A cross-cultural comparison of Chinese and Western philosophical practice: exploring new paths for philosophical healing and social harmony

Abstract

Philosophical practice applies philosophical insights and methods to help individuals explore and resolve intellectual, emotional, and existential dilemmas, enhancing self-understanding and mental well-being. This study employs CiteSpace to analyze global research trends and hotspots in philosophical practice using data from the Web of Science (WOS) and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases spanning from 2000 to 2024. By identifying key methodologies and applications, the study compares the development of philosophical practice in Western and Chinese contexts across theoretical culture, practical application, social impact, and professional development. The findings reveal that Western philosophical practice, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy and modern streams like existentialism and analytic philosophy, emphasizes individual autonomy, critical thinking, and personal growth. In contrast, Chinese philosophical practice draws from Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, focusing on harmony between the individual and society, moral cultivation, and social cohesion. Despite these differences, both traditions share common goals of enhancing self-awareness, addressing ethical dilemmas, and improving mental health through philosophical dialogue. The study highlights the potential for integrating Chinese and Western philosophical practice, suggesting that a fusion of methodologies and ethical frameworks can provide a more holistic and culturally sensitive approach. This integration offers new perspectives for global philosophical dialogue, interdisciplinary collaboration, and practical applications in addressing contemporary challenges.

Full text

ARTICLE
A cross-cultural comparison of Chinese and
Western philosophical practice: exploring new
paths for philosophical healing and social harmony
Hanqi Li1, Xiaojun Ding 2✉& Mingyu Li1✉
Philosophical practice applies philosophical insights and methods to help individuals explore
and resolve intellectual, emotional, and existential dilemmas, enhancing self-understanding
and mental well-being. This study employs CiteSpace to analyze global research trends and
hotspots in philosophical practice using data from the Web of Science (WOS) and China
National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases spanning from 2000 to 2024. By
identifying key methodologies and applications, the study compares the development of
philosophical practice in Western and Chinese contexts across theoretical culture, practical
application, social impact, and professional development. The findings reveal that Western
philosophical practice, rooted in ancient Greek philosophy and modern streams like exis-
tentialism and analytic philosophy, emphasizes individual autonomy, critical thinking, and
personal growth. In contrast, Chinese philosophical practice draws from Confucianism,
Daoism, and Buddhism, focusing on harmony between the individual and society, moral
cultivation, and social cohesion. Despite these differences, both traditions share common
goals of enhancing self-awareness, addressing ethical dilemmas, and improving mental health
through philosophical dialogue. The study highlights the potential for integrating Chinese and
Western philosophical practice, suggesting that a fusion of methodologies and ethical fra-
meworks can provide a more holistic and culturally sensitive approach. This integration offers
new perspectives for global philosophical dialogue, interdisciplinary collaboration, and
practical applications in addressing contemporary challenges.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04290-w OPEN
1School of Marxism, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China. 2Department of Philosophy, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an, China. ✉email: xiaojunding@xjtu.edu.cn;1000002532@ujs.edu.cn
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Introduction
Philosophical practice, also known as “philosophical coun-
seling,”“philosophical therapy,”or “clinical philosophy,”
was popularized in Europe during the 1980s, aiming to
guide individuals through daily problems and uncertainties using
philosophical theories and methods (Ding, 2018). The ultimate
goal is to promote self-understanding, inner peace, and profound
happiness (Marinoff, 1999).
As a professional field, philosophical practice applies philoso-
phical insights, methods, and dialogue to help individuals explore
and resolve intellectual, emotional, and existential dilemmas. It
seeks to enhance self-understanding, foster personal growth, and
improve mental well-being through critical thinking, ethical
reflection, and self-examination. Philosophical practitioners
engage clients in reflective conversations that clarify values,
beliefs, and life goals, facilitating a deeper understanding of
oneself and the world.
Since German philosopher Gerd B. Achenbach founded the
world’sfirst philosophical counseling institution, philosophical
practice has spread globally, with many countries establishing
specialized agencies and societies (Ding and Yu, 2022). This
emergence marks a new paradigm in philosophy, highlighting the
growing recognition of its practical applications beyond academic
settings.
Philosophical practice traces its roots to ancient Greece, where
Socrates employed the “maieutic method,”or “art of midwifery,”
engaging in dialogues with people in public spaces to elicit
knowledge through questioning (Chen, 2012). This aligns with
Plato’s ideal of the “philosopher-king”in The Republic—a
balanced and rational individual who controls emotions and
impulses, achieving true autonomy (Fischer, 2011).
By integrating philosophy into the complex structures of real
life, philosophical practice helps people overcome ideological
deadlocks, reshape worldviews, and change cognitive approaches,
aiming to restore human essence or achieve personal freedom. It
can be understood in two main senses: as an art of living,
adopting philosophical principles in one’s lifestyle, and as a
professional practice, where practitioners offer consultations akin
to medical or psychological services. This dual nature underlines
the versatility and depth of philosophical practice.
In specific societal contexts, various modes of philosophical
practice highlight its capacity for social intervention. By lever-
aging moral imperatives, it addresses structural and dynamic
issues within groups or institutions that hinder collective well-
being (Hațegan, 2019a). Thus, philosophical practice serves as a
crucial method for transforming existence and healing societal
ills. It is an experiential process of establishing relationships
through dialogue with oneself, others, and the world, continually
enhancing individual and social well-being (Bulatović,2014).
Despite increasing academic research over the past twenty
years, a comprehensive overview of philosophical practice—
including its methodologies and applications—is lacking. Such an
overview is crucial for advancing the field, bridging gaps between
cultural traditions, and enhancing its effectiveness. Given varying
historical and cultural contexts, different countries face unique
problems and solutions.
Western philosophical practice, rooted in the intellectual tra-
ditions of ancient Greece and Europe, emphasizes analytical
reasoning, individualism, and the Socratic method of questioning.
Practitioners focus on enhancing critical thinking, promoting
personal autonomy, and addressing ethical dilemmas. Key figures
include Pierre Hadot, who emphasized philosophy as a way of
life, and Lou Marinoff, known for his work in philosophical
counseling.
In contrast, Chinese philosophical practice, influenced by
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, stresses harmony,
community, and practical wisdom. It emphasizes the inter-
connectedness of individuals and their environment, promoting
balance and holistic well-being. Practitioners guide individuals
toward harmony with their surroundings and cultivate virtues
such as benevolence, righteousness, and filial piety. Notable
contributors include Tu Wei-ming and Cheng Chung-ying, who
have explored the application of Confucian principles in modern
life (Cheng, 1991; Tu, 1996).
Given these distinctions, this paper explores how different
cultural traditions influence philosophical practice and how a
more integrated approach can be developed. By examining both
Western and Chinese philosophies, we aim to provide a holistic
overview contributing to the advancement of philosophical
practice. This study utilizes CiteSpace to analyze literature data
from the CNKI and WOS databases, combining qualitative and
quantitative methods to examine global research trends, clarifying
research trajectories and frontiers.
This paper aims to explore the following questions:
1. What are the key methodologies and applications of
philosophical practice in Western contexts?
2. How does Chinese philosophy inform and differ from
Western approaches to philosophical practice?
3. How can an integrated approach to philosophical practice,
incorporating both Western and Chinese traditions,
enhance its effectiveness and reach?
Philosophical practice, through both Western analytical
methods and Eastern holistic approaches, offers valuable tools for
personal development and problem-solving. By examining
methodologies and applications of both traditions, we aim to
highlight the potential for a more integrated and culturally sen-
sitive approach, enhancing the field’s effectiveness and broad-
ening its reach, making philosophical guidance more accessible
and relevant to diverse populations.
While this paper employs quantitative metrics, such as
publication counts, to identify trends, it recognizes that these
metrics may not fully capture the depth and impact of philo-
sophical ideas. Quantitative measures can overlook nuanced,
qualitative aspects of philosophical contributions that challenge
norms, provoke thought, and inspire cultural shifts. Relying
solely on quantitative data risks oversimplifying the complex-
ities of philosophical practice, which includes subtle argu-
mentation, critical debates, and long-term influences beyond
immediate numerical data. To address these limitations, we
integrate qualitative evaluations with quantitative metrics,
examining arguments, their reception, and their broader cul-
tural and intellectual impact. This balanced approach empha-
sizes the unique nature of philosophical practice and highlights
its profound, often immeasurable contributions to human
thought and culture.
