Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropod species in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

Abstract

Tañan VB, Sumaya NHN. 2024. Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropod species in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. Biodiversitas 25: 3391-3402. Gastropods are the largest class in the phylum Mollusca, with an estimated 70,000 to 76,000 species. The prevalence of gastropods is undeniable evidence of their successful adaptation to various habitats, including terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Slugs and snails are extremely effective in the terrestrial environment, where they are involved with several ecological activities such as nutrient recycling, decomposing waste material, and calcium enrichment in calcium-deficient habitats. However, many species (notably the non-indigenous ones) are well-known pests that damage crops, increase pesticide demand, harm natural ecosystems, reduce native biodiversity, and even carry pathogens and parasites. Northern Mindanao is one of the regions in Mindanao, Philippines, with abundant agricultural resources. In comparison to other taxa in Mindanao, gastropod species have received less attention from researchers. Thus, we collected, characterized, and delineated species of gastropods from the different agricultural areas in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. During sampling, environmental parameters were recorded, and it was established which gastropod species are associated with crops and, at their worst, can become pests to banana (Musa acuminata Colla), corn (Zea mays L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.), carrots (Daucus carota L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), chayote (Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and many more. Morphology and morphometrics following published protocols on the collected organisms successfully characterized the gastropod species. Slug species, namely, Laevicaulis alte (Férussac, 1822), Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868), and Deroceras (Deroceras) laeve (O.F.Müller, 1774) and snail species, Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821), Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822), Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789), Oxychilus (Ortizius) alliarius (J.S.Miller, 1822), and Bradybaena similaris (A.Férussac, 1822), were identified. The study reveals that exotic terrestrial gastropods are prevalent in the agricultural areas across Northern Mindanao. Consequently, additional surveys are necessary to determine the extent of their dispersal, crop preferences, pest status, and to its associated parasites within the Philippines.

Full text

B I O D I V E R S I T A S
ISSN: 1412-033X
Volume 25, Number 10, October 2024 E-ISSN: 2085-4722
Pages: 3391-3402 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d251001
Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropod species in Northern Mindanao,
Philippines
VERONICA B. TAÑAN1,2,3,, NANETTE HOPE N. SUMAYA1,2,
1Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Mathematics, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology.
Andres Bonifacio Avenue, Tibanga, 9200 Iligan City, Philippines
2Center for Biodiversity Studies and Conservation Genomics, Premier Research Institute of Science and Mathematics,
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology. Andres Bonifacio Avenue, Tibanga, 9200 Iligan City, Philippines.
Tel./fax.: +63-961-3063671, email: veronica.tanan@g.msuiit.edu.ph
3Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, North Eastern Mindanao State University. Tandag Campus, Rosario, 8300 Tandag City,
Surigao del Sur, Philippines. email: nanettehope.sumaya@g.msuiit.edu.ph
Manuscript received: 20 July 2024. Revision accepted: 1 October 2024.
Abstract. Tañan VB, Sumaya NHN. 2024. Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropod species in Northern Mindanao, Philippines. Biodiversitas
25: 3391-3402. Gastropods are the largest class in the phylum Mollusca, with an estimated 70,000 to 76,000 species. The prevalence of
gastropods is undeniable evidence of their successful adaptation to various habitats, including terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
environments. Slugs and snails are extremely effective in the terrestrial environment, where they are involved with several ecological
activities such as nutrient recycling, decomposing waste material, and calcium enrichment in calcium-deficient habitats. However, many
species (notably the non-indigenous ones) are well-known pests that damage crops, increase pesticide demand, harm natural ecosystems,
reduce native biodiversity, and even carry pathogens and parasites. Northern Mindanao is one of the regions in Mindanao, Philippines,
with abundant agricultural resources. In comparison to other taxa in Mindanao, gastropod species have received less attention from
researchers. Thus, we collected, characterized, and delineated species of gastropods from the different agricultural areas in Northern
Mindanao, Philippines. During sampling, environmental parameters were recorded, and it was established which gastropod species are
associated with crops and, at their worst, can become pests to banana (Musa acuminata Colla), corn (Zea mays L.), cabbage (Brassica
oleracea L.), carrots (Daucus carota L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), chayote (Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw.),
radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and many more. Morphology and morphometrics following published protocols on the collected organisms
successfully characterized the gastropod species. Slug species, namely, Laevicaulis alte (Férussac, 1822), Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer,
1868), and Deroceras (Deroceras) laeve (O.F.Müller, 1774) and snail species, Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821), Pomacea canaliculata
(Lamarck, 1822), Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789), Oxychilus (Ortizius) alliarius (J.S.Miller, 1822), and Bradybaena similaris
(A.Férussac, 1822), were identified. The study reveals that exotic terrestrial gastropods are prevalent in the agricultural areas across
Northern Mindanao. Consequently, additional surveys are necessary to determine the extent of their dispersal, crop preferences, pest status,
and to its associated parasites within the Philippines.
Keywords: Eupulmonata, Mollusca, morphometrics, Stylommatophora
INTRODUCTION
Class Gastropoda is a highly diverse phylum within the
Phylum Mollusca, with around 70,000-76,000 described
species, including 25,000 terrestrial species worldwide
(Moraitis et al. 2018; Rosenberg 2014). Gastropods are
known for their vast diversity, spanning across various
habitats but have received little attention regarding their
distribution compared with other taxa (Kesner and
Kumschick 2018). The gastropod species are found in a wide
range of environments, including terrestrial, freshwater, as
well as in marine habitats (Bidat et al. 2023). Moreover,
gastropods play a vital role in the functioning of ecosystems
(Loke and Chrisholm 2022; Gheoca et al. 2023), providing
essential nutrients and food to wildlife and contributing to
the structure of plant communities (South 1992; Ghosh et al.
2017).
