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Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd9702
1
Article
Self-marketing-empirical research from the users’ perspective
Szonja Jenei1,*, Silvia Molnár2, Szilvia Módosné Szalai3, László Józsa4
1 J. Széchenyi István University, 9026 Győr, Hungary
2 J. Selye University, 94501 Komarno, Slovakia
3 Széchenyi István University, 9026 Győr, Hungary
4 University of Pannonia, 8200 Veszprém, Hungary
* Corresponding author: Szonja Jenei, jenei.szonja@sze.hu
Abstract: Personal branding is a conscious activity that utilizes classic product marketing
methods to make a person more marketable. In our study, we employed a quantitative research
methodology. Through a survey, we examined the importance respondents assign to visible
and non-visible traits and characteristics. During the data analysis, we established a ranking of
the most important traits identified by the survey participants, which they believe contribute to
a more favorable perception. Among the top five ranked traits—reliability, appearance,
charisma, grooming, and authenticity—three are recognizable during the first encounter. Our
findings suggest that women place greater emphasis on social perception than men, making
them more likely to remain unnoticed. At the same time, younger generations tend to overvalue
their presence on social media platforms.
Keywords: self-marketing; self-branding; self-awareness; personal brand
1. Introduction
Carnegie’s statement from 1936, “Effective communication with people is one
of the greatest challenges we may face,” remains just as relevant today. With the
multiplication of communication channels, we no longer only communicate our
message through personal presence; the rise of social media platforms such as
Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and others has brought self-management and personal
branding into unprecedented focus (Carnegie, 2011).
The abundance of offerings encourages entrepreneurs and employees aiming for
success to make their services and skills more attractive and marketable through
strategic methods similar to classic product marketing. As success is judged
subjectively, developing the right self-marketing strategy depends on individual
motivation. In masculine, competitive societies, the measures of success are power
and wealth, while in societies that emphasize feminine values, a balanced work-life
ratio and shorter workweeks are viewed as success. Managing a rising start-up requires
individualism, creativity, and risk-taking, whereas large corporations have recognized
that knowledge-sharing, teamwork, and standardization of workflows are essential for
secure operations.
Personal branding can be seen as a form of self-management and personal
development, through which we not only become more attractive personalities but also
increase our influence and impact on others’ lives. Combining well-grounded self-
awareness with conscious personal brand-building can improve our personal and
professional relationships, whether we aim for success as employees, leaders, or
entrepreneurs. While both workplace demands and entrepreneurial trends evolve
CITATION
Jenei S, Molnár S, Szalai SM, Józsa
L. (2024). Self-marketing-empirical
research from the users’ perspective.
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and
Development. 8(16): 9702.
https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd9702
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 18 October 2024
Accepted: 7 December 2024
Available online: 23 December 2024
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2024 by author(s).
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and
Development is published by
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is licensed under the Creative
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https://creativecommons.org/licenses
/by/4.0/
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
2
organically, certain core values have not lost their significance over time.
Experiencing success, which is interpreted differently by each individual, requires
deep self-awareness, the ability to recognize opportunities, and the capacity to adapt
to changes in the environment.
2. Literature review
In the classical sense, marketing is a series of activities that extend from the
concept of a product or service to its sale, where marketing serves as a tool for
generating profit. According to the definition of the American Marketing Association,
“A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that distinguishes the
goods or services of one seller from those of other sellers.” The ISO brand standards
add that a brand is an “intangible asset” aimed at “creating distinctive images and
associations in the minds of stakeholders, thereby generating economic profit/value”
(AMA, online, 2022).
Józsa (2000) points out that modern interpretations of marketing also extend to
areas such as politics, environmental protection, or the communication of social
messages. In these cases, the focus is not on exchanging goods and money but on
special forms of exchange, such as the processes of exchanging votes, political ideas,
and social goals and support. According to Papp-Váry (2009), brands provide value
that exceeds their costs, and the emotional aspect is just as important as the functional
one. Personal branding, as a marketing concept, was first defined in the 1990 s in Tom
Peters’ book The Brand Called You, although personal branding as an unconscious
activity has long existed. Due to interdisciplinary overlaps, it is not possible to pinpoint
the exact date of the concept’s formulation, as building a profitable personal brand
requires knowledge from psychology, sociology, and other disciplines. According to
Törőcsik (2017), beyond brands, people are also in competition with each other, and
by consciously designing our identity, we can create clear positive associations in our
environment when our name is mentioned. Our behavior, appearance, body language,
and opinions represent and communicate our values and ambitions. This personal
branding approach aligns with the study by Gelencsér et al. (2024), who highlight the
importance of emotional and relational factors in employee retention, especially in
diverse organizational structures. Just as personal branding requires the authentic
expression of one’s values to form positive associations, organizations benefit from
creating an environment where employees feel aligned with the company’s values and
bond with their co-workers. This emotional attachment fosters a supportive
atmosphere (Ton et al., 2022), which enhances retention by giving employees a sense
of belonging and purpose beyond mere functional roles. In personal and organizational
branding, consistent communication of values is critical to fostering long-term loyalty
and positive recognition, whether in the professional marketplace or the business
environment.