Research design
This study utilizes data from the Web of Science (WOS) and
China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases and
employs CiteSpace software to analyze global research trends in
philosophical practice. Building on this analysis, we compare
philosophical practice research between China and the West
across four dimensions: theoretical culture, practical application,
social impact, and professional development. We explore com-
monalities and complementary potentials between Chinese and
Western approaches, offering both theoretical comparisons and
demonstrating practical applications through specific case studies,
thereby enhancing the practical value and real-world significance
of the findings.
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Research content. First, we analyze global trends and hotspots in
philosophical practice using CiteSpace. This involves statistical
analysis of research trends, institutional collaborations, author
collaborations, keyword co-occurrence, keyword clustering, and
burst terms to elucidate the evolution and key focus areas within
the field.
Second, after literature review, we compare Chinese and
Western philosophical practice by examining the differences and
commonalities in theoretical culture, practical application, social
impact, and professional development, drawing on global
research trends and specific content.
Third, we explore cross-cultural dissemination and integration.
In the context of global philosophical convergence, we investigate
how to achieve cross-cultural dissemination of philosophical
practice, fostering integration and complementarity between
Chinese and Western approaches. We also suggest potential
future research directions.
Research methods. Firstly, we employed bibliometric analysis,
focusing on journal articles related to philosophical practice from
the CNKI and WOS databases. Using software like Excel and
Word, we tabulated data on publication volume, authors, insti-
tutions, journals, citations, keywords, and word frequency. Cite-
Space was then used to visualize these data, creating knowledge
maps for deeper analysis.
Furthermore, we conducted a literature review, collecting,
identifying, and organizing literature related to philosophical
practice from libraries, CNKI, WOS, and other online platforms.
Through comprehensive reading and synthesis of existing
research, we gained a comprehensive understanding of current
research directions in philosophical practice.
Finally, we utilized case study analysis, conducting comparative
analyses of specific cases of philosophical practice in Chinese and
Western contexts. This approach highlights the characteristics
and outcomes of philosophical practice across different cultural
and social backgrounds.
We used CiteSpace 6.2 software to analyze research trends in
philosophical practice. Using the WOS and CNKI databases as data
sources, we retrieved literature from 2000 to 2024 (up to February 20,
2024) using keywords such as “Philosophical Practice,”“Philosophical
Counseling,”“Clinical Philosophy,”“Philosophical Consultation,”and
“Philosophical Therapy.”The search yielded 224 valid samples from
CNKI and 306 from WOS, providing a basis for analyzing global
research trends. It is important to note that due to software
limitations, there may be omissions or incomplete analyses,
potentially leading to minor biases in the results.
Analysis of research hotspots in philosophical practice
Results
Publication volume and trends. Figure 1shows the number of
publications on CNKI and WOS from 2000 to 2024. From WOS,
306 pieces of literature were selected, comprising 235 articles, 14
book reviews, 8 book chapters, 11 proceedings papers, 11 editorial
materials, 18 early access items, 6 reviews, and 3 news items.
From CNKI, 224 pieces of literature were selected, including 196
articles, 25 dissertations, and 3 proceedings papers. Overall, the
publication volume exhibits an upward trend, indicating
increasing academic interest in philosophical practice. However,
the growth rate on CNKI is noticeably lower than on WOS.
Temporally, the trends on both platforms are generally aligned:
2000–2011: This period marks the nascent stage of research in
philosophical practice, with relatively few publications, indicating
limited engagement.
Post-2012: There is a noticeable increase in publication
volume, likely influenced by recurring International Conference
on Philosophical Practice (ICPP) events, which have garnered
academic attention and spurred research. For example, the 11th
ICPP and the 4th International Conference on Humanities
Therapy held at Kangwon National University, South Korea, in
2012, and the 12th ICPP in Serbia in 2014 significantly
contributed to the surge in research outputs.
The 24th World Congress of Philosophy in 2018 further
inspired new research in the field, leading to an uptick in
publication volume. The 25th World Congress of Philosophy in
Rome in 2024 is expected to continue this trend, driving further
research developments.
However, as noted by a reviewer, Fig. 1shows a significant
decrease in publications since 2019, influenced by several factors.
The global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted
academic and research activities, with many researchers,
especially female academics with children, facing challenges such
as limited resource access, adjustments to remote work, and
increased personal responsibilities, likely affecting their produc-
tivity across various fields (Deryugina et al. 2021; Wigginton et al.
2020). Additionally, the natural ebb and flow of academic
publishing may contribute, as the community experiences cycles
of increased and decreased activity due to factors like funding
availability, institutional priorities, and the maturation of specific
research areas.
Overall, the field of philosophical practice is experiencing
steady growth, fueled by international conferences and societal
demand, showcasing its promising future.
Author collaboration. Analyzing authorship provides insight into
the scholarly landscape of the field and helps identify whether a
core group of authors has emerged. Price’s Law, an important
principle in scientometrics, describes the distribution of author
productivity and is a key method for defining core authors. It is
expressed by the formula MP¼0:749 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
NPmax
p, where M
P
is
the minimum number of papers that core authors should have
published, and N
Pmax
is the number of papers published by the
most prolific author during the study period (Ding, 1992). Using
this method, we can identify active authors in this domain.
As shown in Fig. 2, in WOS, we analyzed 306 papers from 2000
to 2024. The most prolific author published nine papers, so
N
Pmax
=9. Substituting into Price’s Law yields
MP¼0:749 ffiffiffi
9
p2:247, indicating that authors with two or
more publications are considered core authors. There are 40 core
authors, including Sandu Frunza, Bernard Li, Xiaojun Ding, Elliot
D. Cohen, Lou Marinoff, Peter Harteloh, and Peter B. Raabe.
Sandu Frunza focuses on ethics, philosophy of religion, cultural
identity, and communication theory. Bernard Li, a former
president of Fu Jen Catholic University, established a philoso-
phical practice team at the university and proposed the C.I.S.A.
theory, emphasizing philosophical practice with Chinese cultural
characteristics (Ding et al. 2024b).
Similarly, as shown in Fig. 3, in CNKI, we analyzed 224 papers
from 2000 to 2024. The most prolific author published ten papers,
so N
pmax
=10. Substituting into the formula yields
MP¼0:749 ffiffiffiffiffi
10
p2:369, indicating that authors with two or
more publications are core authors. There are 31 core authors,
including Tianqun Pan, Xiaojun Ding, Hong Chen, Xisheng
Wang, Longxiang Luo, Yan Gong, and Feng Yu. Tianqun Pan is a
prominent figure in Chinese philosophical practice and the
founder of the “Nanjing circle,”actively exploring the application
of philosophy in everyday life. Pan established the Thought
Analysis Laboratory at Nanjing University and developed the
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“Thought Analysis”model of philosophical practice based on
analytic philosophy. He has also focused on the theoretical
research and practical exploration of philosophy for children in
education, founding the Philosophy for Children Society in
Jiangsu Province in 2021 to promote its development. Xiaojun
Ding proposed the “Analytic Philosophical Practice”method,
with research spanning technology ethics, moral psychology,
experimental philosophy, epistemology, logic and critical think-
ing. She is a core author in both CNKI and WOS, significantly
contributing to the practical application of philosophy and
international academic exchange.
Overall, examining author collaboration in CNKI and WOS
reveals that most collaborations are between individuals or small
research groups, with limited intergroup cooperation. Enhancing
author collaboration will benefit the development of the
discipline.
Institutional collaboration. Understanding the current state of
research institutions and their collaborative efforts in this field is
crucial for identifying future collaboration directions and foster-
ing in-depth research. In WOS, there are 247 network nodes
connected by 113 lines; in CNKI, there are 171 nodes connected
Fig. 1 Journal publication volume from 2000 to 2023 on CNKI (retrieved on February 20, 2024) and WOS (retrieved on February 21, 2024).
Fig. 2 WOS author collaboration network.
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Fig. 3 CNKI author collaboration network.
Fig. 4 WOS institutional collaboration network.
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by 51 lines. The node colors represent the time distribution of
publications by institutions, and the link colors indicate the year
of first collaboration between institutions.
