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Spectroscopic approach to
optimize the biogenic silver
nanoparticles for photocatalytic
removal of ternary dye mixture and
ecotoxicological impact of treated
wastewater
Keya Mandal1,5, Dipti Das1,5, Supriya Kumar Bose1, Aparna Chaudhuri1, Arpita Chakraborty1,
Sapna Mandal1, Sabyasachi Ghosh1,2,3 & Swarup Roy4
The fabricating of extremely eective, economical, ecologically safe, and reusable nanoparticle (NP)
catalysts for the removal of water pollution is urgently needed. This study, spectroscopically optimizes
the process parameters for the biogenic synthesis of AgNP catalysts using Cledrdendrum infortunatum
leaf extract. The optimization of several synthesis parameters was systematically studied using UV–Vis
spectroscopy to identify the ideal conditions for AgNPs formation. The AgNPs are spherical with a size
of ~ 20 nm, pure and stable. Mechanistic insights into the biogenic synthesis process were explored.
The photocatalytic performance of biogenic AgNPs was evaluated for the degradation of three
common (crystal violet, thioavin T, and methylene blue) dyes as models in ternary mixtures under
the inuence of sunlight. AgNPs show excellent photocatalytic eciency in terms of degradation
percentage (82.89–96.96% within 110 min), kinetics (0.0247–0.0331 min–1), half-life (20.96–28.11 min),
and T80 (48.67–65.28 min) and also easily recovered and reused. Ecological safety assessment of the
treated wastewater was assessed on the growths of rice, mustard, and lentil plants, and preliminary
ndings demonstrated that seedling growths for treated wastewater were nearly similar to the control
sample but retarded in dye-contaminated wastewater suggesting potential use of treated wastewater
for sustainable agriculture without compromising ecological balance. So, this study explores biogenic
AgNPs as cost-eective, safe, and sustainable photocatalytic agents for the remediation of hazardous
mix dyes and real-life applications of treated water for agricultural purposes.
Keywords Biosynthesis, Nanoparticles, Spectroscopy, Photocatalytic activity, Ecotoxicology
e escalating environmental pollution due to industrial euents, particularly from dye and textile industries,
poses a signicant threat to ecosystems and human health1–3. Wastewater containing synthetic dyes, such as
methylene blue (MB), thioavin T (TT), and crystal violet (CV) are a serious health and environmental concern
if they were discharged as a partially or untreated form of dyes4–6. Conventional wastewater treatment methods
oen fall short of eectively degrading these complex dye molecules6,7, necessitating the development of more
ecient and sustainable solutions. Nanotechnology, particularly the use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)8
has emerged as a promising approach for addressing these challenges due to their unique physicochemical
properties9 and enhanced catalytic activities. Since ancient times Ag has been extensively used in water storage,
food storage, and wound healing due to their intrinsic antimicrobial properties10. However, some publications
1Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Swami Vivekananda University, Barrackpore, West Bengal
700121, India. 2Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Nadia, Kalyani, West Bengal
741235, India. 3Department of Agricultural Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, Mohanpur,
West Bengal 741252, India. 4Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India. 5Keya Mandal and Dipti Das equally contributed to this work.
email: sghosh.id@gmail.com; swaruproy2013@gmail.com
OPEN
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raise concerns regarding acute toxicity because of the production of harmful metabolites, even aer the complete
degradation of dyes11,12.
In particular, the plant extract-based biosynthesis method is presently under exploitation due to its simple,
single-step, unique, non-toxic, faster, economical, non-pathogenicity, sustainable, and suitable for large-scale
production. Plant extract comprises an enormous source of secondary metabolites including avonoids,
alkaloids, steroids, phenols, and terpenoids, which are responsible for reducing and stabilizing agents for
biosynthesis of NPs13,14. Moreover, such bioactive phytochemicals are safer for the environment and even though
the plant-based biosynthesis method improved stability. It requires a simple laboratory setup, is safe to handle,
and provides exibility in reaction parameters compared to other synthesis methods of NPs15,16. Among various
plants, Clerodendrum infortunatum (Linn.) has been recognized for its strong phytochemical characteristics17,
and making it an ideal candidate for the biosynthesis of AgNPs. It is a versatile tree with extremely active
biological components (secondary metabolites including avonoids, triterpenes, and steroids) in its bark, leaves,
seed extracts, and isolated parts18,19. erefore, these properties of C. infortunatum (Linn.) motivated us to
utilize the aqueous leaf extract for the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs. e biosynthesized AgNPs were subjected
to rigorous characterization to elucidate their optical, morphological, structural, and elemental properties.
In particular, UV-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy is utilized (monitoring the surface plasmon resonance (SPR)
peak) to optimize the synthesis parameters. is includes studying the eect of pH, temperature, and extract
concentration for optimal growth, which is crucial for the formation and stability of AgNPs with the desired
properties for eective photocatalytic performance20. e photocatalytic potential of biogenic AgNPs was
assessed by degrading a dye or dye mixture under sunlight. In general, the degradation process was monitored
spectroscopically, and understanding the mechanisms is crucial for enhancing its eciency12. e impact of
the treated wastewater is most commonly accessed on the germination of several plants like rice (Oryza sativa),
mustard (Brassica juncea), and lentil (Lens culinaris). e lentil, rice, and mustard seeds are economically and
important healthier crops for consumption and may be utilized to investigate the ecological and agricultural
signicance of the treated wastewater.
Herein, we report (i) the phytochemically biogenic synthesis of AgNPs using aqueous leaf extract of
Clerodendrum infortunatum (Linn.), (ii) characterize several properties (like optical, morphological, structural,
and elemental investigation) of newly biosynthesized AgNPs, (iii) e eect of various parameters was
systematically studied by UV-vis spectroscopy to obtain the optimal growth condition for the biogenic formation
of AgNPs, (iv) the impact of biogenic AgNPs on the photocatalytic decomposition of crystal violet (CV),
thioavin T (TT), and methylene blue (MB) and their ternary mixture (chosen as a model dye contaminant
and it signies common dye) under the sunlight, with mechanisms of photocatalytic decomposition and (v)
to investigate the environmental applicability of treated wastewater, seedling growths of rice (Oryza sativa),
mustard (Brassica juncea), and lentil (Lens culinaris) plants were evaluated in the presence of treated wastewater.