Snails and slugs are successful gastropods in the
terrestrial ecosystem wherein the latter is typically identified
by their lack of external shell or reduced shell size (South
1992; Barker 2002; Barua et al. 2021). Slugs and snails,
comprising 80% of species diversity, are hermaphrodites,
possessing both male and female reproductive organs for
self-fertilization, enabling greater adaptability in
challenging environments (Zając and Kramarz 2017).
Terrestrial gastropods, despite being considered pests,
contribute to litter decomposition and play a role in plant
disease control in agroecosystems (Neubert et al. 2019).
Additionally, the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) Red List https://www.iucnredlist.org
(Accessed: July 08, 2024) reports that 1105 species of
terrestrial gastropods are either extinct, critically
endangered, endangered, or vulnerable worldwide, with
many more listed at local and national levels.
Terrestrial slugs are prevalent in tropical areas, yet they
are less frequently collected compared to snails (Rowson et
al. 2017). The slug taxa originated independently from many
lineages of land snails that gradually lost their shells through
a process known as limacization, making terrestrial slugs a
non-monophyletic group (Ramos et al. 2021). Slugs have

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been identified as one of the successful pest groups due to
the loss of their shell, which also allowed for increased
movement and less reliance on calcium (Nicolai and Ansart
2017; Ramos et al. 2021). The slug body plan is found in the
Eupulmonata clades of Stylommatophora (land snails and
slugs) and Systellommatophora (aquatic and terrestrial
slugs) (Schrodl 2014).
Terrestrial snails are classified into two major groups:
the Eupulmonata and the Caenogastropoda, which include
the majority of prosobranch species (Sosa et al. 2014;
Bouchet et al. 2017). Terrestrial snails are involved in a
variety of ecosystem processes, including pollination,
nutrient recycling, decomposing detritus and plant material,
calcium enrichment in calcium-deficient habitats, soil
generation, and providing food for other species (Astor et al.
2015; Zaidi et al. 2021). Additionally, they are good
bioindicators due to their sensitivity to environmental
variables and typically restricted capacity to disperse
(Nurinsiyah et al. 2016; Hodges and McKinney 2018).
Furthermore, many gastropod species (notably the
introduced species) are notorious pests that cause crop loss,
pesticide spread, harm to natural ecosystems, and a decline
in native biodiversity (Barker 2002; Curry et al. 2016; Das
and Parida 2015). In light of the significance of these
organisms, this research investigates the gastropod species
in the agricultural areas in the four provinces in North
Mindanao, Philippines. We collected, evaluated, and
characterized the gastropod species found in the agricultural
areas of this region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Establishment of sampling areas
A purposive sampling of terrestrial gastropods was done
on sixteen agricultural areas across the four provinces of
Northern Mindanao, Philippines (Figure 1). The study was
conducted from September to November 2022, with eight
participants at each site for an hour during early morning
(5:30 to 9:00 am) and dusk (4:30 to 6:30 pm) hours, when
gastropods are most active. A travel permit was obtained
before the fieldwork to comply with COVID-19 pandemic
protocols. In addition, the authors sought approval from the
farm owners. Northern Mindanao serves as an appropriate
reference for biodiversity assessments of terrestrial
gastropods on the agricultural areas due to their abundance,
diversity, comprehensive taxonomic information, and
representation. According to the Philippine Statistics
Authority (https://psa.gov.ph/ accessed November 14,
2022), 52.2 percent of the region's total land area was made
up of agricultural land. These chosen provinces are known
to produce vast amounts of crops namely, banana (Musa
acuminata Colla), corn (Zea mays L.), cabbage (Brassica
oleracea L.), carrots (Daucus carota L.), rice (Oryza sativa
L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), chayote (Sechium
edule (Jacq.) Sw.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.), and many
more providing the demand in local and international
markets (Layug and Montinola 2016).
Physicochemical parameters
Certain environmental characteristics were determined
to gain an understanding of the area where the gastropods
are found. Weather conditions, air and soil temperatures, soil
moisture, soil pH, relative humidity, soil texture as well as
elevation were recorded. A 4-in-1 soil tester was placed 5cm
deep into the soil to test for soil temperature, moisture, and
pH, while a hygrometer was positioned in the air to calculate
Relative Humidity (RH). A qualitative identification of the
soil texture was also made by classifying it as sand, sandy
loam, and clay loam following the protocol by Aranico et al.
(2014). Considering that some parts of these provinces are
situated in a mountainous location, elevation was calculated
based on sea level, which is the surface of the sea with the
elevation set to 0 feet (0 m) using the GeoCamera program.
Figure 1. Map showing the sampling sites of terrestrial gastropod species in the selected areas of Mindanao, Philippines

TAÑAN & SUMAYA – Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropods
3393
Slug morphological and morphometric analysis
Terrestrial gastropods, both slugs and snails, were
cleaned from debris under running water, placed in a plastic
containers, and transported to the Flora and Fauna
Biodiversity Laboratory (FBL), Premier Research Institute
of Science and Mathematics (PRISM) in Mindanao State
University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT),
Tibanga, Iligan City, Philippines for observation,
identification, and as voucher specimens with collection
number 032022SCC.
The mixed species of terrestrial gastropods were
morphologically characterized following the published
techniques and keys provided by Mc Donnell et al. (2009) -
“Slugs: A Guide to the Native and Invasive Fauna of
California”, Smith and Kershaw (1979) - “Field guide to the
non-marine molluscs of Southeastern Australia”, and by
Fiedler (2019) - “Guam Land Snail ID Booklet a Simple
Guide to Terrestrial Gastropods of Guåhan”. Morphological
characteristics specifically body colors, patterns, patches,
stripes, and the shape of the mantle, were recorded as part of
the study's comprehensive examination. Body length was
measured from anterior to posterior tip, mantle length, body
width which is the widest part of the body, and live weight
in grams using electronic digital balance (0.001g) (Das and
Parida 2015). These measurements were taken in accordance
with Figure 2 to guarantee the reliability and consistency of
the data gathered.