As shown in Fig. 4, the top five institutions in terms of
publication volume on WOS are South Ural State University,
Babeș-Bolyai University, West University of Timișoara, Fu Jen
Catholic University, and the University of Belgrade. Fu Jen
Catholic University has established both master’s and doctoral
programs in philosophical practice.
Figure 5illustrates that in CNKI, scholars have begun to form a
networked collaboration model centered around Nanjing Uni-
versity and Anhui University. Nanjing University, Anhui
University, and Anhui Normal University are the leading
institutions with the highest publication volumes, demonstrating
strong leadership and authority in the field. Since 2012, faculty
and students from these universities have formed the “Nanjing
circle,”regularly meeting to discuss topics related to philosophical
practice. Additionally, the “Thought Analysis Laboratory”and the
“Nanjing Philosophy Tea House”have been established succes-
sively at Nanjing University.
Research hotspots
Keyword co-occurrence analysis. Keyword co-occurrence analysis
reveals frequently appearing terms within a specific timeframe,
highlighting high-interest topics and trends in a research field.
Figure 6displays a network with 212 nodes and 279 connections
(density =0.0125). Notable high-frequency keywords in WOS
include “Philosophical Practice,”“Philosophical Counseling,”
“Spiritual Exercises,”and “Philosophical Dialogue,”indicating
strong scholarly interest in philosophical practice. The promi-
nence of “Spiritual Exercises”and “Philosophical Dialogue”sug-
gests an emphasis on philosophical practice as a form of spiritual
exercise involving genuine, open dialogue for mental and spiritual
healing. This focus may also reflect an over-reliance on traditional
dialogue and spiritual practices, potentially overlooking other
effective methods.
Figure 7presents a network with 207 nodes and 316
connections (density =0.0148). High-frequency keywords in
CNKI include “Philosophical Counseling,”“Philosophical Prac-
tice,”“Philosophical Therapy,”and “Psychological Counseling.”
The prevalence of “Philosophical Counseling”and “Philosophical
Practice”underscores the extensive research in the field. The
presence of “Psychological Counseling”suggests CNKI scholars
concentrate on applying philosophical practice within psychology
and making comparisons, potentially overlooking its applications
in other domains.
As shown in Table 1, keywords with centrality greater than 0.1
play strong bridging roles in cross-disciplinary research. In WOS,
the top three keywords by centrality are “Philosophical Counsel-
ing,”“Philosophical Practice,”and “Applied Ethics.”The
prominence of “Applied Ethics”highlights its crucial role in
providing a theoretical framework for philosophical practice,
utilizing theories such as deontology and consequentialism to
assist individuals in making rational choices in complex moral
contexts (Hațegan, 2019a).
In CNKI, the top three keywords by centrality are “Philoso-
phical Counseling,”“Psychological Counseling,”and “Dialogue,”
indicating well-established fundamental methods and interdisci-
plinary support in philosophical practice research. “Dialogue”
aids individuals in understanding and reconstructing dysfunc-
tional values and beliefs, while “Psychological Counseling”
complements philosophical practice with emotional support,
behavior modification, and cognitive restructuring (Šulavikova,
2013).
The analysis shows that “Philosophical Counseling”and
“Philosophical Practice”in WOS encompass broad domains,
Fig. 5 CNKI institutional collaboration network.
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often focusing on how concepts like “Anxiety”and “Happiness”
influence therapeutic outcomes. These practices aim to transform
clients’lives by addressing fundamental needs, hopes, and
anxieties, thereby enhancing their pursuit of happiness and
wisdom (Lahav, 2006). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a
staple in psychotherapy for treating anxiety, anger, and depres-
sion, integrates well with philosophical counseling, based on the
belief that emotional responses stem from perceptions and beliefs
rather than events themselves (Díaz and Murguia, 2015).
Supported by Stoicism and Daoism, CBT enriches philosophical
counseling by deepening the understanding of cognition and
emotion. “Applied Ethics,”another key area, has evolved from
academia to real-world applications, offering methodological
guidance and expanding philosophical practice to address real-life
moral dilemmas through ethical reflection (Marinoff, 2001).
Both CNKI and discussions on “Chinese Philosophy”highlight
“Practical Wisdom”as a central theme. Philosophical counseling
reinterprets the ancient love of wisdom to provide rational
thought patterns for practical activities (Zhang, 2015). This
reflective practice enhances life satisfaction by engaging with
ethics, personal cultivation, and life’s philosophical questions,
drawing from Chinese philosophical traditions. Furthermore,
both WOS and CNKI emphasize the importance of “Analytic
Philosophy”in philosophical practice, where practitioners use
logical analysis to clarify concepts and solve problems (Pan,
2013). “Dialogue,”a pivotal tool in philosophical counseling,
facilitates self-reflection and interpersonal communication,
fostering personal transformation through thoughtful exchanges
that promote deeper self-awareness.
Keyword clustering analysis. Keyword clustering analysis cate-
gorizes knowledge domains, providing deeper insights into
research hotspots. A Q-value (modularity) greater than 0.3
indicates significant clustering, while an S-value (weighted aver-
age silhouette) greater than 0.5 indicates reasonable clustering;
S> 0.7 indicates efficient and convincing clustering.
Figure 8shows that WOS analysis identified nine clusters with
a modularity Q=0.8441 and an average silhouette S=0.928,
demonstrating effective clustering. Leading cluster labels include
“Philosophical Counseling,”“Philosophical Practice,”“Critical
Thinking,”“Care of the Self,”and “Art of Living.”This reflects
scholars’focus on philosophical practice as a guiding worldview
and philosophy of life, emphasizing critical thinking, attention to
lifestyle, moral decision-making, and life’s meaning. Philosophical
practice aims for self-perfection and a fulfilled life by addressing
issues like freedom, responsibility, and happiness. The Stoics
described philosophy as an “art of living”(Sellars, 2018),
portraying it as a lifestyle fostering inner freedom through
managing emotions and desires, involving spiritual practices and
meditation to achieve inner peace (Preston, 2003).
Similarly, CNKI analysis identified 12 clusters (Fig. 9), with
modularity Q=0.8493 and average silhouette S=0.9334,
indicating effective clustering. Top cluster labels are “Philosophi-
cal Counseling,”“Philosophical Therapy,”“Psychological
Fig. 6 WOS keyword co-occurrence network.
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Counseling,”“Thought Counseling,”and “Confucius.”This
suggests CNKI scholars have explored the role of philosophical
practice in ideological and political education, mental health, and
integrating traditional Chinese philosophy into research.
“Confucius”is the only cluster label representing a Chinese
philosophical school, highlighting the dominant role of Con-
fucian thought in Chinese philosophical practice research.
However, there is a lack of attention to other Chinese
Fig. 7 CNKI keyword co-occurrence network.
Table 1 Top 11 high-centrality keywords in WOS and CNKI.
WOS CNKI
Keywords Frequency Centrality Keywords Frequency Centrality
Philosophical Practice 64 0.51 哲学咨询
Philosophical Counseling
75 0.7
Philosophical Counseling 49 0.51 心理咨询
Psychological Counseling
19 0.66
Critical Thinking 7 0.1 对话
Dialogue
11 0.63
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 5 0.1 哲学治疗
Philosophical Therapy
31 0.57
Ethics 3 0.08 思想分析
Thought Analysis
13 0.28
African Philosophy 2 0.08 哲学实践
Philosophical Practice
8 0.28
Applied Philosophy 6 0.05 心理治疗
Psychotherapy
7 0.26
Lou Marinoff 3 0.05 哲学基础
Philosophical Foundation
2 0.2
Clinical Philosophy 5 0.04 思想咨商
Thought Counseling
18 0.19
Care of the Self 5 0.04 孔子
Confucius
5 0.19
Anxiety 2 0.02 哲学践行
Philosophical Practice
32 0.17
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philosophical schools; future research could explore contributions
from other traditions.
Keyword timeline analysis. While keyword co-occurrence and
clustering identify core research themes, they lack a temporal
dimension. To address this, we employ keyword timeline
mapping.