Újvári (2014) believes that personal branding is about the person who influences
others, including their good and bad qualities. In the past, personal branding was
mainly associated with well-known individuals or politicians, but with the spread of
the internet, anyone can now become a personal brand. From a marketing perspective,
building a personal brand is no different from creating any other brand. Its benefits are
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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particularly evident in businesses where the person providing the service or consulting
is important, but a strong personal brand can also help us land our dream job. Montoya
(2009) states personal branding is a clear, powerful, and captivating public image. Our
personal brand is an enhanced “self,” developed through well-crafted communication
methods, and its purpose is to convey two essential pieces of information to the target
market: who I am and what I am good at. Personal branding is the mental image
potential clients receive when they think of us. It represents our values, personality,
expertise, and the qualities that make us stand out from our competitors. Personal
branding is a promise that tells the recipient what to expect from us and a relationship
whose characteristics define our influence on the recipient. According to Németh,
Kálmán, and Malatyinszki (2024), the success of a brand, much like financial security,
involves creating a reliable, valuable perception among stakeholders, as is essential
for trust-based relationships.
As ordinary people, we express ourselves both personally and in the virtual space,
and our behavior and presence on social media shape the image others form of us.
Building a personal brand means consciously shaping this image and creating a unique
personal brand image for ourselves (Hetesi, 2015). The foundation of our personal
brand is the person, made unique by their personality. Thinking patterns, emotions,
and behavioral patterns define an individual’s unique style and influence their
interactions with their environment (Atkinson, 1994).
For millennia, philosophers and psychologists have been intrigued by personality
development, leading to the creation of numerous theoretical models. The earliest,
Hippocratic personality typology from 400–200 BC, distinguishes four fundamental
personality types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic), while Eysenck, a
significant figure in the trait theory of personality, categorized personality along the
dimensions of introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability. Freud, the
founder of psychoanalytic theory, compared the complexity of the human psyche to
an iceberg in the early 1900 s, where the small visible part represents conscious
experience. In contrast, the massive part beneath the surface holds a multitude of
desires and drives that influence our actions. According to Freud, human behavior is
deterministic, with unconscious desires and unmet drives underlying every action, and
he divided personality into three parts: the Id, Ego, and Superego (Nagy-Kiss, 2007).
This division still serves as the foundation for research today; for instance, when
analyzing assisted suicide from a personality-centered perspective (Serra et al., 2022),
it can also be applied to the less sensitive topic of self-marketing. Csíkszentmihályi
(1997) distinguishes between autotelic and exotelic personality types. For autotelic
people, material wealth, power, and fame are unimportant; they engage in activities
for their own enjoyment rather than to achieve some distant goal. They are less
dependent on external rewards and feedback, making them less susceptible to
manipulation. In contrast, an exotelic personality is motivated by external feedback or
pursuing a goal. While no one is purely autotelic or exotelic, the quality of our lives
can be significantly improved if we learn to love what we must do anyway. In such
cases, harmony between “want to” and “have to” emerges, ensuring the experience of
flow or deep immersion.
Purkiss and Royston-Lee (2010) argue that many people neglect to build their
personal brand because they mistakenly believe that simply doing their job well is
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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enough and that someone will eventually notice them. While our family and friends
may be aware of our strengths, our employers, potential clients, and business partners
do not always have the opportunity to get to know us. According to the authors, the
foundation of personal branding is authenticity, consistency, and the ability to stand
out from the crowd. Key factors in building a strong personal brand include identifying
our abilities and talents, establishing a stable value system, and keeping our life goals
in mind, which give meaning to our actions. They also emphasize the importance of
authenticity and the conscious development of a network. According to Carnegie
(2012), smart communication alone is not enough for building relationships; we reach
a higher level of effectiveness when our behavior radiates generosity and
trustworthiness. We can have the most significant impact on others when we sincerely
take an interest in them and make them more important than ourselves. Hogan (2008)
highlights the importance of nonverbal communication and authenticity, which can
change others’ behavior or attitudes toward us. First impressions serve as signposts
for future interactions. Within 10 s, our body language and appearance convey an
image of us that determines the level of acceptance we receive from others.