Snail morphological and morphometric analysis
The snail specimens underwent a comprehensive
morphological assessment, with careful observation of their
shell size, color, and patterns. To further examine their
conchological characteristics, the study conducted meristic
measurements, including shell length, shell height, spire
length, number of whorls, aperture length, and aperture
height as depicted in Figure 3. To obtain precise
measurements, the snail samples were carefully inverted
with their aperture facing upward, allowing for the accurate
measurement of the desired parameters. Shell length was
measured from the shell's apex to the base of the aperture,
while shell height was measured at the widest point of the
shell up to the outermost side of the aperture. Spire length
was determined by measuring the apical whorls excluding
the main whorl, and the whorl number corresponded to the
number of complete turns of the whorls, following the
methods established by Galan et al. (2015). The aperture
length and height were also measured representing the
distance between the two widest points of the aperture.
Weights of the live snails were also recorded using the
electronic digital balance. The researcher took all the
measurements using a vernier caliper to ensure the accuracy
and consistency of the data collected.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Purposive sampling reveals that terrestrial gastropods
were found devouring crops and in large numbers, thus
becoming devastating pests. Grayscale representations of
the terrestrial gastropods' presence are displayed in Figure 4.
Exact locations with the area codes and environmental
parameters in the sampling areas for terrestrial gastropod
collection were recorded and are listed in Table 1. The
region is home to three exotic slug species, namely,
Laevicaulis alte (Fèrussac, 1822), Sarasinula plebeia
(Fischer, 1868), and Deroceras laeve (Muller, 1774) which
is the first record in the Philippines. Four exotic species of
snails, namely Lissachatina fulica (Fèrussac, 1821),
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822), Oxychilus
(Ortizius) alliarius (J.S.Miller, 1822), Subulina octona
(Bruguière, 1789), and a native snail, the Bradybaena
similaris (A.Fèrussac, 1822) was identified.
Terrestrial gastropod morphological and morphometrics
analysis
Morphometric assessments on the collected gastropods
were carried out to support the identification of the species
based on their unique morphologies. Tables with the results
are presented below for a clearer comparison. The data is
presented in units of millimeters (mm) and grams (g) and
expressed as mean±standard deviation (range) to account for
variations within the samples.
Figure 2. Diagram of expanded (above) and contracted (below)
slugs with the labels of the morphological characteristics.
University of Florida Entomology and Nematology of Capinera 2018.
Figure 3. The measurement standards of the growth indexes for
snails. African Archaeological Review of Miller et al. (2018)

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Terrestrial gastropod species
Laevicaulis alte (n=34)
Sarasinula plebeia (n=64)
Deroceras laeve (n=38)
Lissachatina fulica (n=181)
Pomacea canaliculata (n=59)
Oxychilus alliarius (n=23)
Subulina octona (n=150)
Bradybaena similaris (n=15)
Banana
Rice
Sweet potato
Corn
Taro
Coconut
Chayote
Radish
Eggplant
Cabbage
Carrot
Squash
Papaya
Cassava
Pineapple
Bok choy
Crops
Figure 4. The bipartite graph of species of snails and slugs and their associated microhabitats (crops). The upper level presents the various
gastropod species and the lower-level correlates to the favored microhabitats
Slug species characterization
Laevicaulis alte also known as tropical leatherleaf slug
was collected from the plantation of bok choy, sweet potato,
chayote, and carrot farms in Bukidnon as shown in Figure 5.
L. alte originates from Africa but has been introduced to
southern Asia, Australia, and many Pacific Islands (Das and
Parida 2015). It is a dark-colored slug with a distinct central
keel, which is a thin, pale brown longitudinal line that runs
along the dorsal side. The body of L. alte is flattened dorsally
and ventrally with a slightly granulated appearance. On the
head, there is a smaller pair of bilobed, inconspicuous
tentacles and posterior anus. The mantle chamber and
pneumostome are absent in this slug. The mucus secreted
along the slime path is clear, and the eggs are white. A total
of 34 L. alte with an average body length of 72.96 mm was
collected. Other morphometric observations were summarized
in Table 2.
Figure 5. Laevicaulis alte in bok choy plantation (A) adult slug: t-
eye bearing tentacles, k-keel, and s-dark colored tuberculated skin;
(B) slugs found in just one plot; and (C) holes on bok choy leaves
caused by L. alte
Sarasinula plebeia also known as the Caribbean
leatherleaf slug is present throughout the four provinces of
Northern Mindanao. S. plebeia originally originated in
Central America and has now expanded throughout the
world, inhabiting America, the Pacific, and the Philippine
islands (Dalan et al. 2023). A total of 64 S. plebeia were
collected, morphometric observation was shown in Table 3.
S. plebeia is relatively big and is generally light to dark
brown in appearance, and two sets of tentacles emerge from
the head as shown in Figure 6. The body is flat and elongates
when slides, foot runs in a narrow line between the
hyponotum and perinotum from the anterior to posterior end
of the body. When the slug is dormant, the tentacles are
hidden beneath the notum. The pneumostome is very small
and located under the notum.
Figure 6. Sarasinula plebeia stages. (A) eggs; (B) ventral part of
the whole slug: p-perinotum, h-hypernotum; and (C) whole notum
with visible ocular tentacles-ot
A
B
C
A
C
B

Table 1. Environmental parameters on the sampling areas of terrestrial gastropods in Northern Mindanao, Philippines
Prov.
Location/area code/coordinates
Gastropods
Elevation ft (m)
Weather
condition
Relative
humidity
Air
temp.
Soil
temp.