Figure 10 shows that terms like “Attribution Theory”and
“Clinical Psychology”appeared early in WOS, indicating initial
research in clinical psychology and recognition of philosophical
practice’s importance in this field. Attribution theory helps
understand how individuals explain behaviors, while clinical
psychology offers psychological intervention techniques. Com-
bining these with philosophical practice provides a comprehen-
sive approach to mental health services. Themes like
“Philosophical Practice,”“Philosophical Counseling,”and “Cri-
tical Thinking”have a long research span, highlighting philoso-
phical practice as a field with a solid theoretical foundation and
broad practical application, reflecting its sustainability and
potential. WOS scholars integrate philosophy’s critical power
into daily life, viewing it not just as theoretical but as a critical
approach to life’s problems, emphasizing the dual nature of
philosophical practice as unifying and transcendent, yet critical
and experimental.
Figure 11 shows that the early emergence of “Philosophical
Foundation”research in CNKI indicates Chinese scholars’focus
on constructing philosophical bases. Extended research on
“Philosophical Counseling”and “Psychotherapy”demonstrates
sustained interest in the relationship between philosophical
practice and psychotherapy, emphasizing that fundamental
psychological issues remain deeply intertwined with philosophical
inquiry. Though Western and Chinese philosophical practice
research exhibit different developmental paths, both predomi-
nantly focus on psychological counseling and therapy, lacking
practical applications in other fields and not fully integrating
interdisciplinary methods and perspectives.
Keyword burst analysis. To understand the evolution of
research interests and predict future hotspots, we conducted a
keyword burst analysis. Figure 12 shows 14 burst terms in
WOS. The term with the highest burst strength is “Pierre
Hadot”(2020–2022), coinciding with the COVID-19 pan-
demic. During this period, Hadot’sconceptsof“philosophy as
awayoflife”and “spiritual exercises”were extensively studied
(Hadot, 1995,1998). His work reinterpreted ancient philoso-
phy as vital practice and lifestyle, prompting scholars to
explore new ways of living and spiritual support during the
pandemic.
Fig. 8 WOS keyword clustering network.
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“Clinical Philosophy”has the longest burst duration
(2010–2018), indicating enduring relevance and broad applic-
ability. The most recent burst term is “Philosophical Health.”
Health is a crucial public issue, included in the UN’s 2030
Sustainable Development Goals as “Good Health and Well-
being.”Michel Foucault introduced “philosophical health”in the
1980s, tracing its roots to Plato and Socrates’concept of
“epimeleia heautou”, or care for the soul (Gros et al. 2005).
“Philosophical health”is increasingly recognized in healthcare as
a vital complement to physical and psychological well-being. de
Miranda (2021a,2021b) describes it as a productive alignment
between an individual’s (or collective’s) thinking, speech, and
behavior, enhancing the potential for a noble life and fulfilling the
need for self and interpersonal flourishing. de Miranda (2021a)
introduces “crealectics,”a method of philosophical health
counseling designed to help individuals realize their potential
and creatively engage with life’s challenges.
Unlike psychological health, which focuses on symptomatic
relief and functional improvements, philosophical health explores
deeper existential questions. It promotes holistic integration of
personal values, actions, and reflections, encouraging individuals
to confront and embrace their life narratives. This approach aims
for transformative changes in worldview and lifestyle, surpassing
the limitations of traditional psychological practices (de Miranda,
2021a). Sylvia Martin (2023) notes that CBT increasingly
incorporates values to enhance motivation and support sustained
well-being.
Figure 13 shows keyword bursts in CNKI, where “Philosophi-
cal Counseling”has the highest burst strength. The most recent
burst term is “Thought Counseling,”a concept introduced by
Xisheng Wang, defined as an activity aimed at resolving
ideological knots and alleviating spiritual distress (Wang, 2018).
Analyzing the duration of keyword bursts, “Psychotherapy”has
the longest duration, from 2003 to 2011.
Literature review
This literature review provides a comprehensive overview of the
research and theoretical foundations relevant to philosophical
practice. It examines the historical development, methodologies,
applications, and relationship of philosophical practice with
psychotherapy. By systematically reviewing the literature, we aim
to elucidate the current state of the field and identify gaps that
this research addresses.
Goals and values of philosophical practice. Philosophical prac-
tice applies philosophical theories and methods to everyday life,
aiming to resolve cognitive dilemmas, shape life philosophies, and
establish personal value systems (Amir, 2004; Marinoff, 1999,
2001; Ouyang, 2012; Pan, 2021). Tianqun Pan advocates “thought
analysis,”combining Socratic dialogue with logical analysis to
alleviate cognitive-induced suffering and help individuals achieve
better lives in the technosociety (Pan, 2021). Lou Marinoff sug-
gests that many modern mental issues stem from deep existential
problems, value conflicts, and the search for life’s meaning rather
than biochemical imbalances. He challenges traditional mental
health interventions, demonstrating how philosophical ideas can
address psychological problems and enhance mental well-being
(Marinoff, 1999).
Fig. 9 CNKI keyword clustering network.
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Qian Ouyang views philosophical practice as practical
philosophy that revitalizes the “spiritual healing”function of
philosophy (Ouyang, 2012). Fostering critical thinking is also a
key objective, emphasized by scholars like Xiaojun Ding, Oscar
Brenifier, Blanka Šulavíková, and Guido Brivio. Ding et al. (2022)
advocate using Socratic dialogue to cultivate critical thinking,
viewing philosophical practice as a dialectical process that
examines and exposes ineffective thinking patterns leading to
false or inconsistent beliefs, thereby avoiding logical fallacies.
Brenifier and Gong (2013) promote dialogue-centered critical
analysis to guide self-reflection, uncover hidden assumptions, and
resolve logical contradictions, helping individuals develop logical
thinking skills to tackle complex problems.
Šulavíková (2011) explores the central role of critical thinking
in philosophical practice, particularly through Socratic dialogue,
to achieve an understanding of truth (Ollinheimo and
Hakkarainen, 2023). Moreover, philosophical practice is con-
sidered crucial for achieving humanistic care in ideological and
political education, as discussed by Xisheng Wang (2014,2018),
Yuanji Huang (2011), and Yan Wang (2015). The core of
humanistic care lies in value care, aiming to alleviate spiritual
crises characterized by loss of meaning and misdirected value
pursuits. To address these issues, Xisheng Wang proposes
“thought counseling”to resolve intellectual dilemmas, relieve
spiritual distress, and enhance the effectiveness of ideological and
political education (Wang, 2014,2018).
Additionally, philosophical practice serves as an art of living,
guiding individuals in pursuing a meaningful and examined life.
By adopting philosophical principles that promote personal
growth, ethical behavior, and emotional balance, it seeks to
enhance overall well-being and autonomy.
Intellectual resources and historical development of philoso-
phical practice. Since its speed development in the 1980s, phi-
losophical practice has evolved significantly. Early pioneers like
Gerd B. Achenbach in Germany and Adriaan Hoogendijk in the
Netherlands established philosophical counseling as a distinct
discipline, emphasizing the practical application of philosophical
insights to everyday problems and distinguishing it from tradi-
tional academic philosophy.
Philosophical practice draws from a rich array of intellectual
resources. Its Western origins are rooted in ancient Greek and
Roman philosophy, focusing on Socrates (Chen, 2014; Weiss and
Ohrem, 2016), Plato (Holger, 2017), Aristotle (Chen, 2024; Li,
2010), Epicureanism (Fatićand Dentsoras, 2014), and Stoicism
(Ding, 2018; Mesaroș,2020). Some scholars interpret philoso-
phical practice through the lens of traditional Chinese philosophy
(Ding and Yu, 2020; Su, 2011), including teachings of Confucius
(Chen and Ni, 2016; Cheng, 2021; Feng and Huang, 2009; Lv,
2004), Laozi (Guo, 2023; Lahav, 1996), and Zhuangzi (Wang,
2015; Yang, 2020). Ding et al. (2024a) explore integrating
Confucian principles of self-cultivation into contemporary
philosophical practice, emphasizing the combined application of
“gongfu”(effort) and “jingjie”(spiritual state) to achieve unity of
knowledge and action.
Lv (2007) combines Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Therapy
and Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy with Daoist concepts such as
adapting to nature, accepting circumstances, and recognizing
the interdependence of fortune and misfortune to address
anxiety and depression. Additionally, some scholars incorpo-
rate religious perspectives into philosophical practice, drawing
on Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, and other traditions to enrich its
intellectual resources (Casewell, 2022;Devarakonda,2023;Hsu,
Fig. 10 WOS keyword timeline knowledge map.
