bankye pasta for food production with
diverse. Socially, agra bankye pasta has also created awareness that cassava alone can be
used for pasta production without thinking of using it as a composite, unlike the other types.
The unique feature of this type of cassava is that it is cheap, produced locally, readily
available, not affected by weevils and has a better keeping quality, unlike the wheat used
for pasta.
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ISSN: 2408-7920
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