In the first moment of a meeting, we subconsciously decide “yes” or “no” about
the other person, and the same decision is made about us. One of the key factors in
building non-verbal rapport, established in our subconscious, is physical appearance.
Every situation has its appropriate attire, and individuals instinctively feel safer in the
company of people who look similar and represent similar values to their own.
Grooming and appearance influence the development of trust and likability and signal
our belonging to a specific group. Hogan (2008) mentions synchronizing tone, facial
expressions, and breathing with the other party as key factors in building rapport and
facilitating the constructive sharing of ideas. Lieberman (2017) agrees on the
importance of first impressions, which hold great significance in both personal and
professional relationships. The feelings associated with us influence the future
development of our relationships, and thus, the author highlights several psychological
connections. According to the law of association, we link pleasant feelings with those
who are near us at that moment. If we want someone to like us, we should approach
them when they are in a good mood so they will associate us with positive emotions
later on. People feel more comfortable around pleasant-looking individuals, which
makes our appearance crucial during the first meeting. Individuals are instinctively
drawn to those who smile, as a smile conveys confidence, happiness, and enthusiasm.
Even before the first meeting, we should ensure that positive emotions are associated
with us, for example, by emphasizing our positive qualities in our application or
resume, not just with facts but also with language. Pease and Pease (2006), based on
their research in non-verbal communication, concluded that 60%–80% of the
impression formed during business negotiations is based on body language, and the
initial opinion of a negotiating partner is formed within four minutes. Body language
reflects our current emotional state, and our body signals convey much of our message
to the other party. According to their observations, individuals of higher status use
minimal gesticulation, and their gestures are composed and disciplined. Adjusting
jewelry, a watch, or a bag during a vital negotiation or interview conveys uncertainty.
Excessive display of feminine signals by women in business reduces their credibility.
Navarro (2013) believes that non-verbal communication extends beyond body
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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language; it includes how we behave and act. Our body continuously conveys
information about our work ethic, intentions, and feelings to the outside world. If two
people have the same abilities, their attitudes will differentiate them. With the help of
our smile, posture, gestures, and non-verbal messages, we can solidify our position
within an organization or increase our chances for the next promotion. Belsky (2010)
argues that it is a misconception to think that a great idea is enough to be successful
because the formula for success is 1% idea and 99% execution. A good self-marketing
strategy is about earning the respect of those around us based on a sincere interest in
something that showcases our strengths. Before launching our self-marketing
campaign, we need to find out what makes us different, and only then should we
develop and implement our communication strategy.
Over the past two decades, personal branding has become an important concept
in management literature. Beyond self-help books, numerous empirical studies have
been conducted on personal branding, and Gorbatov et al. (2018) made an attempt to
analyze these systematically. After analyzing more than 100 published studies, the
researchers concluded that the heterogeneity of previous research has prevented the
establishment of unified definitions and conceptual frameworks, leading to the
fragmentation of self-marketing as a research field. The trends in personal branding
have been categorized into four different theoretical fields: sociology, marketing,
psychology, and economics.
From the sociological perspective, personal branding is explained by the
underlying processes of perception and reflection, as well as our expressions and
performance, through which we try to influence how others perceive us. The
marketing theory approach views self-marketing as an extension of classical product
marketing methods for individuals. In the psychological approach, personal marketing
is a self-development tool that satisfies the basic psychological needs for self-esteem
and self-actualization. Economic theories emphasize the importance of understanding
the macroenvironmental factors in which personal branding occurs. The question most
pressing for job seekers and those seeking promotions is how to make themselves more
attractive and marketable in their resumes or during job interviews. Introducing
entrepreneurial knowledge and soft skill development into the education system has
provided students with helpful knowledge not only for starting a business but also as
a key factor in building a successful career. As sustainable tourism highlights the value
of aligning personal goals with broader economic and environmental objectives, such
perspectives may serve as a useful case for understanding the importance of personal
branding in a globally competitive environment (Kálmán et al., 2024d; Kabil et al.,
2024).
Unlike classic product marketing, where the return on investment can be
measured in monetary terms, the success of self-marketing activities is evident when
the individual secures the desired job or promotion (Shuker, 2014). University students
majoring in business know that building a successful career requires self-reflection
and combining unique skills with effective presentation (Szabó-Szentgróti et al., 2024).