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2011; Pilpel and Gindi, 2019;Xu,2018). Devarakonda (2023)
discusses the application of two ancient Jain philosophical
doctrines—“Anekāntavāda”(theory of multiple perspectives)
and “Syādvāda”(theory of conditioned viewpoints)—in philo-
sophical counseling to address cognitive biases and limited
rationality. Comparative studies of different philosophical
traditions further enrich the discourse (Lai and Zhang, 2013;
Su, 2020).
Diverse methods and models of philosophical practice. Philo-
sophical practice employs diverse methodologies reflecting varied
Fig. 11 CNKI keyword timeline knowledge map.
Fig. 12 WOS keyword burst knowledge map.
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philosophical traditions and approaches. Common methods
include Socratic dialogue, phenomenological analysis, and exis-
tential questioning, aiming to foster self-reflection and critical
thinking, enabling individuals to gain deeper insights into their
lives and challenges.
Various scholars have proposed different methods and forms
of philosophical practice. Representative approaches include the
“Beyond-Method”method (Achenbach, 1998), the PEACE
process (Marinoff, 1999), the FITT method (Raabe, 2001),
Logotherapy (Frankl, 2005), the “Worldview Interpretation”
method (Lahav, 1995), Logic-Based Therapy (Cohen, 2013), the
“Analytic Philosophical Practice”method (Ding and Yu, 2018),
“Thought Analysis”(Pan, 2021), “Thought Counseling”(Yang,
2015), and the C.I.S.A theory (Li, 2007).
Philosophical practice also encompasses various forms such as
philosophical cafés (Ding, 2019; Grosso, 2002; Harteloh, 2019;
Sautet, 1995), philosophy for children (Daniel and Auriac, 2011;
Juuso, 2007; Milea, 2017; Wei, 2015), and philosophical walks
(Harteloh, 2013a). France, the birthplace of the philosophical
café, inspired Huiling Wang from Inner Mongolia University to
establish China’sfirst university-based philosophical café in 2017.
Dutch philosopher Peter Harteloh further developed the concept
of philosophical walks, positing that walking is not merely
physical but an exploration of the mind. Through walking,
selecting routes, and engaging in dialogue, philosophical walks
foster interaction with nature and society, stimulating profound
philosophical reflection. An example is a philosophical walk held
at Nanjing University in 2013 (Harteloh, 2021), incorporating
contemplation, questioning, and conceptualization to establish
the relationship between concepts, philosophical wisdom,
and place.
The SMILE_PH method (Sense-Making Interviews Looking at
Elements of Philosophical Health) is a semi-structured inter-
viewing technique developed by Luis de Miranda to explore
individuals’philosophical dimensions. Grounded in the broader
philosophical health framework, it integrates personal philoso-
phies and worldviews into care practices, emphasizing alignment
of actions, beliefs, and intellectual pursuits with well-being (de
Miranda, 2021b,2021c,2022). Inspired by de Miranda’s
experiences in philosophical counseling, SMILE_PH addresses
the epistemic challenges of traditional interviews, which often
lack structure for eliciting deep philosophical insights (de
Miranda, 2023). Focusing on phenomenological data points
such as bodily sense, sense of self, belonging, possibility, purpose,
and philosophical sense, it deepens understanding of how
individuals construct meaning, especially when facing life-
altering conditions like spinal cord injuries (de Miranda et al.
2023). By moving away from rigid qualitative methodologies,
SMILE_PH fosters dynamic co-creation of meaning, respecting
the complexity of human philosophical and existential experi-
ences, enhancing data quality with nuanced insights, and
aligning with person-centered care principles that advocate for
an integrated understanding of health and well-being beyond
physical and psychological dimensions (de Miranda and
Loughlin, 2023).
While some practitioners propose structured methods, this
assumption is not universally accepted. Raabe (2001) argues that
the field has yet to reach a consensus on whether specific methods
are necessary or if there should be a single definitive method.
Gerd B. Achenbach argues against the necessity of any specific
method, contending that philosophical practice should be flexible
and adaptable, emphasizing free, open-ended dialogue that
responds to the unique needs of each individual (Achenbach
et al. 1984). He believes that rigid adherence to a particular
method can constrain the dynamic and exploratory nature of
philosophical inquiry. Acknowledging these differing perspec-
tives, our exploration considers both the benefits of methodical
approaches and the arguments for a more fluid, individualized
practice, allowing for a broader understanding of how philoso-
phical practice can be effectively conducted across various
traditions and preferences.
Applications of philosophical practice in psychotherapy and
other fields. Philosophical practice, in conjunction with psy-
chotherapy, is gaining increasing academic attention. Applied in
individual counseling, group workshops, and organizational
consulting, practitioners address issues ranging from personal
Fig. 13 CNKI keyword burst knowledge map.
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existential crises to ethical dilemmas in professional settings. This
versatility enhances its relevance and impact across a broad
audience.
While philosophical practice shares similarities with psy-
chotherapy, particularly in personal development and problem-
solving, key differences exist. Philosophical practice emphasizes
philosophical reasoning and dialogue, whereas psychotherapy
often focuses on psychological theories and therapeutic techni-
ques. Understanding these differences is crucial for defining the
unique contributions of philosophical practice.
Scholars differentiate between philosophical practice and psy-
chotherapy based on concepts, theoretical foundations, objectives,
methods, and target audiences (Dâlcu, 2022;Fischer,2011; Sivil,
2009; Valencia Magallón, 2019;Wei,2013;Yang,2015;Yu,2010).
Some argue that philosophical counseling is more effective than
psychological counseling in clarifying clients’confused belief systems
or providing better beliefs (Li, 2015a). Harteloh (2023)notesthat
philosophical practice transcends traditional psychotherapy by
focusing on resolving life’s philosophical issues through dialogue,
rather than merely treating psychological disorders. Other scholars
view philosophical counseling and psychotherapy as complementary
(Cohen and Ding, 2013;Hațegan, 2019b;Liu,2015;ZhouandLiu,
2009). However, there is debate over whether philosophical
counseling can be considered a form of therapy (Šulavíková, 2012).
In recent years, traditional philosophy has been directly
integrated into psychotherapy. Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive
Behavior Therapy (REBT), a cognitive therapy, draws from
Buddhist and Daoist traditions as well as Western Stoicism (Ellis
and Harper, 1997; Murguia and Díaz, 2015). Beyond psychother-
apy, philosophical practice has been applied in fields such as
higher education (Huang, 2014; Yu, 2021), business (Hațegan,
2019a), social media (Katinićand Janes, 2021), sports education
(Mareš,2019), pastoral counseling (Hațegan, 2021; Louw, 2011),
and judicial mediation (Acharya, 2023).
Moreover, advancements in science and technology have
created unprecedented relationships between people and between
humans and technology. The rise of artificial intelligence, big
data, and biotechnology has introduced new ethical challenges,
becoming a recent focus in philosophical practice. Scholars are
exploring the goals, principles, mechanisms, and roles of
humanities therapy in this hyperconnected era, examining how
philosophical practice, guided by various philosophical theories,
can address issues related to well-being, identity, and ethics
without relying on medical approaches. This ensures that
technological advancements align with fundamental human
values and ethical standards. For instance, Frunză(2021) analyzes
how philosophical practice in the digital era can leverage social
networks and personal branding. Sharpe (2021) asserts that the
wisdom of the Stoic Sage remains a source of orientation,
contestation, and inspiration for contemporary individuals in
times of crisis, such as the pandemic.
Comparative analysis of philosophical practice between
China and the West
While global research trends in philosophical practice reveal
common hotspots across cultures, significant differences exist
between Chinese and Western philosophical practice in theore-
tical culture, practical application, social impact, and professional
development. This section compares these aspects to gain a
deeper understanding of their development in China and
the West.
Commonalities in Chinese and Western philosophical practice.
A primary goal of philosophical practice in both China and the
West is to enhance self-awareness, including understanding one’s
motivations, emotions, and values. The Stoics, particularly
Seneca, emphasized understanding one’s nature and living
according to it, underscoring the belief that aligning with the
rational order of the universe leads to tranquility and virtue
(Irvine, 2008). These insights guide individuals toward internal
harmony and resilience in facing life’s challenges—a core aspect
of philosophical practice across cultures.