Preliminary ndings support using treated wastewater to grow plants that preserve the ecological balance of
essential water.
Result and discussion
UV-visible spectral analysis
e AgNPs could be eectively biosynthesized by employing phytochemicals from leaf extract (in aqueous
medium) of Clerodendrum infortunatum as both reducing and capping agents. e initial indication for the
biogenic synthesis of AgNPs was detected by the visual inspection of the color transformation for the solutions
from light yellow to reddish yellow (Inset Fig.1). Further, the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs was proven by UV–
visible (UV-vis)spectrophotometer, which detected the characteristic absorbance band at λmax. It is widely
known that AgNPs exhibit absorbance peaks at λmax. In this study,AgNPs show distinct surface plasmon
resonance (SPR) bands (optical density) at ~ 420nm (Fig.1). e UV-vis absorbance is an optical characterization
technique primarily used to detect the interaction between molecules in real-time21. e phenomenon involved
in the collective oscillation of free electrons from the conduction band (CB) of metal excited by the incident
light (photon) is called SPR (at λmax), and intensity can be adjusted by regulating the composition, size, shape,
structure, and medium of NPs22.
Process optimization for biogenic synthesis of AgNPs
e optimization technique is crucial for controlling the morphology, stability, and production yield during
the biogenic synthesis of NPs. UV-vis spectroscopy was utilized to determine the impact of each parameter
on the formation of AgNPs shown in Figs.2 and 3, and appropriate conditions were suggested to achieve the
highest intensity at λmax23. e overall biogenic synthesis conditions could be optimized considering the results
(at λmax) of SPR peak (Fig. S1) intensity24,25. Figures2 and 3 shows the several ranges of color changes that
were seen during the production of the AgNPs under dierent factors. By adjusting several factors (such as
reaction duration, temperature, pH, and plant extract concentration) of biogenic synthesis process for AgNPs
was optimized. Suitable conditions were proposed to obtain the highest intensity of biogenic AgNPs at λmax (nd
the details in Supplementary Information). So, the optimum conditions (physico-chemical) for the biogenic
synthesis of the AgNPs were recommended for concentration of Cledrdendrum infortunatum leaf extract (2%),
concentration of salt (4 mM, AgNO3), pH condition (10.0), reaction time (60min) and temperature (80 °C).
Size distribution and zeta potential
e Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a sophisticated analytical technique applied to identify the size distribution
prole and the average size (Zavg.) of particles of the NPs. e neutral NPs are those whose zeta potentials vary
from − 10 and + 10 mV. In general, stable NPs are those whose zeta potentials greater than − 30 mV or + 30
mV26,27. e zeta potential value of this biogenic synthesis of AgNPs is − 20 (Fig. S2a), which indicates that
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the biogenic synthesized NPs are quite stable over a prolonged period. In addition, the average nano size of
the biogenic synthesized AgNPs was 42.08nm. e DLS technique directly determined the size distribution
prole of stable AgNPs in the solution (Fig. S2b,c). For the biogenic AgNPs with a particle size distribution
(percentile) characterized by d10 = 12nm d50 = 15.5nm, and d95 = 25.5nm, where these values provide a detailed
picture of the size distribution and uniformity (Fig. S2d). is means that 10% of the AgNPs have a diameter
smaller than 12nm. As the median (50%) particle size, this value suggests that the size of typical sample or
most common AgNP is 15.5nm. e 95% of particles smaller than 25.5nm, this value shows that a small
fraction of the particles is relatively larger, extending the upper end of the distribution. e distribution suggests
a predominantly monodisperse sample, with a small percentage of larger particles is suitable for applications
that benet from size uniformity, such as catalysis activity, where both the specic surface area and reactivity
can be inuenced by particle size. e calculated polydispersity index for AgNPs was 0.579 indicating that these
NPs were polydisperse. e coating layer of the biomolecules in the plant extracts may contain hydroxyl (–OH)
and carboxylic (–COOH) groups (later discussed in the functional group section), which may be the cause of
the signicant negative charge value on the surface of the AgNPs. As a result, a strong negative charge value
generates the electrostatic repulsion between the individual AgNPs, which may stop the NPs from aggregating28.
e stability of the biogenic synthesized AgNPs was investigated using UV–vis spectrum analysis. Even aer 20
days, there were no appreciable changes in the UV-vis spectra (at λmax) position or intensity, indicating the stable
size and size distribution (results not shown). As per the previous study, the key dierences between chemically
and phytochemically synthesized NPs regarding stability, biocompatibility, and ecacy are summarized in Table
S4. is table provides a clear, comparative view to aid in choosing the right synthesis approach based on desired
NP properties for specic applications.
Fig. 1. (a) UV–vis absorbance spectra of the plant extract and biogenic synthesis of AgNPs. AgNPs show a
distinct absorbance peak (λmax) at420nm (Inset shows the visual color changes of the AgNPs solution aer
biosynthesis using plant extract solution).
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Morphological studies and elemental analysis
e absorbance data provide strong shreds of evidence of the formation of biogenic synthesized AgNPs. e
morphological and elemental analysis of the resultant NPs were further conrmed by the TEM (transmission
electron microscopy) and EDX (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) study. Moreover, the biogenic synthesized
AgNPs had a homogeneous size distribution and were spherical. Notably, synthesized AgNPs are well separated,
indicating that aggregation has not occurred. e TEM image in Fig.4a shows that the size of AgNPs is less than
20nm. e size of AgNPs determined by DLS is bigger than that determined by TEM due to the dierence in the
preparation process of the sample. So, the average hydrodynamic diameter of the AgNPs in solution is calculated
by DLS but this covers not just the NPs core but also surrounded by solvent molecules and any biomolecules
that have been adsorbed (such as polysaccharides, proteins, or other biomolecules of plant extract that coat
the surface of the NPs)29,30. e hydration layer and the phytochemical coating may be partially or completely
eliminated when NPs are dried on a grid during the sample preparation process for TEM. Hence, TEM is limited
to measuring the solid metallic core alone, without any chemical or biological coverings. So, TEM images provide
detailed information on the morphology and size of the AgNPs by allowing direct visualization of them31,32. e
elemental composition of the formation of biogenic synthesized AgNPs can be determined with the help of EDX.
e EDX spectrum of the biogenic synthesized AgNPs showed the existence of Ag element signals (Fig.4b).