The research by Manai and Holmlund (2015) highlights that the majority of students
analyze their core identity and the skills that differentiate them from their peers to
some extent. Interviewees also emphasized that they consider self-marketing a long
and complex process requiring significant self-examination and external support to
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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help them recognize their limitations. According to self-development professionals
and career advisors, the notion of a lifetime job is outdated in the dynamically
changing competitive environment, and they see the rise of portfolio careers as a future
trend. Shepherd (2005) characterizes the process of personal branding as inevitably
involving conflict.
In self-marketing circles, a consumer-oriented approach is often encouraged.
Career counselors urge individuals to develop and acquire key skills that make them
more attractive in the job market. However, they advise against personal
transformations solely in response to market demands. Some personal branding
experts suggest that clients should not try to change themselves but rather work with
what they already have. In his 2013 research, Pihl examined the self-marketing
practices of Swedish fashion bloggers who built entrepreneurial careers thanks to their
personal brands in the early 2000 s. The key finding of the research is that the
individual traits and values forming the foundation of personal brands became
intertwined with corporate brands after the bloggers transitioned into entrepreneurs.
The efforts made in personal branding generated a competitive advantage for the
participants, and this transformation occurred without losing their personal values in
the process. This aligns with Kálmán et al. (2024a), who argue that aligning personal
values with broader brand values is essential in fostering sustainable success, even in
consumer-centric sectors like tourism, where individual branding and destination
image can merge effectively. Similarly, a study on green human resource management
(GHRM) by Miah et al. (2024a) highlights that promoting environmental knowledge
and self-efficacy among employees aligns personal behaviour with organisational
sustainability goals. This alignment not only reinforces individual green behaviour,
but also a coherent brand identity based on sustainability principles (Miah et al.,
2024b).
Poeczea and colleagues (2018) present the results of their analysis of the
indicators behind successful self-marketing techniques on social media. They
examined two major platforms: YouTube, focusing on the leading YouTubers, and
their presence on Facebook. Their conclusion is that the combined analysis of user-
generated metrics and sentiment ratings provides information necessary for
individuals engaged in self-marketing to optimize their communication on social
media. This plays a crucial role in achieving continuous audience growth, which can
also lead to monetary gains. Applying these techniques allows independent game
developers and the gaming industry to gain insights into the critical reception of their
products directly from the target audience. Considering the growing global
phenomenon of social media marketing and the increasing number of companies
targeting potential consumers with diverse products and services across various social
media platforms, the authors believe that both user-generated metrics and sentiment
analysis are essential tools for today’s marketers. This facilitates the study of brand
personality communication on social media, regardless of the field in which these
individuals operate. The importance of metrics and audience engagement parallels
findings by Kálmán et al. (2024c), who suggest that brand perception and its relation
to green transition indicators significantly affect audience trust and engagement, thus
underscoring the role of perception management in effective self-marketing.
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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Trefzger and Dünfelder (2016) discuss the opportunities for researchers to
participate on social media platforms. The advent of social media has fundamentally
simplified communication, making it easier and more cost-effective for individuals to
connect worldwide. Consequently, researchers’ organizations (such as the universities
they work for) have transferred control over communication, reputation, and branding
to individuals. Competition among researchers is intensifying, and achieving long-
term academic careers is becoming increasingly difficult. There is a growing
disconnect between career expectations and realistic career opportunities among
academics, making it crucial for researchers to face competition and differentiate
themselves from others. This challenge is also echoed in studies by Kálmán et al.
(2024b), who examine how personal credibility and perceived integrity are essential
in high-competition fields, where individual reputation and differentiation are vital for
long-term success. The authors also highlight the importance of network thinking,
accurately defining the target audience, and choosing the right content marketing
strategy. They emphasize the advantages of selecting the appropriate communication
channels (platforms) and offer suggestions for organizing social media management,
such as aligning and harmonizing multiple personal profiles, creating workflows, and
optimizing content for the audience by monitoring interactions across channels. Their
conclusion is that self-marketing and personal branding can be used to actively shape
public opinion favorably. Social media platforms offer excellent opportunities for
achieving this goal.
In self-promotion, we can distinguish between observable and non-observable
characteristics. Observable traits—such as appearance, body language, and
communication style—are directly visible and can immediately influence impressions
made on employers or potential partners. In contrast, non-observable characteristics—
such as authenticity, intrinsic motivation, or personal values—remain hidden but often
have a deeper impact on how individuals are perceived.