Dialogue serves as a crucial bridge in philosophical practice
worldwide. Through conversations with a philosophical practi-
tioner, individuals can express and explore their thoughts and
feelings, gaining deeper self-insight and clarity about their life
goals and meaning. Additionally, both Chinese and Western
philosophical practice involve moral evaluations of personal
behavior, judgments of right and wrong, and guidance on making
ethical decisions in complex social environments. This ethical
dimension distinguishes philosophical practice from pure psy-
chological counseling, providing a solid foundation for interna-
tional exchange and the development of the field.
Comparative analysis of philosophical practice between China
and the West
Theoretical culture
Western philosophical practice: Western philosophical practice is
rooted in ancient Greek, modern, and contemporary philoso-
phical traditions, along with developments in psychology. Stoi-
cism emphasizes rational control over emotions and acceptance
of life’s hardships, aiding individuals in managing stress and
fostering psychological resilience (Ding et al. 2023). Epicureanism
focuses on individual happiness by pursuing pleasure and mini-
mizing pain, reducing unnecessary desires and fears (Bergsma
et al. 2008; Zhao and Chen, 2018).
In the modern era, Kant’s moral philosophy, particularly his
concepts of practical reason and the categorical imperative, guides
individuals in proper conduct and respect for others’freedom and
dignity (Herrera, 2023). Contemporary existentialist ideas from
Sartre, Nietzsche, and Heidegger emphasize individual freedom,
choice, and the search for meaning, assisting people in
confronting life’s uncertainties (de Beauvoir, 2020). Phenomen-
ology and hermeneutics, as developed by Husserl, Heidegger, and
Gadamer, focus on the subjectivity of human experience and deep
interpretation, useful in exploring individual feelings to under-
stand worldviews and life attitudes (Linhares, 2016).
The interplay between thought and existence has been pivotal
in Western philosophy since Descartes’assertion “Cogito, ergo
sum”(“I think, therefore I am”), highlighting the tension between
the internal realm of the mind and external reality. Philosophical
practice seeks to bridge this division by enhancing cognitive and
spiritual agency, enabling individuals to engage critically with
their existence. Notably, Descartes practiced early philosophical
counseling in his correspondence with Princess Elisabeth,
addressing existential queries resembling modern psychother-
apeutic consultations (Mochizuki and Harteloh, 2019).
Western philosophical practice also draws from sources
beyond traditional academic philosophy, including ancient Greek
philosophers, non-academic thinkers, and modern theorists.
Socrates’method of elenchus (critical questioning) and his focus
on ethical self-examination form a cornerstone of philosophical
counseling and dialogue (Brickhouse and Smith, 1994). The
Stoics’emphasis on rationality and virtue, and Epicurus’
teachings on the pursuit of happiness through moderation,
provide practical frameworks for living a philosophical life (Long
and Sedley, 1987). Non-academic philosophers like Michel de
Montaigne and Friedrich Nietzsche have shaped philosophical
practice by encouraging reflective and self-critical approaches to
life (Kaufmann, 1950; Screech, 1991).
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Pierre Hadot’s work is pivotal in understanding philosophical
practice, highlighting how ancient philosophical exercises can be
applied to modern life (Hadot, 1995). Michel Foucault’s concept
of “practices of the self”explores self-transformation through
philosophical reflection (Foucault, 1988). Analytic philosophy,
with its focus on logic and language, contributes to philosophical
practice by aiding in concept clarification and logical analysis
(Wittgenstein, 1953; Wang, 2020a). Existentialism offers insights
into human existence, freedom, and authenticity (Heidegger,
1962; Sartre, 1943), while postmodern thinkers like Derrida and
Foucault provide critical perspectives on power, knowledge, and
social structures (Calcagno, 2009).
Chinese philosophical practice: Chinese philosophical practice
draws from both Western theoretical foundations and indigenous
traditions like Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. Chinese
scholars introduce Western classics through translations and
reviews, enriching perspectives on the history, theories, methods,
and mechanisms of philosophical practice. Confucianism
emphasizes values like “ren”(benevolence) and “li”(ritual pro-
priety). Confucius’concepts of “restraining oneself and returning
to propriety”and “seeking within oneself”advocate adherence to
social norms and self-reflection to understand and fulfill social
roles (Du, 2014). Confucian principles have been deeply
embedded in education, governance, and social institutions,
promoting moral development and social harmony (Chen and
Ni, 2016; Cheng, 2021).
Daoism promotes “wu wei”(non-action), advocating a
contemplative approach to the world and living in harmony
with natural laws to achieve inner spiritual freedom, helping
individuals accept uncontrollable aspects of life and reduce
psychological stress (Butchart, 2022; Li, 2024). Buddhism’s theory
of dependent origination and emptiness aids in understanding
life’s phenomena, reducing attachment, and alleviating suffering
(He, 2022; Krause, 2024). Meditation and psychological adjust-
ment methods from these traditions are applied in philosophical
practice to purify the mind and enhance self-awareness.
Historically, Chinese philosophy evolved from abstract theori-
zation towards practicality, especially during the Ming and Qing
dynasties. Since the Self-Strengthening Movement in the late 19th
century, Chinese philosophy has integrated Western rational
elements while building on its rich traditional culture, contribut-
ing unique insights to global philosophical discourse (Guo, 2021).
Practical application
Western philosophical practice: Western philosophical practice
has developed innovative methods widely applied to personal
development and real-world problem-solving. Elliot D. Cohen’s
Logic-Based Therapy (LBT) identifies cognitive distortions like
overgeneralization and perfectionism, helping clients recognize
and correct illogical beliefs (Cohen, 2024). Lou Marinoff’s PEACE
process—Problem, Emotion, Analysis, Contemplation, Equili-
brium—systematically aids individuals in resolving life’s chal-
lenges (Marinoff, 1999). Peter Raabe’s four-stage method
facilitates personal growth through philosophical dialogue (Chen,
2018). Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy helps individuals find
meaning in life to cope with suffering (Frankl, 2006).
Oscar Brenifier emphasizes critical thinking and Socratic
dialogue to encourage questioning assumptions and exploring
deeper meanings (Brenifier, 2018; Vansieleghem, 2013). Lydia
Amir integrates humor into philosophical practice, highlighting
its therapeutic and transformative power (Amir, 2014;2019).
Institutions like the Centro Educativo para la Creación
Autónoma en Prácticas Filosóficas (CECAPFI) in Mexico foster
philosophical dialogue to address personal and social challenges
(D’Angelo, 2017).
Philosophical practice plays a vital role in medicine and law,
addressing issues such as rehabilitation, end-of-life decision-
making, justice, and fairness. Harteloh (2013b) presents a model
where philosophical consultations function similarly to medical
ones, using philosophical diagnoses to offer new perspectives. In
rehabilitation, philosophical practice aids patients in exploring
existential questions, providing motivation and a sense of purpose
(Levi, 2010).
Overall, Western “philosophical therapy”focuses on applying
philosophical theories to alleviate suffering and pursue happiness,
drawing from Epicurus and Wittgenstein (Brovkin, 2023;
Epicurus, 2004; Fischer, 2011; Wittgenstein, 1953).
Chinese philosophical practice: In China, philosophical practice is
in a phase of interpretation and evaluation, focusing on dialectical
explanations of Western methods while developing unique
approaches. Tianqun Pan’s“Thought Analysis”emphasizes
resolving issues by analyzing thought patterns (Pan, 2021), and
Xiaojun Ding’s“Analytic Philosophical Practice”focuses on
uncovering underlying assumptions (Ding and Yu, 2018).
Philosophical practice in China is prominently applied in
education. Xisheng Wang introduced “Thought Counseling”in
ideological and political education to enhance spiritual care of
students, proposing “narrative therapy”to help individuals
resolve intellectual dilemmas (Wang, 2020b). For example,
psychologist Guorong Wang used narrative therapy to help a
distressed real estate developer find inner peace through
immersive experiences in nature (Wang, 2010). Philosophical
practice also addresses family and social relationships, promoting
overall harmony (Zhou, 2021).