While background signals for the impurities of Cu, C, and Si have also been identied, these could be caused by
the carbon coating on the copper grid or by the copper grid itself. On the other hand, the remaining elements
could be the result of carbon-containing biomolecules from the plant extract that have bound to AgNPs33.
Fig. 2. (a) Plant extract-dependent UV–vis absorbance, (b) Precursor salt-dependent UV–vis absorbance of
the biogenic AgNPs,and corresponding visual color change of the biogenic synthesis of AgNP.
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Identication of phytochemicals and functional groups
Functional group analysis by FTIR
e Fourier Transform Electron Spectroscopy (FTIR) study was done to recognize the probable functional
groups of biomolecules within the plant matrix that may be responsible for the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs (Fig.
S3). As shown in Table S1, the FTIR spectrum of plant extract exhibited major characteristic peaks at 3393cm− 1
Fig. 3. (a) pH-dependent UV–vis absorbance, (b) Time-dependent UV–vis absorbance, (c) Temperature-
dependent UV–vis absorbance of the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs,and corresponding visual color change of
the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs.
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(for O–H stretching), 2925cm− 1, 1407cm− 1 (for C–H stretching), 1603cm− 1 (for N–H and NH2 bending),
1108cm− 1 (for C=O stretching), 763cm− 1 (for C–H bending) and 615cm− 1 (for C–Br stretching)34–36. ese
distinct peaks conrm that the extract contains several bioactive compounds (functional groups) that may
function as a reductant for reducing the silver nitrate, hence facilitating the synthesis of AgNPs. On the other
hand, FTIR spectra of biogenic AgNPs showed a shi in some characteristic peaks and the appearance of several
Fig. 4. e (a) TEM images and (b) EDX spectra (the inset shows the elemental analysis of the corresponding
AgNPs) of the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs, and (c) Schematic representation of the biosynthesis of AgNPs
using plant extract.
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new peaks due to the interaction of bioactive compounds with AgNPs. It was noticed that peaks at 3393, 2925,
1603, 1407, 1108, 763, and 615cm− 1 in leaf extract were shied towards 3403, 2919, 1619, 1384, 1158, 771,
and 647cm− 1, respectively. In addition, there was the emergence of new peaks at 1055 (for C = O stretching
vibration of ester, carboxylic acids, and alcohol), 897 (for N–H waging modes of Amines), and824cm− 1 (for
C = C and C–H stretching vibration of hydrocarbon part of biomolecules) in AgNPs it may be due to interaction
of biocompounds with AgNPs35,37,38. ese ndings supported that many biomolecules, especially O–H, COOH,
COOR, R–O–R′, and amide (N–H, C = O) could be present in leaf extract, and these functional groups might be
associated with reduction, binding, and stabilization of biogenic AgNPs.
Phytochemical screening by GC-MS
GC-MS analysis identied 45 major compounds in Clerodendr um infortunatum leaf extract (Table S2) which have
a range of biological activities that might be responsible for the biogenic AgNPs. e peak mass spectrum of these
major compounds was matched with the NIST mass spectral library14,39. However, analytical standards were not
employed through the GC-MS analysis for denitive recognition of phytochemicals. Hence the presented results
may be considered reasonable given the possibility for proper identication of phytochemicals. Already, the
Clerodendrum infortunatum plant is reported to contain 9-Hexadecenoic acid (retention time, RT: 13.52min),
Hexadecane (RT: 16.05min), tert-Hexadecanethiol (RT: 17.47min), 1-Hexadecanol, 2-methyl- (RT: 27.63min)
and 2,5-Octadecadiynoic acid, methyl ester (RT: 30.63min)40–42. For example, several alcohols were found in the
extract with higher probability like 1-Hexadecanol, 2-methyl-, and Verrucarol. As well, many of the carboxylic
compounds were identied in the extract: 1,7-Octadiene, 2,5-bis-(cis)-(2,2-dimethyl-3-carboxycyclopropyl)-
9-Hexadecenoic acid; Dodecanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-; cis-10-Nonadecenoic acid. Briey, there are also many ether
compounds contained in samples: 2-Methyl-cis-7,8-epoxynonadecane, Ethanol, 2-(octadecyloxy)-. e extract
contained considerable levels of certain esters, such as 2,5-Octadecadiynoic acid, methyl ester, Retinoic acid, and
methyl ester. Several aldehydes were also found in the extract including. GC-MS chromatogram of the samples is
provided in Supplementary Fig. S4. Hence it may be possible that FTIR-identied functional groups of the above
phytochemicals may be responsible for the capping and reduction of biogenic AgNPs43.
Probable mechanism for the biosynthesis of AgNPs
e mechanism behind the reduction and stabilization of AgNPs by phytochemicals is not adequately
explained in the literature44,45. Reduction of ions, nucleation, and growth stages are the three primary steps in
nanoparticles formation. Each stage relies on the characteristics of extract concentration, AgNO3 concentration,
time, temperature, and pH. e precursor salts AgNO3 dissociate into silver (Ag+) ions and nitrate (NO3−) ions
in distilled water. Some researchers suggested that the reduction of silver ions to Ag0 may be caused by the –OH
groups found in phytochemicals (like phenolic acids, terpenoids, alcohols, polyphenols, and avonoids)46. It’s
possible that reactive hydrogen atoms released during the tautomeric conversion of phytochemicals from enol
to keto form could convert Ag+ions to Ag047. For example, Phenylethyl Alcohol, 3-hydroxy-Dodecanoic acid,
2-methyl-1-Hexadecanol, Verrucarol, etc. were found in the extract with higher probability identied by GC-
MS and FTIR data. So, these biomolecules may be involved in the reduction of Ag+ ion to Ag0. e probable
mechanism for producing AgNPs (using Clerodendrum infortunatum leaf extract) through the conversion of Ag0
to AgNPs by phytochemicals is depicted in Fig.4c. e plant extract contained considerable levels of alkaloids,
proteins, saponin, etc., which may involved for the stabilization of AgNPs17,48. ere are many compounds
present in samples (extract and surface of AgNPs) like cis-10-Nonadecenoic acid, 9-hexadecenoic acid,
1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-methylpropyl) ester, Ethosuximide that may act as a stabilizer of AgNPs.
is capping layer stabilizes the nanoparticles by electrostatic or steric repulsion and depending on the nature of
the bio-compounds present in plant. e process is generally green, eco-friendly, and scalable, leveraging natural
plant resources to produce stable AgNPs for various applications.