Authenticity, as a non-observable characteristic, plays a particularly important
role in self-promotion, as people perceive those who genuinely represent their values
and goals as more credible. Authentic self-promotion goes beyond showcasing
positive qualities; it involves presenting oneself consistently and sincerely, showing
genuine interest and commitment. This approach builds trust and makes the individual
more appealing to employers and other stakeholders, who are more likely to support
and value someone perceived as authentic rather than defined solely by external
characteristics (McGregor, 2022).
3. Methodology
We conducted the empirical study using a quantitative research methodology,
implemented through a survey between September 2022 and March 2023 in the North-
Western region of Hungary and South-Western Slovakia. The research aimed to
examine how consciously job seekers or individuals considering a job change prepare
for marketing their labor and knowledge and what importance they place on first
impressions, documented knowledge, or more subtle character traits. Emphasizing the
exploratory nature of this study, our goal was not to establish and test hypotheses but
rather to understand the differences or contradictions between the literature findings
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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and the respondents’ opinions. Given the limited number of empirical studies available
on the topic of self-marketing, we aimed to expand the existing body of literature
through our research questions and provide a foundation for future studies. Our study
focused on addressing the following research questions.
● What tactical support do our respondents, job seekers along the Danube region,
use to prepare for interviews? Do they focus on adjusting their appearance to
meet expectations, or do they work on developing their skills? Do they build a
network of connections, or do they consciously use social media?
● Which traits do the survey respondents consider essential for securing and
maintaining a job, and which become apparent during a first impression? If we
treat importance as a weight, to what extent, in percentage, do employers get to
know the applicants?
● Is there a difference between the self-marketing attitudes of the two genders? In
which aspects do their views align? What underlies these attitudes?
● How does age influence perspectives related to self-marketing?
The topic of self-marketing is a central element of one of our dissertations, and
we therefore anticipate conducting further research in this area, incorporating both
qualitative approaches and open-ended questions. The quantitative analysis was
primarily intended for broad exploration of the topic, while future studies will build
on these results to conduct personal interviews, providing deeper and more detailed
insights into respondents’ experiences and motivations.
We received 339 responses to our questionnaire (Table 1), with a slight majority
of female respondents, accounting for 57.2%. Of the respondents, 72.6% are residents
of Hungary, while 27.4% are from Slovakia. Regarding age distribution, we received
minimal responses (2.4%) from the slowly retiring baby boomer generation.
Responses were almost evenly distributed among the other generations, with the
highest response rate observed in Generation Y (39.2%). The age distribution closely
mirrors the distribution of those considering a job change.
Table 1. Demographic data.
Gender (%)
Residence (%)
Male
42.8
Hungary
72.6
Female
57.2
Slovakia
27.4
Birth year
Settlement type
Between 1946–1964
2.4
Village (population under 5000)
40.7
Between 1965–1979
24.8
Small town (population between 5000 and 20,000)
26.8
Between 1980–1994
39.2
Medium-sized town (population between 20,000 and 100,000)
27.7
1995 or later
33.6
City (population over 100,000)
4.7
Occupation (%)
Education (%)
Student
16.2
Primary education
0.6
Employee
74.6
Secondary education
36.9
Entrepreneur
8.3
Higher education
62.5
Unemployed
0.9
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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From an occupational perspective, the distribution of respondents follows the
general social structure, with the number of employees being significantly higher than
that of students and entrepreneurs. The number of respondents with primary education
is low (0.6%), while those with higher education qualifications are double the number
of those with secondary education. Since we received responses from the North-
Western region of Hungary and South-Eastern Slovakia, the response rate from capital
cities is minimal. Most responses came from settlements within the surveyed areas.
Based on the above, we can conclude that the sample does not reflect the entire
social distribution and is, therefore, not representative. The most significant distortion
was observed in terms of educational qualifications.
4. Results and discussion
The relevance of our survey is demonstrated by the fact that 87.3% of respondents
consider the opinion formed based on first impressions to be an important factor. A
typical setting for this is the job interview, where we aim to “rent out” our skills. We
reviewed self-marketing techniques in Table 2. Based on this, we reached the
following conclusions. Conscious use of social media, networking, consulting with a
style advisor, and utilizing a coach can all be viewed positively as tools to help “sell”
oneself. However, from the employer’s perspective, these methods may also obscure
certain personality traits (see Table 2).
Table 2. Methods used by the respondents to sell themselves.