Social impact
Western philosophical practice: The social impact of philoso-
phical practice in the West reflects cultural emphases on self-
expression and self-actualization. Philosophical practice
encourages individuals to articulate their thoughts and pursue
personal growth, leading to greater self-awareness (Harteloh,
2013b). It advocates independent thinking and autonomy
through critical self-examination and dialogue, as seen in the
Socratic tradition and philosophical cafés where participants
engage in logical analysis and challenge social norms (Sautet,
1995).
Chinese philosophical practice: Chinese philosophical practice,
influenced by collectivism, emphasizes harmony, alignment with
nature, and social order. Individual identity and value are rea-
lized through roles within family and society, with “filial piety”
being a key virtue (Cheng, 2013;Han,2016;Qian,2005). Phi-
losophical practice teaches individuals to fulfill familial and
societal roles, fostering social cohesion and prioritizing collective
interests (Xiao and Ma, 2017). It balances personal development
with social responsibility, emphasizing the unity of rights and
obligations.
Preserving and transmitting traditional cultural values is
integral, deepening cultural identity and pride (Chen, 2023).
Corporations like Huawei incorporate classic Chinese philoso-
phical values into their culture, fostering internal unity and
navigating market changes with principles from Confucianism
and the Book of Changes (Rong, 2024; Zhang, 2018).
Professional development
Western philosophical practice: Western philosophical practice
has evolved into a mature, specialized field with institutional
support. Universities and professional colleges offer courses,
certifications, and degree programs. Organizations such as the
American Philosophical Practitioners Association (APPA) and
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the National Philosophical Counseling Association (NPCA)
promote development, establishing platforms like Philosophical
Practice (Journal of the APPA) and the International Journal of
Philosophical Practice for resource sharing and viewpoints
expression (Jin and Liu, 2019). Ethical guidelines and practice
standards are in place, and international collaboration enriches
the field.
Despite its development, challenges remain, including defining
boundaries with other counseling forms, improving public
recognition, and demonstrating effectiveness in addressing
personal and social issues.
Chinese philosophical practice: In China, philosophical practice is
relatively nascent but developing. Some universities offer related
courses, exploring applications of traditional philosophy to
modern issues. Although a recognized certification system is
lacking, professional training is emerging, primarily in education
and cultural heritage preservation. Challenges include public
awareness, a shortage of professionals, and unclear industry
standards (Huang, 2019; Li, 2015b). However, as society
emphasizes mental health and quality of life, philosophical
practice plays an increasing role in disseminating knowledge and
improving living standards (Ding and Yu, 2020). Public lectures,
media promotion, and online platforms are gradually bringing
philosophical practice into the public eye.
Discussion
The dialogue between Western and Chinese philosophical prac-
tice offers a rich exploration of differing methodologies and
cultural contexts. Central to this exchange is the distinctive
Western approach of one-to-one consultations, an individualized
form of philosophizing that represents a significant divergence
from traditional Chinese methods.
In Western philosophical practice, one-to-one consultations
provide a personalized space for individuals to delve deeply into
their thoughts, emotions, and philosophical inquiries. This
approach aligns with Western emphases on self-actualization and
independent thinking, facilitating unique avenues for self-
discovery and personal growth. In contrast, Chinese philosophi-
cal practice traditionally emphasizes collective harmony, social
order, and alignment with nature. Philosophical discourse often
occurs within communal or familial contexts, reflecting the col-
lectivist values embedded in Chinese culture.
The introduction of one-to-one consultations raises questions
about compatibility and adaptation within Chinese philosophical
practice. Can this individualized approach be effectively inte-
grated without undermining core principles of harmony and
social cohesion? Addressing this challenge invites practitioners to
creatively balance individual exploration with collective well-
being. Integrating one-to-one consultations could enrich Chinese
philosophical practice by adding a dimension of personal
engagement while respecting traditional values.
This ongoing dialogue between philosophical traditions opens
opportunities for mutual learning and adaptation. It encourages
Western practitioners to appreciate the value of collective har-
mony and social integration, while Chinese practitioners explore
the benefits of personalized philosophical inquiry. Ultimately, this
cross-cultural exchange may lead to a more holistic and versatile
approach to philosophical practice, benefiting individuals and
communities alike.
Convergence of Chinese and Western philosophical practice.
Integrating Chinese and Western philosophical practice is
essential in our globalized world, fostering cross-cultural under-
standing and cooperation. This integration expands horizons and
enhances practical capabilities by merging analytic and holistic
perspectives. Practitioners gain access to a richer array of tools
and methodologies, effectively addressing diverse issues while
improving cultural sensitivity and inclusivity.
Methodologically, Western philosophical practice emphasizes
individual freedom and will, assisting individuals in clarifying the
meaning of their life choices. Conversely, Chinese philosophical
practice, grounded in a holistic and fluid perspective, focuses on
societal harmony and improving interpersonal relationships as
pathways to personal moral cultivation (Qin, 2023). This approach
complements Western individualism and logical thinking, enabling
individuals to address personal dilemmas and establish healthy
lifestyles by considering both personal circumstances and societal
realities, leading to balanced and comprehensive judgments.
In moral and ethical applications, combining Western
normative ethics with Chinese role ethics enhances moral
decision-making and behavioral adjustment in social interactions
(Lee, 2021; Ramsey, 2016). This dual consideration of universal
norms and specific social roles helps individuals navigate moral
dilemmas. For example, integrating Confucian “benevolence”
(ren) with Aristotle’s virtue ethics emphasizes cultivating personal
virtues within the framework of social order and norms.
This approach encourages fulfilling social roles and moral
responsibilities to build a virtuous life, deeply understanding
“benevolence”and “virtue”through contemplation (Gelan, 2020;
Walsh, 2015).
Furthermore, the concept of the Golden Rule—treat others as
one would like to be treated—underlies “ren”and is transcultural
by nature. Originating in the Axial Age, this principle has been
foundational in various cultures. Immanuel Kant expanded on
this idea through his formulation of the Categorical Imperative,
emphasizing the universalizability of moral actions (Kant and
Schneewind, 2002). Recognizing the Golden Rule’s pervasive
influence highlights a common ethical thread connecting
Confucian and Western philosophical traditions, reinforcing
empathy and mutual respect in cultivating personal virtues and
fulfilling social responsibilities.
Methodologically, integrating Western dialectics, critical think-
ing, and logical analysis with Chinese reflection and introspection
showcases the deep complementarity of Chinese and Western
philosophical practice. For instance, combining logic with
meditation involves using Western logical analysis to elucidate
problems while incorporating Zen meditation and contemplation
from Chinese philosophy. This fusion helps individuals think
logically and derive profound answers while maintaining inner
peace and clarity (Guo, 2012). Logical thinking enhances insight
during meditation, achieving higher awareness, while meditation
relaxes the mind, focuses attention, and inspires creativity,
offering new perspectives for logical analysis (Liu et al. 2022).
This combination promotes a comprehensive and balanced
thinking approach.
Mutual learning through academic exchanges and seminars
further benefits Chinese and Western philosophical practice (Liu,
2016). Organizing cross-cultural philosophical seminars and
international conferences promotes deep exchanges and colla-
borations among practitioners from different cultural back-
grounds, exploring differences and commonalities in diverse
cultural environments. Implementing interdisciplinary research
projects combining philosophy with psychology and sociology
investigates practical applications in different contexts, testing
effectiveness in solving real-world problems and advancing
adaptability and innovation in addressing modern complexities.
Opportunities and challenges in the development of philoso-
phical practice. Philosophical practice faces numerous
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opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and innovative appli-
cation. Integrating Chinese and Western practices fosters deeper
understanding and adaptation of philosophical traditions, pro-
viding rich resources for methodological innovation. As society
increasingly focuses on mental health and well-being, philoso-
phical practice is viewed as an effective method to explore
meaning, develop healthier self-awareness, and cope with life
stresses. Its scope is expanding from individual development to
group and organizational levels, including corporate ethics con-
sulting and policy advisory services (Hațegan, 2019a). Advances
in science and technology, particularly artificial intelligence and
data analytics, offer new tools for practitioners to understand and
evaluate consultation effectiveness.