Photocatalytic degradation eciency of AgNPs
e photocatalytic activity of the AgNPs on the degradation of crystal violet (CV), thioavin T (TT), and
methylene blue (MB) individually was estimated by determining the residual concentration of dyes by
spectrophotometrically at peaks 412nm, 590nm, and 665nm, respectively at distinct intervals of time (Fig.5).
In a ternary dye mixture solution (TT + CV + MB), there was not any noticeable shiing of the absorption
peaks (Fig.5d). erefore, the determination of specic dyes may be possible in a mixture of ternary dyes.
ree distinct peaks (413nm, 593nm, and 665nm) corresponding to the dyes TT, CV, and MB occur in the
absorption spectra concerning the photocatalytic degradation of the ternary mixture dyes (TT + CV + MB).
ere was no signicant shiing of absorption peaks in the ternary mixture of dyes (TT + CV + MB) solution
(Fig. S5d) and clearly distinguish between the three peaks in the ternary mixture of dyes compared to distinct
peaks of individual dyes. So, the photodegradation eciency of each dye was examined based on the absorbance
maxima (λmax) values of each dye in the mixture (TT + CV + MB) for the current investigation6,49. Nowadays,
the photocatalytic degradation of several dyes under sunlight using NPs is commonly studied to estimate the
photocatalytic activity of NPs. e optical density of dyes before and aer 30min under sunlight without adding
AgNPs suggested that there was no alteration or a slight in the intensity of optical density (Fig. S5). Hence, no
signicant changes in the concentration of dyes and their ternary mixtures were obtained in the absence of
AgNP catalysts that conrm the dyes are highly photostable under sunlight14. e degradation of dyes in an
aqueous solution was determined at a particular time of interval under sunlight by AgNP as catalysts (Fig.5)
and determined in terms of degradation percent, reaction kinetics, T50 (half-life), and T80 (time needed for 80%
degradation)51,52.
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Degradation percentage
e UV-vis spectroscopy was used to analyze the degradation pattern (3D and 2D type representation) of the
dye in individual aqueous solutions as illustrated in Fig.5a1–c3 and a2–c2 and for the ternary mixture of dyes in
Fig.5d1,d2. e degradation percent (using Eq.1) of the dyes is displayed in Table1. MB and CV dye exhibited
Fig. 5. Time-dependent 3D and 2D type degradation (UV–vis spectra) pattern for photocatalytic degradation
of (a1, a2) TT, (b1, b2) CV (c1, c2), MB and (d1, d2) mixed ternary (TT + CV + MB) dyes in the presence of
sunlight using AgNPs as a catalyst. e Inset of 3D gure shows the initial and nal color change of the
corresponding dye catalyzed by AgNPs.
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the fastest photodegradation in individual solutions, where ~ 98% of MB degraded within 80min and ~ 95%
of CV degraded within 70min in the presence of sunlight using AgNPs (Table1). However, TT dye showed
moderate photodegradation in individual solutions, and~ 83% of TT degraded within 70min in the presence
of sunlight using AgNPs (Table1). A similar pattern for CV and MB was also observed in ternary mix dye
solutions, where the photocatalytic degradation percentage of MB was ~ 95% within 110min, and for CV it was
~ 97% within 100min, while TT showed lower degradation i.e. ~ 83% of TT degraded within 80min (Fig. S6).
An earlier study shows that CuS is an eective photocatalyst for degrading individual dyes like CV (85%), RhB
(81%), and MB (100%), and the degradation percentage was 89.8% (for CV), 88.7 (for RhB) and 92.1% (for MB)
to their ternary mixture dye solution in 120min52. is rapid degradation suggests that the molecular structure
of MB and CV interact eciently with the AgNPs, likely enabling ecient electron transfer that accelerates the
breakdown process. e slower degradation of TT suggested that chemical structure may pose more resistance
to the photocatalytic process, possibly due to strong molecular bonds, low adsorption anity, electron transfer
limitations, and potential aggregation behavior all contributing to resistance to degradation53,54.
Degradation kinetics
e photocatalytic capabilities of the AgNPs were additionally estimated using reaction kinetics of the
photodegradation of dyes (using Eq.2) as illustrated in Fig. S7a–c. e research data can be tted in a straight
line for the dye degradation with a good linear (R2 > 0.990) regression coecient conrms a strong t to pseudo-
rst-order kinetics, indicating consistent and predictable degradation behavior (shown in Figs. S7a–c)55,56.
Table1 displays the reaction kinetic rate constants (k) for the dye degradation. e highest kinetics rate of
photodegradation observed for MB was 0.0593min− 1, and CV shows a moderate kinetics rate of 0.0461min− 1,
while TT shows a lower kinetics rate of 0.0268min− 1 in the case of individual dye (Table1). Similar manner to the
individual dyes, the rate constants of dye in the ternary mixture were found to be 0.0331min− 1 for the CV, and
for the case of MB, it was 0.0316min− 1. e kinetics rate constants for TT in the ternary mixture were calculated
to be 0.0247min− 1 in the ternary mixture based on their catalytic action detected at their corresponding λmax
values. According to a previous study, the reaction kinetics of TG-cl-PAA/Fe3O4 (magnetic tragacanth gum-
crosslinked-poly(acrylic acid) nanocomposite hydrogel) for TT dye in individual solution (0.0187min− 1) and in
ternary mix solution (0.0193min− 1) shows an excellent photocatalytic activity6. is result supports the previous
observation of TT for moderate degradation percentage, likely due to its more resistant chemical structure or
lower adsorption anity to AgNPs, as discussed. CV showed a moderate rate constant, which is slightly lower
than MB but still indicates a relatively fast degradation process. e moderate rate constant for CV suggests
that it also interacts well with AgNPs, though slightly less ecient than MB. e decrease in rate constants of
dyes in the ternary dye mixture is attributed to the competition among dye molecules for the active sites on the
AgNPs surface. When multiple dyes are present, they may compete for adsorption onto optically active centers
on the AgNPs, leading to a lower availability of reactive sites per dye molecule. is competitive eect is typical
in mixed dye solutions and illustrates the challenges of achieving ecient degradation in complex, and multi-
component wastewater environment57,58.