Soil
pH
Soil
type
Soil
moisture
Lanao del Norte
Cathedral, Kapatagan-CKL (7.8721N,
123.7738E)
Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868)
101 (30.78)
Sunny
79%
28℃
24℃
4.5
Muddy
24 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Sunny
81%
29℃
24℃
4.5
Loamy
18 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Sunny
81%
29℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
19 %
San Vicente, Kapatagan-SVL (7.8849N,
123.7744E)
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822)
54.1 (16.48)
Cloudy
76%
27℃
24℃
6.5
Muddy
25 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Cloudy
76%
28℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
21 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Cloudy
76%
28℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
San Manuel, Lala-SML (7.9074N, 123.8153E)
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822)
32.4 (9.87)
Sunny
78%
29℃
24℃
6.5
Muddy
24 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Sunny
75%
26℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
17 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Sunny
75%
27℃
28℃
6.5
Loamy
18 %
Baroy-BRL (8.0256N, 123.7789E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
67.6 (20.6)
Cloudy
77%
28℃
25℃
7.5
Loamy
18 %
Iligan City-ICL (8.2286N, 124.2381E)
Oxychilus (Ortizius) alliarius (J.S.Miller, 1822
)
860 (262.12)
Sunny
82%
28℃
26℃
7.5
Loamy
20 %
Bukidnon
Bagontaas, Valencia-BVB (7.5711N, 125.542E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
1,055.4 (321.68)
Cloudy
80%
28℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868)
Cloudy
81%
29℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
22 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Cloudy
80%
28℃
24℃
6.5
Loamy
21 %
Kibangay, Lantapan-KLB (8.0463N,
124.8870E)
Laevicaulis alte (Férussac, 1822)
3,939.9 (1.200.88)
Sunny
76%
28℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
23 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Sunny
76%
28℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
21 %
Lirongan, Talakag-LTB (8.0530N, 124.8297E)
Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868)
4,629.9 (1.411.19)
Sunny
75%
28℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
22 %
Oxychilus (Ortizius) alliarius (J.S.Miller, 1822
)
Sunny
78%
29℃
28℃
6.5
Loamy
23 %
Dagumbaan, Talakag-DTB (8.1486N,
124.5925E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
1,780.2 (542.6)
Sunny
75%
27℃
26℃
4.5
Loamy
19 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Sunny
77%
28℃
25℃
4.5
Loamy
19 %
Misamis Oriental
Tignapoloan, Cagayan-TCM (8.28508N,
124.58588E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
1,495.7 (455.88)
Sunny
63%
26℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Sunny
63%
26℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
18 %
Dansolihon, Cagayan-DCM (8.3090N,
124.5846E)
Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868)
880.9 (268.49)
Cloudy
81%
29℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
21 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Cloudy
76%
27℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
19 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Cloudy
76%
27℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
19 %
Gingoog-GHM (8.3090N, 124.5846E)
Deroceras laeve (Muller, 1774)
1,562 (476.09)
Sunny
63%
26℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
23 %
Claveria-CMM (8.28508N, 124.58588E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
3,073.1 (936.68)
Sunny
81%
29℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
22 %
Deroceras laeve (Muller, 1774)
Sunny
76%
27℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Bradybaena similaris (A.Fèrussac, 1821)
Sunny
76%
27℃
26℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Misamis Occidental
Calacaan, Plaridel-CPMO (8.6145N,
123.7093E)
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822)
25.9 (7.89)
Sunny
73%
28℃
24℃
6.5
Muddy
22 %
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
Sunny
74%
29℃
24℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Buenavista, Bonifacio-BBMO (8.0999N,
123.6126E)
Sarasinula plebeia (P.Fischer, 1868)
1,312 (399.89)
Cloudy
76%
27℃
24℃
6.5
Loamy
19 %
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822)
Cloudy
76%
28℃
25℃
6.5
Muddy
18 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Cloudy
76%
28℃
25℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %
Capalaran, Tangub-CTM (8.1143N, 123.7440E)
Lissachatina fulica (Férussac, 1821)
524.6 (159.89)
Sunny
78%
29℃
24℃
6.5
Loamy
19 %
Subulina octona (Bruguière, 1789)
Sunny
75%
26℃
27℃
6.5
Loamy
20 %

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Table 2. Morphometrics of Laevicaulis alte from LTB, Bukidnon, Philippines. Data are expressed in mean±standard deviation (range). All
morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm) and weight in grams (g)
Slug species
Body length
Body width
Central keel
Live weight (g)
L. alte LTB (n=34)
72.96±11.27
35.73±3.57
65.77±4.59
8.56±1.22
(61.00-83.4)
(28.7-39.1)
(57.8-68.3)
(7.24-10.3)
Table 3. Morphometrics of Sarasinula plebeia from area codes CKL, BVB, LTB, and DCM. Data are expressed in mean±standard
deviation (range). All morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm) and weight in grams (g)
Slug species
Body length
Body width
Notum
Live weight (g)
S. plebeia CKL (n=15)
59.43±3.49
(54.7-65.8)
10.12±2.78
(6.5-14.0)
57.08±3.38
(51.8-63.3)
1.69±0.19
(1.08-1.46)
S. plebeia BVB (n=12)
55.32±5.97
(44.8-64.8)
9.27±2.67
(5.8-13.9)
53.14±5.86
(42.6-61.7)
1.53±0.15
(1.34-1.76)
S. plebeia KLB (n=14)
54.37±5.57
(45.9-64.4)
9.52±2.89
(4.9-14.6)
51.98±5.59
(42.7-62.3)
1.57±0.19
(1.43-1.73)
S. plebeia DCM (n=10)
55.68±5.68
(48.4-64.2)
9.95±3.08
(5.2-14.6)
53.29±5.64
(46.5-62.4)
1.68±0.44
(1.35-1.74)
S. plebeia BBMO (n=13)
55.96±6.49
(46.9-63.6)
9.76±3.36
(5.9-13.5)
53.86±6.52
(44.2-62.9)
1.57±0.13
(1.38-1.72)
Table 4. Morphometrics of Deroceras laeve from GHM and CMM. Data are expressed in mean±standard deviation (range). All
morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm)
Slug species
Body length
Body width
Head
Mantle
Tail length
D. laeve GHM (n=18)
23.82±3.40
(18.5-31)
6.22±0.80
(5-7)
2.99±0.58
(2.1-3.8)
9.96±1.65
(7.4-13.5)
10.9±1.41
(8.6-14.2)
D. laeve CMM-R (n=10)
23.27±3.18
(18-28)
6.27±0.76
(6.0-7.2)
2.45±0.40
(1.8-2.8)
9.82±1.60
(7.0-12.2)
11±1.35
(10-12.5)
D. laeve CMM-E (n=10)
23.19±2.04
(19-26)
6.42±0.73
(5.0-7.0)
2.25±0.36
(1.7-2.8)
9.73±1.02
(7.4-11.2)
11.21±0.87
(10.0-12.6)
Figure 7. Photographs of Deroceras laeve (A) morphological
characters ot-ocular tentacle, m-mantle, and t-tail; and (B) a
damaged cabbage crop
Figure 8. Photographs of (A) young Lissachatina fulica, (B) egg-
bearing adult, and (C) L. fulica on a banana tree
Deroceras laeve also known as marsh slug was collected
in the cabbage plantation in Gingoog, Misamis Oriental as
shown in Figure 7. D. laeve is native throughout Europe and
the Arctic (Rowson et al. 2014). Typically, this slug is small
and slim with a varying skin color of grayish brown to
chocolate brown. The body is cylindrical and has a slight
distal width. The mantle is approximately half the length of
the body with a delicate frontal wrinkle pattern. In the tail
portion, which is smaller than the mantle, a little keel has
been seen. A total of 38 specimens of D. laeve was recorded
and its morphometric observation were listed in Table 4.