I have used the services of a style consultant,
photographer, makeup artist, or other
appearance-enhancing professional
I have used the services of a coach,
personality development expert, speech
coach, or other skill development professional
I consciously
build my
network
I consciously use
social media
platforms
24
61
146
103
● Few respondents (24 people, 7.1%) seek professional advice for their appearance,
even though this is crucial during job interviews. It is not enough to think only
about regular beauty care. Technical professionals’ expected appearance differs
significantly from candidates in creative fields.
● Those who use the assistance of a coach, personality development expert, speech
coach, or other skill development professionals (61 people, 18%) are not aiming
to create a false image but are seeking real improvement in a relatively short time.
Recruitment professionals should pay attention to this, as it is essential to discern
whether a positive impression is a result of innate ability or dedicated effort.
● Instead of merely examining social media presence (103 people, 30.4%), HR
professionals would benefit more from exploring the candidate’s entire digital
footprint (e.g., childhood competitions, statements, appearances on others’
platforms, positions on social issues, and expressed opinions). Conscious use of
the web and a well-thought-out media presence may be prerequisites for
successful career building in specific fields.
● Conscious networking, which is considered important by nearly half of the
respondents (146 people, 43.1%), can be an indicator of career ambition.
However, individuals who strategically build connections upward may lose their
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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sensitivity to reality. With a narrowing circle of contacts, they are more likely to
misunderstand the challenges faced by the less fortunate members of society.
Participation in training programs (Figure 1) can provide an advantage in the
competition for desirable jobs. We did not categorize training as a tactic, as acquiring
marketable knowledge often requires significant effort and sometimes years of
dedication. In line with the demands driven by increasing digitalization and a changing
environment, three-quarters of respondents feel it is important to expand their existing
knowledge continuously. Nearly half of the respondents (42%) prefer participating in
professional training related to their work, while 5% opt for skill development courses.
An additional 27% of respondents expressed interest in both “soft skill” and “hard
skill” courses. Meanwhile, 26% of respondents indicated that they do not participate
in further training or classes beyond their already acquired qualifications.
Figure 1. Respondents’ willingness to participate in training.
Table 3 shows the ranking of external and internal traits as prioritized by our
respondents. The ranking was established based on the number of mentions, and the
list includes both internal and external characteristics and mixed traits.
Table 3. Ranking of characteristics considered important by the respondents.
Number of Mentions
Perceptibility
Trait
61
Only after a longer relationship
Reliability
55
At the first meeting
Appearance
52
At the first meeting
Charisma
47
At the first meeting
Grooming
37
Only after a longer relationship
Authenticity
32
At the first meeting
Verbal communication
30
At the first meeting
First impression
22
Only after a longer relationship
Empathy
21
At the first meeting
Smile
14
Only after a longer relationship
Experience
13
At the first meeting
Clothing style
11
Only after a longer relationship
Commitment
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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Table 3. (Continued).
Number of Mentions
Perceptibility
Trait
11
Only after a longer relationship
Interest in others
11
At the first meeting
Non-verbal communication
9
Only after a longer relationship
Determination
6
Only after a longer relationship
Selflessness
5
At the first meeting
Attractiveness
4
From documents, online
Content shared on social media
platforms
4
From documents, online
Education
4
At the first meeting
Being a good listener
4
From documents, online
Network
1
At the first meeting
Tone of voice
Using the mentions as a weight, we found that 60% of the most essential traits
identified by the respondents can be assessed during the first meeting (Figure 2). This
result supports the relevance of literature emphasizing the importance of opinions
formed after first impressions. A significant portion (38%) of the listed characteristics
and traits remain hidden after the initial meeting.
Figure 2. Proportion of characteristics that can be identified during the first encounter.
The average values presented in Table 4 are for informational purposes only, as
they were calculated from ordinal variables. Based on the size of the standard deviation,
the smallest value is found in the importance of grooming, while the most significant
value is in empathy. According to the ranking of the average values, the two most
highly rated traits are reliability (mean = 4.56) and authenticity (mean = 4.53). The
ranking continues with external traits noticeable during the first meeting, such as
grooming (mean = 4.5), charisma (mean = 4.21), first impression (mean = 4.13),
appearance (mean = 4.11), and smile (mean = 4.07). According to our respondents,
the least important factor in assessing a person is education (mean = 2.99).
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
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Table 4. Assessment of the characteristics.
Evaluated Trait
Data
percentage distribution [%]
Valid
Average
Med
Mod
Std. Dev.