Half-life with needed time for 80% dye degradation
e T50 (half-life) and T80 (needed time for 80% degradation) of a kinetics reaction (dye degradation) are oen
calculated using the Eqs.(3) and (4), respectively, and results are shown in Table1. is type of parameter is
frequently utilized for reaction kinetics to describe how quickly a substance degrades during a photocatalytic
process. e calculated half-life for MB, CV, and TT were found to be 11.17min, 15.04min, and 25.89min,
respectively in an individual solution in the presence of sunlight using the AgNPs (Table 1). However, the
calculated half-life for degradation of CV (20.96min) was comparable to MB (21.95min) in ternary mixture
solution while the calculated half-life value for degradation of TT (28.11min) was slightly high compared to
the degradation of CV and TT in ternary mixture solution (Table 1). Similarly, the calculated T80 values of
MB, CV, and TT dyes were found to be 27.16min, 34.92min, and 60.10 min in individual solutions (Table1),
whereas 51.04min, 48.67min, and 65.28min in the ternary mixture (Table1), respectively catalyze by AgNPs.
Earlier research shows that the half-life and T80 values of Fe-CdO NPs for degradation of MB dyes were 43.04
and 99.93min, respectively, and in binary mixtures, they were 51.33 and 119.18min50. Table S3 presents a
comparison examination of dye degradation under the current research with those previously published. e
Dye Sample
Parameters
Degradation % Time for Degradation (min) Reaction Kinetics, k (min–1) T50 (min) T80 (min)
TT For Unitary 82.83 ± 0.99d70 0.0268 ± 0.0011d25.89 ± 1.0617d60.10 ± 2.4651d
For ternary s olution 82.89 ± 0.75d80 0.0247 ± 0.0008d28.11 ± 0.9290e65.28 ± 2.1570e
CV For Unitary 95.14 ± 0.73c70 0.0461 ± 0.0020b15.04 ± 0.6673b34.92 ± 1.5492b
For ternary s olution 96.96 ± 0.28b100 0.0331 ± 0.0014c20.96 ± 0.8988c48.67 ± 2.0869c
MB For Unitary 98.50 ± 0.23a80 0.0593 ± 0.0014a11.70 ± 0.2762a27.16 ± 0.6412a
For ternary s olution 95.39 ± 0.92c110 0.0316 ± 0.0023c21.98 ± 1.5479c51.04 ± 3.5938c
Tab le 1. Comparing the performance of biogenic AgNP catalysts in the unitary and ternary mixture for the
degradation of several dyes. Variations with dierent letters indicate statistical signicance (p < 0.05) as per
Duncan’s multiple comparison studies. [T50 = Half-life and T80 = Time required for 80% degradation].
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comparison data showed that, in contrast to the previously published data, the degradation time in our work
was faster in every instance, and the catalytic reaction rate was either unchanged or increased in the current
investigation59. e results of half-life and T80 provide valuable insights into the eciency and quantify the speed
of photodegradation, comparing it across dierent dyes and solution conditions. Interestingly, the T50 and T80
values for MB and CV in mixtures are lower than the TT dye values, indicating that in competitive environments,
MB and CV may degrade more quickly due to the initial rapid reaction rate, though degradation of TT dye
remains slower. is pattern may arise from the tendency of AgNPs to initially target the more reactive dyes (MB
and CV) in a mixture, leaving TT as a secondary target in the later stages of degradation. e comparative data
suggest that AgNPs exhibit consistently faster degradation times in each case, validating their enhanced catalytic
capabilities for dye degradation. e distinct variations in T50 and T80 values for dierent dyes can be attributed
to their unique chemical structures and the specic interactions they have with the ROS generated during the
photocatalytic process. Faster T50 and T80 values across both conditions point to their potential as more eective
photocatalysts in environmental applications, especially in treating dye-laden wastewater.
Reusable eciency of AgNP catalysts
e recycling of the majority of catalysts was not easy or actual practical application methods because of several
limitations, such as time-consuming separation, washing, and drying processes, among others. erefore, it was
determined if the AgNP catalysts could be reused for a practical application in the removal of colors from aqueous
solutions. Aer each cycle of dye degradation reaction, the AgNPs catalysts were recovered by centrifugation
and washed with MiliQ water and ethanol then reused for the next round of the same experiment60. Figure6a
shows the reusability of the AgNPs for the degradation of a mixture of dyes (TT + CV + MB) in an aqueous
solution in the catalytic reaction cycle. e AgNP catalyst exhibited no noticeable decline in photocatalytic
activity (< 9–12% for each dye) over its four cycles of degradation of ternary mixed dye solution so, further
it may be used for many cycles. eir tiny mass losses in every cycling phase during handling into the dye
reaction medium may be the cause of the negligible drop in photocatalytic eciency58,61,62. is could be a
result of some dye molecules that have degraded and adhered to the surface of AgNPs12. e study conrms that
biogenic AgNPs are highly eective in degrading both individual and mixed dye solutions, following pseudo-
rst-order kinetics. e insights gained from the kinetic analysis can inform further optimization and practical
application of AgNP-based photocatalytic systems for wastewater treatment. ese ndings reinforce the
potential of biogenic AgNPs in environmental remediation eorts, oering a sustainable and ecient solution
for the degradation of harmful dye pollutants.
Mechanism of photocatalysis for dye degradation
A probable mechanism of the photocatalytic degradation process for the studied dyes using the sunlight and
AgNP photocatalysts system is shown in Fig. 6b. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is a phenomenon seen
in AgNPs, whereby free electrons on the surface resonate of AgNPs with the electromagnetic eld of light,
particularly at particular wavelengths (oen in the UV-vis range)63. In the photocatalysis process, the photons
(beams of sunlight) are absorbed by a photocatalyst (AgNP) causing photoexcitation to create electron-hole
pairs. ese pairs subsequently engage in redox reactions with adsorbed species on the catalyst surface, ultimately
resulting in the degradation of dyes in water64,65. e band gap energy of AgNPs was found to be ~ 3.30eV
according to Tauc ((αhυ)2 vs. hυ) plot as shown in Fig. S8.
e process of photocatalysis for dye degradation involves three stages58–60:
Photoexcitation e semiconductor is composed of two distinct energy bands including the valence band
(VB) or ground state and the conduction band (CB) or higher energy state and their dierence is known as the
energy gap (Eg). When a semiconductor (AgNP) is struck by a beam of sunlight (photon) causes photoexcita-
tion (electron excitation), the photoelectron is shied from the VB to the CB due to the absorption of radiation.