Furthermore, this serves as the first record of D. laeve in the
Philippines (Tañan et al. 2024).
Snail species characterization
Lissachatina fulica also known as giant African snail is
present throughout Northern Mindanao and mostly present
in banana plantation (Figure 8). L. fulica is native to the
Central Northeast coast of Africa and is found on all
continents (Andreazzi et al. 2017). L. fulica was easily
recognized by its massive size with measurements from
68.05 to 73.96 mm and relatively long, narrow, conical shell.
Area codes and a more detailed morphometric observation
are listed in Table 5. The snail's shell typically has seven to
nine whorls when it is fully developed and mature. Some
shells are reddish-brown with pale yellow vertical lines,
while others are dark brown or black with dark stripes and
streaks that run across the whorls. A total of 181 L. fulica
C
B
A
B
A

TAÑAN & SUMAYA – Bio-inventory of terrestrial gastropods
3397
was retrieved from the banana, corn, and other crop
plantation throughout the region.
Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck, 1822) also known as
golden apple snail is a freshwater gastropod but was
included as it is mainly found in the rice paddies throughout
the region (Figure 9). P. canaliculata originates from North
America and was introduced and established throughout
Europe and Asian countries (Yang et al. 2018). The shell is
thin and smooth, and it has an operculum. Females are larger
than males when fully developed. The color ranges from
brown to greenish brown to dark chestnut, and there may be
varying numbers and thicknesses of dark brown spiral
bands. The whorls are spherical, and there are deep channels
in the suture between them. In general, the shell spire is
small, the interior lip of the shell is unpigmented, and the
aperture is typically ovoid to kidney-shaped. A total of 59
specimens of P. canaliculata were collected. Its
morphological analysis is listed in Table 6.
Figure 9. Pomacea canaliculata (A) eggs; (B) whole snail: op-
operculum, w-whorls; and (C) gaps on rice field
Table 5. Morphometrics of Lissachatina fulica from all provinces with the specific area codes. Data are expressed in mean±standard
deviation (range). All morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm)
Snail species
Shell length
Shell height
Spire length
No. of whorls
Aperture length
Aperture height
L. fulica CKL
(n=15)
73.62±3.64
(68.7-75.7)
35.24±1.33
(33.2-37.2)
20.31±1.18
(18.6-22.5)
6.8±0.42
(6-7)
41.02±1.06
(39.6-42.9)
25.89±1.00
(26.1-27.7)
L. fulica SVL
(n=15)
71.35±5.89
(64.7-76.8)
34.62±1.10
(33.5-37.4)
19.2±0.90
(17.8-20.7)
6.4±0.52
(6-7)
40.49±2.03
(38.6-43.4)
24.13±1.06
(23.1-26.5)
L. fulica SML
(n=15)
68.06±1.93
(65.2-71.2)
33.89±0.80
(32.6-35.3)
18.21±1.65
(16.4-21.3)
6.5±0.52
(6-7)
39.13±0.73
(38.3-40.3)
22.85±0.89
(21.5-24.4)
L. fulica BRL
(n=15)
73.96±6.75
(66.2-82)
36.1±1.60
(34.2-39.3)
20.24±2.33
(17.2-23.4)
6.6±0.52
(6-7)
41.26±2.11
(38.8-43.4)
25.04±1.11
(23.8-26.4)
L. fulica BVB
(n=15)
70.16±4.61
(66.2-76.6)
33.51±1.08
(32.1-35.3)
19.03±1.22
(16.9-20.5)
6.8±0.42
(6-7)
39.96±1.72
(37.7-42.3)
23.41±0.94
(22.1-24.7)
L. fulica LTB
(n=15)
69.48±4.36
(64.8-76.3)
33.89±1.11
(32.5-35.0)
18.32±1.65
(16.1-20.5)
6.4±0.52
(6-7)
39.51±1.72
(37.2-42.2)
22.98±0.98
(21.9-24.5)
L. fulica DTB
(n=15)
71.41±3.48
(68.4-71.6)
35.24±1.05
(33.6-36.6)
19.42±1.66
(16.7-22.5)
6.8± 0.42
(6-7)
37.87±4.67
(27.8-42.9)
24.64±1.17
(22.3-25.6)
L. fulica TCM
(n=15)
71.61±5.72
(62.5-76.8)
35.4±1.29
(34.0-37.6)
19.63±1.76
(17.2-23.3)
6.5±0.52
(6-7)
40.52±1.91
(37.1-42.8)
24.42±1.13
(22.8-26.1)
L. fulica DCM
(n=15)
71.35±5.89
(64.7-83.2)
35.04±1.37
(33.1-37.4)
19.78±1.74
(17.8-24.1)
6.6±0.52
(6-7)
40.47±1.85
(38.3-43.9)
24.15±1.11
(23.0-26.7)
L. fulica CMM
(n=15)
68.05±5.33
(61.75-73.2)
34.34±1.30
(32.9-37.4)
19.715±0.92
(18.4-20.7)
6.5±0.52
(6-7)
39.34 ±1.52
(37.5-42.0)
22.34±1.58
(19.7-24.5)
L. fulica CPMO
(n=14)
69.29±6.78
(62.5-83.4)
33.45±3.33
(32.6-35.3)
18.51±1.90
(15.6-22.0)
6.7±0.47
(6-7)
38.23±1.66
(36.2-41.6)
22.62±0.89
(20.5-23.1)
L. fulica CTM
(n=17)
72.29±5.72
(62.4-80.2)
34.92±2.67
(30.2-38.4)
19.06±2.39
(17.7-21.5)
6.7±0.47
(6-7)
40.61±2.64
(37.2-43.8)
22.95±1.88
(20.6-27.8)
Table 6. Morphometrics of Pomacea canaliculata with the specific area codes. Data are expressed in mean±standard deviation (range).
All morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm)
Snail species
Shell length
Shell height
No. of whorls
Aperture length
Aperture height
P. canaliculata CKL (n=15)
35.87±3.23
(32.3-41.5)
26.24±2.19
(23.8-30.2)
5±0
10.5±2.20
(9.7-14.8)
13.42±2.82
(11.4-17.0)
P. canaliculata SVL (n=15)
34.77±4.78
(27.3-42.6)
25.08±2.34
(22.5-28.4)
5±0
10.98±1.25
(9.0-12.7)
12.02±1.17
(10.2-13.9)
P. canaliculata CPMO (n=15)
32.02±3.99
(25-39.4)
23.89±2.22
(19.4-26.7)
5±0
10.30 ±1.32
(8.2-12.4)
11.46±1.38
(8.9-12.45)
P. canaliculata BBMO (n=14)
31.30± 3.61
(24.1-38.5)
23.72±2.19
(18.7-26.1)
5±0
10.82 ±1.27
(8.6-12.8)
11.72±1.21
(89.7-13.6)
A
C
B

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3398
Oxychilus alliarius also known as garlic snail is found in
vegetables including chayote, eggplant, and other vegetable
gardens (Figure 10). Oxychilus alliarius originates from
west and central Europe but has been introduced to several
regions worldwide, including North America, Columbia,
Chile, Hawaii, Australia, and in Asia (Salvador et al. 2020).
O. alliarius itself is dark blue (in color) and it is relatively
small. The shell is shiny, smooth, and very slightly reddish
to greenish (in color). The bottom is frequently more opaque
and paler. The shell is made up of 4 to 5 convex whorls, with
the last whorl often weakly dropping near the aperture. A
total of 23 O. alliarius were collected in the crop plantations
of chayote, radish, and eggplant. The morphometric
observation is summarized in Table 7.
Subulina octona also known as miniature awl snail is a
small species of snail that is abundant in all the provinces
(Figure 11), found in vegetable gardens. S. octona is
indigenous in America including the Caribbeans (Brodie and
Barker 2012). Alive individuals’ range in color from cream
to pale yellow. The shell is translucent, long, and thin. The
deep sutures separate up to eleven convex whorls, in which
the first two to three whorls are the largest. The base of the
columella is slightly truncated and has a small and oval
aperture. The last whorl of the shell of mature adults
frequently reveals many relatively large white eggs in the
uterus. A total of 150 S. octona was collected from the
plantations of banana, sweet potato, taro, bokchoy, and
squash. The summarized data of its morphometric
observation is listed in Table 8.
Bradybaena similaris also known as golden trampsnail
is found in chayote farm in Claveria, Misamis Oriental
(Figure 12). B. similaris is native to the Southeast Asia and
has reached to all continents except the Antarctica (Serniotti
et al. 2020). It is a small gastropod species with a round
shape shell. The shell is a light brown color and frequently
has a single, chestnut stripe at the apex. It is characterized
by four fine-spiral shell with one big whorl containing
mostly the whole-body mass. There is also a single apical
chestnut band sometimes emerges along the growth lines,
which are irregular. B. similaris’ body is dark grey to brown
except for the foot bottom, which is light brown (in color).
In mature members of this species, there is no barrier on the
anterior part and the shell's lip. A total of 15 B. similaris was
collected. The value for the different conchological
measurements is shown in Table 9.