Least impor-tant
2
3
4
Very impor-tant
Reliability
339
4.56
4
5
0.809
2.4
0
6.2
21.8
69.6
Authenticity
339
4.53
4
5
0.857
2.4
1.5
5.6
21.8
68.7
Grooming
339
4.5
4
5
0.786
2.4
0
4.1
32.4
61.1
Charisma
339
4.21
3.5
5
0.891
1.8
3.2
10.9
40.4
43.7
First Impression
339
4.13
4
4
0.902
2.7
2.1
12.7
44.5
38.1
Appearance
339
4.11
4
4
0.814
2.7
0.6
10.6
55.8
30.4
Smile
339
4.07
3
4
0.892
1.8
1.8
20.4
39.5
36.6
Verbal Communication
339
4.02
3.5
4
0.856
2.4
1.8
16.2
51
28.6
Commitment
339
4.01
3.5
4
0.974
2.7
3.5
20.1
37.2
36.6
Determination
339
3.94
3.5
4
0.998
2.1
6.2
22.1
35.4
34.2
Empathy
339
3.93
3.5
4
1.038
3.5
5
21.2
35.4
34.8
Selflessness
339
3.84
3.5
4
0.97
1.8
5.9
28
35.4
28.9
Clothing Style
339
3.71
4
4
0.89
3.2
5
23.6
53.7
14.5
Experience
339
3.68
4
4
0.91
3.5
5.3
25.1
51.6
14.5
Interest in Others
339
3.63
2
4
0.921
2.4
6.8
32.7
41.3
16.8
Good Listener
339
3.62
3
4
0.961
4.4
4.4
32.7
41.9
16.5
Tone of Voice
339
3.6
2
4
1.025
3.5
10
28.6
38.1
19.8
Attractiveness
339
3.52
3.5
3
0.878
2.1
4.4
48.4
29.8
15.3
Education
339
2.99
3.5
3
0.98
7.4
21.8
40.4
25.7
4.7
Our research examined six literature-based statements to determine whether there
were differences in how men and women perceived them. Significant differences were
identified in three of the statements.
According to Purkiss and Royston-Lee (2010), many people mistakenly believe
that self-marketing is unnecessary because those who work hard and persistently will
naturally be noticed and recognized. In our sample, we found a significant difference
between the opinions of men and women (p = 0.001), with women more likely to agree
that self-marketing is unnecessary. The results suggest that women are more likely to
invest less effort into building their personal brand, increasing the likelihood of
missing out on promotion opportunities. Their family burdens further exacerbate their
limited opportunities, which is reinforced by their more reserved attitude.
Újvári (2014) argues that the benefits of self-marketing are primarily evident in
businesses where the service provider or consultant plays a crucial role. Additionally,
having a strong personal brand can make it easier to land one’s dream job. Our research
shows that female respondents are more likely to agree with this statement than male
respondents, with a significant difference observed (p = 0.002).
The agreement with the first two statements is somewhat contradictory. While
women acknowledge the necessity of self-marketing and its impact on career building
and business success, they do not consider its application important in their own cases.
Based on the results, women prioritize family harmony over career advancement.
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
13
Hofstede’s (2008) cultural dimension of femininity and masculinity reflects the
extent to which society is driven by competition, performance, and success. In
masculine societies, success-oriented values are instilled as early as school and persist
throughout organizational life. Leaders are expected to be decisive, with an emphasis
on competition and performance, and conflicts are resolved through confrontation.
Status symbols, such as cars, houses, and clothing, and their display play a significant
role in daily life. Achieving these requires long working hours and dedicated effort. In
feminine societies, the dominant value is caring for others, and quality of life is the
primary indicator of success. According to Hofstede Insight (2023), Hungarian and
Slovak societies are distinctly masculine, a characteristic further confirmed by our
research findings (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Comparison of Hungary and Slovakia based on Hofstede’s 6-dimensional.
Table 5. Evaluation of statements from the perspective of women and men.
Statements
Men tend to agree more
Women tend to agree more
No difference
Self-marketing is unnecessary because those who work hard
and persistently will be noticed and recognized anyway. p =
0.001
x
The benefits of self-marketing are primarily evident in
businesses where the service provider or consultant is
important, but having a good personal brand can also make it
easier to land your dream job. p = 0.002
x
When creating good self-marketing, external appearance,
non-verbal communication, and first impressions are key, as
they influence the further development of relationships with
us. p = 0.114
x
Self-marketing helps to create a positive impression, which
would have developed over time anyway. p = 0.533
x
People are instinctively attracted to those who smile because
it suggests confidence, happiness, and enthusiasm. p = 0.206
x
As average individuals, we express ourselves both in person
and in the virtual space, and a perception is formed about us
based on our behavior and social media presence. p = 0.036
x
According to Hetesi (2015), as average individuals, we express ourselves both in
person and the virtual space, and a perception is formed about us based on our behavior
and presence on social media. In the case of this statement, with a p-value of 0.036,
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
14
we can assert with 95% confidence that women are more concerned with external
feedback and the content shared online. Niederle (2016) explains this phenomenon by
noting that men and women possess different cognitive traits, with men being more
confident and competitive than women. In examining age differences in statements
derived from the literature, we identified significant differences in two of the six cases
(Table 5). Among the younger age group, there is a clear increase in the perceived
importance of being present on social media platforms and in the virtual space (p <
0.001).