As a result of this photoexcitation, a hole (h+) and reactive electrons (e•–) are generated on the VB and CB,
respectively69,70.
Redox reactions e extremely reactive holes (h+) in the VB and reactive electrons (e•–) in the CB can engage
in redox reactions with adsorbed species on the surface of AgNP catalyst. e main ROS such as hydroxyl rad-
icals (OH•) and superoxide radicals (O2•−) is generated from the oxidation of water (or hydroxide ions) by the
holes (h+) and from the reduction of oxygen molecules by the excited electrons (e•–), respectively69. Extremely
reactive radicals including hydroxyl radicals and superoxide radicals are produced when the photogenerated
substances (h+/e−) interact with the water of the medium66,71.
Degradation of dyes e ROS (especially OH•) generated on the surface of AgNPs interacts with the dyes (MB,
CV, and TT) molecules, causing oxidative degradation of dyes. Both MB and CV dye are aromatic compounds
with conjugated systems and are highly susceptible to attack by hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. ese radicals
target the chromophoric groups of dyes, primarily the aromatic rings and the nitrogen-containing structures
responsible for color. is reaction ultimately breaks down the dye molecules into smaller, and colorless frag-
ments72. e TT degradation proceeds similarly but at a slower rate and the chemical structure includes more
complex ring systems and possibly stronger intramolecular interactions making it slightly more resistant to
ROS attack. TT may require more energy or additional exposure to sunlight to break its bonds eectively. e
ROS-mediated degradation typically proceeds through several steps, where large dye molecules are broken into
intermediate compounds (e.g., smaller aromatic fragments, amines, and eventually simple acids)73,74. Finally,
the smaller intermediate fragments are further oxidized by continuous ROS attacks and may be degraded pos-
sibly to nontoxic products such as mineral acids, H2O, and CO276,77. In summary, the primary way that AgNPs
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demonstrate photocatalytic activity is by producing ROS in response to light irradiation. is process allows
the AgNPs to break down contaminants. So, AgNPs have distinct optical characteristics, particularly surface
plasmon resonance, and these properties are primarily responsible for their exceptional photocatalytic perfor-
mance56,77. Even though the same amount of dye was used in each experiment, the rate of degradation showed
varying values for each dye at the same time. e targeted chemical structure of dye may have an impact on
variations in degradation rates78,79. Since the surface of AgNPs is covered in phytochemicals that may carry the
matrix for reaction and aid in boosting the catalysis reaction rate. So,AgNPs synthesized using plant extracts
may have greater catalytic activity15,37.
Eco-toxicological assessment of treated dye solution
e eco-toxicological impact of treated wastewater (treated dye solution) on seedling growth of three types of
plants such as rice (Oryza sativa), mustard (Brassica juncea), and lentil (Lens culinaris) plants from the pre-
germinated seeds were performed to evaluate the sustainability and suitability of the overall photocatalytic
method concerning the probable reuse of the treated dye solution.
Eect on seedling growth
Pre-germinated (2 days) Rice, Mustard, and Lentil seeds were used for analysis of seedling growth in the
aqueous solution of pollutant dyes and their ternary mixtures before and aer the photocatalytic degradation
(removal of dyes by AgNPs), and control (only sterile distilled water). e seedling growth was observed aer
the 7 days of germination periods as illustrated in Fig.7. e results exhibited a signicant (< 0.05) inhibitory
eect of the aqueous solution of dyes and their mixtures (before degradation) in the root length for the three
types of plants like mustard (Fig.7a), lentil (Fig.7b) and rice (Fig.7c) plants. Similarly, very strong inhibition
was observed for dye solutions and their mixtures (before degradation) in the case of shoot length for the three
types of plants such as mustard, lentil, and rice plants (Fig.7). However, treated wastewater showed no inhibitory
phytotoxic eect on shoot, and root elongation on mustard, lentil, and rice plants (Fig.7). e observed seedling
germination of treated wastewater (photodegraded by AgNPs) showed healthier growth, much-improved, and
almost similar types of growth of plants as compared to the control (only sterile distilled water) plants. A similar
eect of treated water on seed germination has also been described previously, where photodegraded treated
water (MB, CV, and rhodamine B dye mixture treated by graphene nanosheets) showed similar growth to control
water, indicating non-toxic behavior but dyes and their mixtures inhibited wheat plant growth12,80. In the earlier
study, MB solution strongly inhibited root germination in wheat and gram plants, while treated wastewater (MB
dye treated by Nano-Carbon) showed improved, and healthier growth, resulting in healthier root and shoot
parts81,82. Preliminary ndings suggest that treated wastewater may be utilized for cultivating plants that can
sustain the ecological balance of the necessary water. is technique can further lessen for reducing the overuse
of natural resources and further encourage the reuse of water resources to at least for the non-edible plants
including lawns grass, and gardens. However, more detailed research needs to be done regarding edible plants.
erefore, additional in-depth research is obligatory to study the eco-toxicity of treated wastewater to several
categories and their ecosystems.
Experimental section
Materials
e substances silver nitrate (99.0%, AgNO3), methylene blue (MB), and thioavin T (TT) were purchased
from MERCK (India), and crystal violet (CV) was procured from LobaChem, Mumbai, India. e remaining
chemicals employed in every experiment, were pure analytical grade and required no additional purication.
roughout the investigation, Milli-Q (Millipore Corp., Billerica, MA) water was utilized. All glassware was
washed thoroughly, rinsed many times with water (Milli-Q), and nally, dried in the Hot Air oven at 60°C.