Figure 10. Oxychilus alliarius. (A.) whole snail: ot-tentacle, t-tail,
and cs-coiled shell; (B.) a stretched snail
Figure 11. Subulina octona. (A) damage caused in the squash
garden, (B) whole adult snail, and (C) visible eggs inside its body
Figure 12. Bradybaena similaris on the chayote farm in Claveria,
Misamis Oriental, Philippines. (A) whole B. similaris, (B) damaged
leaves caused by snails, and (C) snail munching a new leaf
Table 7. Morphometrics of Oxychilus alliarius from Lanao del Norte and Bukidnon, Philippines. Data are expressed in mean±standard
deviation (range). All morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm)
Snail species
Shell length
Shell height
Spire length
No. of whorls
Aperture height
O. alliarius ICL
(n=15)
8.34±0.58
(8.2-9.2)
2.07±0.24
(1.7-2.5)
6.01±0.41
(5.48-6.9)
5±0
1.89±0.31
(1.34-2.1)
O. alliarius KLB
(n=8)
8.86±0.63
(8.2-9.7)
2.34±0.27
(2.0-2.7)
6.28±0.39
(5.9-6.9)
5±0
2.28±0.29
(2.0-2.7)
B
A
B
C
A
C
B
A

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3399
Table 8. Morphometrics of Subulina octona from all provinces. Data are expressed in mean±standard deviation (range). All morphological
characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm) and weight in grams (g)
Snail species
Shell length
Shell height
Spire length
No. of whorls
Aperture height
S. octona CKL (n=15)
10.06±0.64
(9.3-1.3)
2.86±0.25
(2.5-3.1)
6.89±0.33
(6.4-7.3)
10.8±0.42
(10-11)
2.63±0.46
(2.0-3.4)
S. octona SVL (n=15)
9.86±1.42
(8.2-13.3)
2.68±0.41
(1.9-3.0)
6.49±0.43
(6.1-7.3)
10.93±0.26
(10-11)
2.67±0.51
(1.8-3.4)
S. octona SML (n=15)
9.88±0.97
(8.7-11.2)
2.81±0.37
(2.2-3.3)
6.84±0.36
(6.2-7.2)
10±0.48
(10-11)
2.71±0.45
(2.0-3.2)
S. octona BVB (n=15)
9.91±1.53
(8.2-13.3)
2.66±0.38
(1.9-3.2)
6.46±0.42
(6.0-7.3)
10.4±0.52
(10-11)
2.69±0.56
(1.8-3.4)
S. octona DTB (n=15)
9.71±1.50
(8.5-13.3)
2.68±0.38
(2.3-3.4)
6.56±0.41
(6.1-7.2)
10.6±0.52
(10-11)
2.7±0.35
(2.3-2.8)
S. octona TCM (n=15)
9.53±1.01
(8.7-10.1)
2.66±0.42
(2.1-3.5)
6.54±0.39
(6.-7.3)
10.7±0.48
(10-11)
2.58±0.40
(2.2-3.3)
S. octona DCM (n=15)
10.04±1.29
(8.5-12.3)
2.79±0.40
(2.2-3.3)
6.85±0.41
(6.2-7.1)
10.8±0.42
(10-11)
2.76±0.42
(2.0-3.4)
S. octona CPMO (n=15)
9.78±1.14
(8.5-11.2)
2.72±0.38
(2.1 - 3.0)
6.73±0.44
(6.0-7.2)
10.87±0.35
(10-11)
2.65±0.39
(1.9-3.0)
S. octona BBMO (n=15)
9.73 ±1.43
(8.4-13.2)
2.8±0.36
(2.3-3.1)
6.56±0.4
(6.1-7.1)
10.8±0.41
(10-11)
2.74±0.34
(2.3-2.9)
S. octona CTM (n=15)
9.63±0.89
(8.7-11.3)
2.69±0.36
(2.2-3.3)
6.69±0.41
(6.1-7.2)
10.5±0.52
(10-11)
2.59±0.42
(2.0-3.2)
Table 9. Morphometrics of Bradybaena similaris from CMM-Misamis Oriental, Philippines. Data are expressed in mean±standard
deviation (range). All morphological characteristics measurements are in millimeters (mm) and weight in grams (g)
Snail species
Shell length
Shell height
Spire length
No. of whorls
Aperture height
B. similaris CMM
(n=15)
13.52±1.53
(11.5-16.45)
13.52±1.53
(11.5-16.45)
9.68±0.89
(8.63-11.4)
5±0
6.08±0.12
(5.72-7.18)
Discussion
Terrestrial slugs and snails are key contributors in the
diversity of the terrestrial malacofauna, which is classified
as class Gastropoda belonging to the phylum Mollusca. This
study discovered seven exotic and a native species of
terrestrial gastropods throughout the different provinces of
Northern Mindanao. The L. alte were found in the farms of
sweet potato, chayote, carrots, and radish plantations. L. alte
is an herbivorous species with a high infestation rate that
consumes the vegetation present in its habitat (Das and
Parida 2015; Bhavare and Magare 2017). It feeds on living
plant tissues, severely damaging field crops, and is regarded
as detritus feeders (Ali et al. 2022). L. alte had been
introduced to several countries in southern and southeastern
Asia, including Sri Lanka (Thilakarathne et al. 2024), Nepal
(Budha et al. 2015), and was widely distributed in India
(Raheem et al. 2014; Tripathy et al. 2018), in addition to
other regions like Australia, the Pacific Islands and
Hawaiian Islands (Ali et al. 2022).
Another slug, S. plebeia was collected across the four
provinces of Northern Mindanao. The reproduction of S.
plebeia is typically high during the rainy season and
maturity is attained in about 2.5 months (Alvarez-Cerrillo et
al. 2022). It is also a well-known pest in many foreign
countries for nursery of mahogany, squash, and sweet
potato. This species is a significant species that has spread
to the Americas and the Pacific region, including the
Philippines (Dalan et al. 2023). This species consumes a
wide range of plants as a polyphagous, hermaphrodite
herbivore. Due to its non-discriminatory eating behavior as
a polyphagous species, it destroys agricultural and
horticultural fields and suburban areas worldwide (Bellard
et al. 2021; Dueñas et al. 2021). Generally found in moist
areas such as below leaf litters and decaying matter to avoid
desiccation, they are also shown to burrow in soil with depth
ranging from 25 cm to 1 m during the dry season (Alvarez-
Cerrillo et al. 2022; Dalan et al. 2023).
The speciose genus Deroceras contains at least 123
currently accepted species of terrestrial pulmonate slugs
(Anderson 2015). D. laeve has a worldwide distribution,
establishing themselves in different habitats as agricultural
pest and vectors of several diseases (Gupta et al. 2023). Size
variation amongst the D. laeve population worldwide was
observed, especially samples between Asia and the
Americas. D laeve as the first records in the Philippines for
this species, has a 100% similarity both in morphological
and molecular characterization with the species from
Mexico, Canada, UK, and Vietnam (Dedov et al. 2020).