Despite these opportunities, challenges persist. A primary
challenge is recognition; as a non-traditional form of mental
health support, philosophical practice often lacks broad public
understanding and acceptance (Huang, 2019). Professional
training and qualification standards for philosophical counselors
are not yet unified, impacting formalization and professional
development (Hațegan, 2018). The suitability and effectiveness of
philosophical practice in addressing urgent mental health issues
are questioned, as it focuses more on exploring deep existential
questions through dialogue rather than providing immediate
psychological interventions.
Maintaining depth and quality amidst digital transformation is
another challenge. While technology allows practice to transcend
geographical boundaries, online interactions may reduce inter-
activity and personalization. Integrating philosophical practice
into mainstream medical and mental health services requires
developing appropriate collaboration models to ensure service
quality and effectiveness (Ćirić,2010).
In summary, philosophical practice is poised for growth due to
cross-cultural exchanges and technological advancements but
must overcome recognition issues, standardize professional
qualifications, address applicability to urgent mental health
problems, maintain quality in digital interactions, and integrate
with mainstream healthcare systems.
Contributions of this study and future research prospects. This
study offers significant contributions. First, by pioneering the use
of CiteSpace software for bibliometric analysis of philosophical
practice literature from CNKI and WOS, it introduces innovative
data analysis tools to philosophical research, providing a refer-
ence framework for future studies.
Second, the research fosters the exchange and integration of
philosophical ideas across different cultural backgrounds. Comparing
Chinese and Western traditions harnesses wisdom from diverse
heritages, helping individuals and societies understand and respect
varied cultural values. This approach offers multiple perspectives and
solutions to enhance mental health and societal harmony, providing
theoretical support and practical guidance for applying philosophical
practice in various fields, and opening new possibilities for global
philosophical research and applications.
Finally, this study promotes international cooperation in addres-
sing global issues such as climate change and economic crises.
Philosophical practice provides frameworks and methodologies for
exploring root causes and potential solutions through dialogue.
Future practice can enhance interdisciplinary research development
—for example, collaborations among philosophy, psychology, and
medicine—to collectively address complex issues. Additionally, it can
expand to address ethical challenges of the digital age, exploring how
to maintain moral values and ethical standards in a rapidly evolving
technological landscape.
In conclusion, this study advances methodological tools for
philosophical research, enriches cross-cultural understanding,
and offers practical applications for addressing local and global
challenges. Future research should continue expanding inter-
disciplinary collaborations and explore implications of philoso-
phical practice in emerging digital and ethical contexts.
Limitations of this study. While this study provides new insights
into the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western
philosophical practice through CiteSpace analysis and explores
their theoretical, practical, social, and professional characteristics,
several limitations exist.
First, the study relies primarily on literature from the CNKI
and WOS databases. This reliance may exclude relevant research
not included in these databases. Although they cover significant
research on philosophical practice, studies published in non-
mainstream journals or books may be missed. For example,
articles by Chinese and Western scholars published in Philoso-
phical Practice (Journal of the APPA) and Philosophical Practice
and Counseling are not all included. Additionally, Philosophical
Practice and Counseling and the Journal of Humanities Therapy
were previously included in CNKI but discontinued in November
2018 and June 2020, respectively.
Second, the CiteSpace analysis method is based primarily on
bibliometrics and co-word analysis. While effective in revealing
research trends and hotspots, it may lack depth in analyzing
specific content. For a reflective discipline like philosophy, solely
relying on literature data may not capture the nuanced and
complex nature of practical application.
Moreover, the comparative analysis might be subject to cultural
perspective biases. Researchers’interpretations may be influenced
by their cultural backgrounds, potentially affecting the objectivity
and comprehensiveness of conclusions. Therefore, maintaining
ongoing dialogue among practitioners from different cultures is
crucial. Cross-cultural exchanges can mitigate biases, foster
mutual understanding, and ensure a more balanced analysis of
philosophical practice. Engaging in continuous dialogue allows
researchers to collaboratively explore diverse perspectives,
enriching comparative philosophy.
Additionally, this study is based primarily on existing literature
and lacks field research and firsthand data, limiting the evaluation
and validation of the practical effects of philosophical practice.
Future research could incorporate qualitative interviews, surveys,
and other empirical methods to supplement and verify findings
from literature analysis.
Furthermore, while discussing integration and complementarity of
Chinese and Western philosophical practice, the study remains
largely theoretical and lacks specificpracticalpathwaysand
operational plans. This focus limits the practical applicability and
guidance of the results. Future studies should explore concrete
mechanisms for cross-cultural exchange and interdisciplinary
collaboration, providing actionable recommendations and strategies.
Lastly, while offering a comparative analysis of Chinese and
Western philosophical practice, highlighting unique and com-
plementary aspects, the dichotomy between China and the West
excludes other significant regions in Asia, such as Korea and
Japan, which have their own rich traditions, methodologies, and
practices. Future research should broaden the scope to include a
more diverse range of philosophical practice, providing a
comprehensive understanding of global philosophical practice
and fostering greater cross-cultural dialogue and integration.
In summary, while offering valuable insights into the
similarities, differences, and potential integration of Chinese
and Western philosophical practice, this study acknowledges
limitations. Future research should build on a broader data
foundation, incorporate more empirical methods, and deeply
investigate practical effects and cross-cultural applications,
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Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

providing robust theoretical and practical support for global
philosophical dialogue.
Conclusions
This study thoroughly examined the methodologies and appli-
cations of philosophical practice in both Western and Chinese
contexts, utilizing CiteSpace to analyze global research trends
from 2000 to 2024. The findings reveal a growing interest and
diversity in philosophical practice research, with an increasing
volume of publications and collaborative networks among
authors and institutions in both CNKI and WOS databases.
Western scholars focus on applying critical thinking and philo-
sophical analysis to enhance individual mental well-being,
address moral dilemmas, and explore philosophy as a way of life.
Chinese scholars emphasize integrating traditional philosophical
thought—such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism—into
philosophical practice, particularly in psychological counseling,
education, and the promotion of social harmony.
The comparative analysis highlights significant differences
between Chinese and Western philosophical practice in theore-
tical foundations, practical applications, social impact, and pro-
fessional development. Western practice emphasizes individual
autonomy, logical reasoning, and personal moral decision-mak-
ing, supported by established educational systems and profes-
sional organizations. Chinese practice values collectivism, role
ethics, and the cultivation of societal norms, focusing on harmony
and social cohesion, with growing attention to philosophical
practice in education and mental health.
Despite these differences, both traditions share common goals
of enhancing self-awareness, fostering ethical reflection, and
improving mental well-being through philosophical dialogue. The
study underscores the potential for integrating Chinese and
Western philosophical practice to address contemporary chal-
lenges. By combining Western critical thinking with Chinese
holistic perspectives, practitioners can offer more comprehensive
and culturally sensitive approaches. Integrating normative ethics
with role ethics, and blending methodologies such as logical
analysis with introspection and meditation, can enrich philoso-
phical practice.
The study acknowledges opportunities for cross-cultural
exchange and interdisciplinary collaboration, which can
enhance the effectiveness and reach of philosophical practice
globally. However, challenges remain, including recognition
issues, standardization of professional qualifications, and inte-
gration with mainstream healthcare systems. Future research
should focus on addressing these challenges, exploring empirical
methods to evaluate practical effects, and extending the scope to
include diverse philosophical traditions beyond Chinese and
Western contexts.
In conclusion, this study highlights the richness and diversity
of philosophical practice research and emphasizes the importance
of integrating insights from different cultural traditions. Such
integration can foster a more holistic and practical approach to
philosophical practice, enhancing its ability to address modern
societal issues and contribute to global philosophical dialogue.
Data availability
The data are available from the corresponding author on rea-
sonable request.
Received: 14 May 2024; Accepted: 11 December 2024;
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Social Science Fund (Grant No. 20BKS189) and
the Postgraduate Research & Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province (Grant
No. KYCX24_3885).
Author contributions
HL: conceptualization, methodology, writing—original draft. XD: conceptualization,
resources, supervision, writing—review and editing. ML: funding acquisition, super-
vision, writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the submitted
version of the paper.
Competing interests
Xiaojun Ding was a member of the Editorial Board of this journal at the time of
acceptance for publication. The manuscript was assessed in line with the journal’s
standard editorial processes.
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