Collection, identication, and preparation of leaf extract
e Fresh and healthy leaves of the plant Clerodendrum infor tunatum L. were gathered from the Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV) campus (Latitude 22.9452° N, Longitude 88.5336° E, Altitude 17) in West Bengal
(WB), India. Central National Herbarium (CAL), Howrah, Botanical Survey of India (BSI) undertook the
identication of the plant material (Specimen No. SVU/SG/002) used in our study. A voucher specimen of this
plant material has been deposited (Docket No: HBKC0310241) in the Department of Botany, Kalna College
(Purba Bardhaman, WB, India) for future reference. en leaves were cleaned numerous periods with water
(distilled) and shed dry at room temperature. Aer the leaves are completely dried, they chopped into tiny
pieces and processed into a ne powder using a machine grinder. Exactly the weight of 18g ne powder of C.
infortunatum leaves was placed in an Erlenmeyer ask (size: 500 mL) lled with 300 mL of water (Milli-Q) and
then heated at 80°C for 1h. e solutions were then allowed to gradually cool to reach room temperature before
being ltered through Whatman lter paper (No. 40). e resulting supernatant solution (6% w/v) was then kept
for subsequent experimental investigation in the refrigerator at 4°C. Aerward, the ltrate solution was applied
as a stabilizing and also reducing agent for the biogenic production of AgNPs. In addition, the pH of the leaf
extract solution was found to be 6.90.
Biogenic synthesis of AgNPs
In a typical synthesis of AgNPs, 2 mL aqueous leaves extract of Clerodendrum infortunatum was mixed with 8
mL of aqueous salt (1mM, silver nitrate) solution. Aerward, this reaction mixture was transferred in a dark
condition (set pH at 7) for 1h heated to 70°C, and observed the color change. e preliminary sign for the
biogenic synthesis of AgNPs was observed by the color transformation of the reaction medium from light
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Fig. 6. (a) e recycling eciency of AgNP catalysts for degradation of crystal violet (CV), thioavin T (TT),
and methylene blue (MB) in ternary mixed aqueous solution aer four successive runs. Data were embodied
as mean ± standard deviation and the same letter is not signicantly (p > 0.05) dissimilar as per Duncan’s
multiple range tests. (b) Scheme showing the mechanism of photocatalytic degradation pathways for dyes in
the presence of sunlight using biogenic AgNPs as a catalyst in water.
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yellow to golden yellow. However, the formation (growth kinetics) of AgNPs were conrmed by determining the
absorbance of the reaction medium by UV-vis spectroscopy (scan range of 200–800nm).
Optimization of biogenic synthesis conditions
To evaluate the inuence of various parameters like the concentration of plant extract (0.5-5%), concentrations
of the salt (0.5-6 mM), several pH values (5–13), various time (0–75min), and reaction temperatures (5–80°C)
for the biogenic synthesis of AgNPs were assessed in dark conditions. e eect of these parameters on the
biosynthesis of AgNPs was monitored by measuring the surface resonance plasmon (SPR) intensity of the
solution using UV–vis spectroscopy. e biosynthesized AgNPs were reserved in an air-tight container at 4°C
temperature for further experiment.
Instrumentation for nano characterization
e UV-vis spectra of biogenic synthesized AgNPs were monitored by spectrophotometer (Varian, Model:
Cary 50) at ambient temperature and scan range from 200 to 800nm. Transmission Electron Microscopy
(TEM; JEOL, Model: JEM-2100) in conjunction with an Energy Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX; Oxford
Instruments, UK) detector and apparatus operating at an acceleration voltage of 200kV were applied to analyze
the size, shape, and elemental composition of the biogenic synthesized AgNPs. e sample was prepared
onto a carbon-coated copper grid (size: 200 mesh) and placed in desiccators to allow complete evaporation of
water at room temperature for TEM analysis. To identify the particle size, zeta-potentials, and polydispersity
index of the biogenic synthesized AgNPs in the medium were measured by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS,
Malvern, UK, Model: Nano-ZS) using cuvettes (polystyrene type). e Fourier Transformation Infrared spectra
(FTIR, Perkin Elmer L 120–000A) of the experimental samples were recorded in the spectral region of 4000 to
450cm-1 and applied at a 4.0cm-1 resolution. e biogenic synthesized AgNPs and leaf extract were subjected
to centrifugation at 15,000rpm for 30min before the FTIR analysis and dried for 3h in a hot air oven (at 50°C
temp) and were ground with dehydrated potassium bromide (100:1). Details of the procedure for sample (leaf
extract) preparation, instrumental conditions and identication of probable biomolecules for GC-MS analysis
were discussed in Supplementary Information (see details in Supplementary methods).
Fig. 7. e eco-toxicological impact of dyes and their ternary mixtures before and aer the photocatalytic
degradation (removal of dyes by AgNPs) and control (only sterile distilled water) on seedling growth of three
types of plants (a) lentil (Lens culinaris), (b) mustard (Brassica juncea), and (c) rice (Oryza sativa) plants.
Variations with dierent letters indicate statistical signicance (p < 0.05) as per Duncan’s multiple comparison
studies [Bars indicate standard error (± SE); DW: Distilled Water].
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Photocatalytic experiments
e photocatalytic eciency of AgNPs was explored through the photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet
(CV), thioavin T (TT), and methylene blue (MB) in unitary, and ternary dye solutions in the presence of stable
sunlight. e CV, MB, and TT, dye stock solutions were rst made at a necessary concentration for further
studies. In this study, 1 mL of each dye solution (1 ppm) was taken in 250 mL conical for the unitary batch
system. ree dyes (1 ppm) were combined in volume ratios 1:1:1 (v/v/v) for the ternary batch system in a 250
mL conical. Subsequently, 10 mL of AgNPs (1mg/mL) catalysts were added in conical for each unitary, and
ternary batch studies, respectively. Finally, the total volume was lled up to a volume of 100 mL by the addition
of water (Milli-Q) with natural pH at room (25°C) temperature under sunlight. In this study, the experimental
solution was taken in a centrifuged (approx. 15000rpm) and the supernatant was collected in a 3 mL quartz
cuvette and examined at regular intervals of time by the UV-vis spectrophotometer. So, the change in the
absorbance (intensity at λmax) data of the dyes with time interval indicates the degradation process of dyes77,83.