Moreover, the collected live specimens had mantles with
proportions unusually large and showed delicate wrinkles
visible in front. Overall characteristics are within the range
with similar morphological descriptions such as grey to
dark-brown live pigmentation, black ocular tentacles,
wrinkled mantle, smooth tails, and barely noticeable keel.

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3400
The data variations observed can be attributed to several
factors such as geographical locations, adaptation strategies,
feeding preferences, changes in habitat temperature, and
many more (Nicolai and Ansart 2017).
Lissachatina fulica was found mostly in banana farms,
burrowing on the body and root of the banana trees as well
as crawling on the leaves. L. fulica is an African gastropod
that has been designated one of the world's 100 worst
invasive alien species (Sarma et al. 2015; Miranda et al.
2015). Due to the expansion of the global economy and
technological advances in transportation, this species is now
common in tropical and subtropical regions on all
continents, whether accidentally through agricultural or
horticultural products or purposefully as a source of food or
as a pet (Silva and Omena 2014). The giant African snail is
larger than most other snails, growing to a maximum length
of eight inches and a maximum diameter of four inches when
mature. L. fulica is recognized as a problem in gardens and
agriculture (Andreazzi et al. 2017). The species is posing a
significant ecological threat due to its high reproductive
capacity and herbivorous diet, outcompetently consuming
over 50 species of native and agricultural plants. However,
the problem is not due these exotic snails, but human-
induced environmental degradation, weakening native
ecosystems and increasing the risk of non-native species
invasion (Cano-Pérez et al. 2021).
Pomacea canaliculata is found on rice paddies. Adults
were seen laying eggs in batches which are pink in
coloration. P. canaliculata has a globular shell with five to
six whorls, each of which is connected by a deep suture. The
male aperture is rounder than the female aperture, which is
big and oval. In contrast, adult females are generally larger
than males. According to Tripoli et al. (2015), the operculum
is light to dark brown (in color), corneous, concentric,
and thick. In many Southeast Asian countries and China, it
gradually developed into a devastating agricultural pest of
wetland crops (Liu et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2024). P.
canaliculata destroys a variety of crops, including cereals,
fruits, and vegetables resulting in significant annual
economic losses due to yield loss, replanting costs, and
control expenditures (Marwoto et al. 2020). Its polyphagous
feeding preferences, voracious appetite, wide range of
environmental adaptation, and rapid development, and high
rate of reproduction were all key factors in its successful
biological invasion (Seuffert and Martin 2017; Bae et al.
2021). Research revealed P. canaliculata to be a crucial
intermediate host for the rat lungworm Angiostrongylus
cantonensis (Chen, 1935), which can infect people and cause
angiostrongyliasis characterized as eosinophilic meningitis
(Cowie 2017).
Subulina octona are discovered in large numbers in
populations in the sampling areas. S. octona is small but
widely distributed species that has been introduced around
the world. Self-fertilization is a viable method of
reproduction for this species (Maltz et al. 2017). S. octona is
14-17 mm tall, with a straight-sided, narrow, and tapering
shell and 9-11 convex whorls divided by a deep suture. The
base of the columella is slightly but truncated, the aperture
is small and oval, and the outer lip is sharp and simple. The
shell is translucent, glossy, and either colorless or yellowish-
corneous; growth lines are well-marked, especially on the
last whorl. S. octona can be found in open habitats as well as
ground litter in moist areas in tropical and subtropical forests
(D`ávila et al. 2018).
Oxychilus alliarius were found in the vegetable and
flower gardens. They are most active during the afternoon to
nighttime. The shade of the shell is translucent amber brown
on the upper surface and paler on the undersurface. Large,
obliquely crescent-shaped, toothless aperture; rounded
periphery; umbilicus roughly one-sixth the diameter of the
shell. O alliarius body is dark gray to blackish, and when
handled, it smells strongly of garlic (Holyoak et al. 2022).
This species can be found in vegetable and flower gardens,
under rocks, in wood, in cellars, in plant material, and
around greenhouses. O alliarius can be seen all year long,
with the peak breeding season taking place in the autumn.
They frequently lay little white eggs, which have a diameter
of about 1.5 mm. O alliarius are native to Western Europe
(Wehner et al. 2019). Recent distribution is documented for
Colombia, Chile, North America, Greenland, St. Helena,
South Africa, Sri Lanka, Australia, New Zealand, and
Hawaii which are primarily due to human activity
(Nurinsiyah et al. 2016; Wehner et al. 2019).
Bradybaena similaris is a small snail, reaching a length
of only 20 to 25 mm when fully grown. They are typically
found in moist and shaded areas such as forests, gardens, and
agricultural fields that have become invasive. B similaris is
reported to cause agricultural damage (Naranjo-García and
Castillo-Rodríguez 2017) and to feed on a wide variety of
plants (Matamoros 2014). Furthermore, parasites like A.
cantonensis can use B. similaris as an intermediary host
(Serniotti et al. 2020). Although B. similaris’ native habitat
is most likely in East and Southeast Asia (Hirano et al.
2019), it has expanded to all continents, except for
Antarctica, primarily in the tropical and subtropical zones
(Serniotti et al. 2020).
Studying exotic terrestrial gastropods in the Philippines
is of paramount importance as it allows for the assessment
of their vital role in the agricultural sector, identification of
existing species, as well as discovery of new introduced
ones. Based on the findings of this study, exotic terrestrial
gastropods are prevalent in the agricultural fields throughout
Northern Mindanao. Hence, more surveys are needed to
evaluate the extent of their distribution, crop preferences,
pest status, and associated parasites in the Philippines.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the Department
of Science and Technology - Accelerated Science and
Technology Human Resource Development Program
(DOST-ASTHRDP), Philippines for the scholarship grant.
Acknowledgement is also extended to Flora Biodiversity
Laboratory Researchers, Philippines for their assistance.
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