Dye sample analysis
e UV–vis spectroscopy (Varian, Cary 50) was used to investigate the residual part of the dye in unitary and
ternary dye solutions in every batch system at room temperature in denite intervals of time.
e photocatalytic activity of AgNPs can be estimated using the following formula50:
Dye Degradation
(%) =
(C
0
−C
t
)
C0
×100
(1)
where C0 is the preliminary optical density of the dye medium and Ct is the optical density of the dye medium
at denite intervals (t) of time. On the other hand, the apparent rate constant (k) is derived from the rst-order
kinetics law which is expressed as follows51:
ln C
t
C0
=
−kt
(2)
e photocatalytic performance of the biogenic AgNPs for degradation of dyes in solutions was determined in
terms of half-life (T50) of dyes, and also the time needed for 80% degradation of the dyes (T80) was calculated as
follows50,51:
T
50=
ln2
k
=
0.693
k
(3)
T
80=
ln4
k
=
1.609
k
(4)
Eco-toxicological Bioassay
e ecological safety of the treated wastewater was assessed regarding the phytotoxic impact on morphological
or seedling (shoot and root length) properties of lentil (Lens culinaris), rice (Oryza sativa), and mustard (Brassica
juncea) seeds during the growth period. Seedling growth is recognized as a simple, fast generally applied acute
phytotoxicity technique with several benets including sensitivity, simplicity, and cost-eectiveness, and also
suitable for unstable samples or chemicals. Aer centrifugation (at approx. 15000rpm) of photocatalytic reaction
solution, only the supernatant was collected and examined for further toxicity studies.
Growth conditions and Seedlings growth
e seeds were obtained from the Dept. of Agronomy, BCKV, WB, India. ey were soaked in a 10% (v/v)
sodium hypochlorite medium for ten minutes, then properly rinsed with water (distilled) to remove any
remaining dust particles and allowed to dry at room temperature. Pre-germinated (for two days) and healthy
seeds were employed in hydroponic growth systems to monitor the seedling growth under the treated wastewater
(photocatalyzed by AgNPs) in comparison to polluted dyes and their mixture. Pre-germinated seeds (20 nos.)
were placed in a petri dish with almost identical water-soaked lter paper (Whatman 42 Filter, 150mm) that
contained (5.0 mL each) (i) dyes and their ternary mix; (ii) their corresponding treated wastewater, and (iii)
sterile distilled water to investigate the seedling growth of the plants. e Petri dishes were labeled following the
treatment, covered, and enveloped with Paralm tape and nally put in a plant-growth incubator at a particular
temperature (28 ± 2°C) at ∼80% relative humidity with day-night cycles (12h each). Water (sterile distilled) was
added to the Petri dishes as needed to regulate the moisture content. Aer the seventh day, the length of the roots
and shoots of the sample were measured for each Petri dishes84.
Statistical analysis
In this work, all groups of tests were conducted in triplicate or more, and the data were provided as mean ±
standard deviations (mean± SD). e Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS and Version 16.0) was applied
to determine the statistical studies. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied by the soware (SPSS),
and Duncan’s multiple tests were applied to determine the signicance (p < 0.05) of every mean value.
Conclusion
is study successfully demonstrates a green approach for synthesizing biogenic AgNPs using the aqueous leaf
extract of Clerodendrum infortunatum (Linn.) providing a sustainable and ecient approach to water treatment.
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AgNPs are spherical, with a size of ~ 20 nm, pure, and stable for a long time. Spectroscopic optimization
enabled control over the synthesis parameters, resulting in AgNPs with enhanced photocatalytic properties.
e biogenic AgNPs eectively decomposed ternary dye (TT + CV + MB) mixture under sunlight irradiation,
showcasing their potential for removing complex dye contaminants from wastewater concerning degradation
percentage (82.89–96.96% within 110min), kinetics (k = 0.0247–0.0331 min−1), T50 (20.96–28.11min), and
T80 (48.67–65.28min) and also easily recovered and reused upto many cycles. e probable mechanism of
photocatalytic decomposition of dyes has also been discussed. Furthermore, the ecotoxicological assessment
of treated wastewater highlights its environmental applicability. Growth tests with rice (Oryza sativa), mustard
(Brassica juncea), and lentil (Lens culinaris) seedlings indicated that the treated water support healthy plant
growth, suggesting its potential for agricultural use without disrupting ecological balance. Overall, the
study underscores the feasibility of biogenic AgNPs as an eco-friendly alternative for ecient photocatalytic
degradation of complex dye contaminants in wastewater which could be reused in real-life applications. e
successful integration of ecological safety assessments further ensures that the treated wastewater can be safely
used for agricultural purpose, promoting sustainable development and environmental conservation. Future
work may expand on these ndings and exploring the ecacy of AgNPs against other contaminants and further
evaluating the long-term impacts of treated water on soil and crop health.
Data availability
e datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reason-
able request.
Received: 30 September 2024; Accepted: 4 December 2024
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Acknowledgements
e authors greatly appreciate Prof. Ramen Kumar Kole, Export Testing Laboratory (ETL), Dept. of Ag-Chem-
icals, BCKV, WB, India for providing the essential instrumental and infrastructural facilities. e zeta potential
measurements, DLS, and other analyses were made possible by Prof. T. Basu and Dr. Jishu Naskar of the Dept.
of Biochemistry and Biophysics at the University of Kalyani, WB, India, which the authors sincerely thank for
their help. We also acknowledge the recording of the IR spectra by the Department of Chemistry, University of
Kalyani, WB, India. e authors are grateful to Central National Herbarium (CAL), Botanical Survey of India
for the correct identication of the plant species and also thankful to Mr. Tanay Shil, Senior Preservation Assis-
tant, Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India for helping in our work. e authors were sincerely
thankful to the Department of Botany, Kalna College (Purba Bardhaman, WB, India) for allowing the depositing
of plant material (voucher specimen).
Author contributions
K.M., D.D., S.G., assisted in the experiments; S.K.B., A.C., A.C., S.M., S.G. contributed to the literature review
and calculation; S.G., S.R. designed and supervised the experiments, wrote the original dra, and reviewed the
manuscript. All the authors have read and approved the nal version of the manuscript.
Declarations
Competing interests
e authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Supplementary Information e online version contains supplementary material available at h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1
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