A similar conclusion can be drawn regarding the importance of smiling, which is
highly valued by the digital generation, as it conveys confidence, happiness, and
enthusiasm (p < 0.001), qualities that are particularly important to younger individuals.
Meanwhile, Godány (2018) cites a lack of self-confidence, fear of failure, and
prejudice as inhibiting factors for women when starting businesses. In the case of
Lieberman’s (2017) emphasis on the importance of smiling and Hogan’s (2008) focus
on the significance of non-verbal communication, no significant difference was found
between the opinions of men and women.
5. Conclusion
With the spread of the internet and social media platforms, in addition to
traditional product marketing, increasing attention is being paid to personal marketing.
We are present on numerous online social platforms, form opinions, share information
and content, and thereby influence others. Our analysis aims to expand knowledge
related to self-marketing, drawing upon established findings in the existing literature.
Due to interdisciplinary overlaps, it cannot be definitively stated that personal
branding solely requires marketing knowledge; hence, in our literature review, we also
considered insights from the field of psychology.
Among the conclusions of authors emphasizing the necessity of personal
branding, we highlighted a few that researchers believe are of paramount importance
in building a favorable image. Beyond documented knowledge and skills, information
conveyed through non-verbal channels also plays a crucial role in external perception.
The authors agree that the goal of building a marketable self is not to showcase false
attributes but rather to manage oneself and continuously highlight and develop existing
abilities consciously.
Our survey aimed to understand how much importance respondents place on
conscious influence to achieve greater success. We asked participants to rank the
importance of external and internal traits highlighted from the literature in forming a
positive personal brand, and to indicate their level of agreement with statements
previously formulated by researchers.
Respondents generally ranked external characteristics at the top, indicating that
outward appearances play a significant role in a person’s judgment. Despite this, few
seek expert help in shaping their appearance or style. Respondents place even greater
importance on consciously building a network, suggesting that they trust more in the
power of social capital than in succeeding through individual abilities—still a distinct
characteristic of Central and Eastern European countries.
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(16), 9702.
15
Women tend to place greater importance on external perception, which can
hinder the process of conscious personal branding, making workplace invisibility more
common and acceptable for them. For the younger generation, happiness emerges as
a key consideration, but displaying that happiness on social media platforms is even
more important. Consciously shaping a positive personal brand is essential for those
aspiring to a career or successful business, as possessing skills and abilities alone is
insufficient if they remain invisible and do not serve one’s goals.
The main limitation of our research is the lack of representativeness, which does
not allow for drawing general conclusions beyond the sample. Significant distortions
were observed in the sample distribution for several demographic characteristics, such
as education, where respondents with higher education were overrepresented. Unequal
distribution was also noted regarding employment and citizenship; thus, the results
cannot be generalized to the two countries or employment types. Our findings may
serve as guidance for future research on self-marketing, and we aim to achieve a
representative sample in future studies, enabling the formation of homogeneous,
comparable groups in terms of education, employment, and age.
When interpreting the results, it is important to consider that the sample does not
fully reflect the true composition of society, as the number of respondents with lower
levels of education is limited. However, there is significant demand today for reliable
and conscientious skilled workers and cleaners. It would be beneficial to develop
methods that make their positive qualities more visible to employers, helping them
secure positions where their work is appreciated and, where possible, rewarded
financially. Given the underrepresentation of respondents with lower education levels
in the sample, we set the goal of paying greater attention to the inclusion of this group
in future studies, which could enhance the broader applicability and practical
relevance of our research findings.
On the path to understanding self-marketing, we initially selected a sample from
a cultural context familiar to us. However, it would be highly interesting to analyze
and compare the self-management practices of employees from different cultural
backgrounds. This could reveal methods that are mutually beneficial across cultures,
while other practices may be less effective within our own geographical area and
cultural context.
Author contributions: Conceptualization, LJ, SMS and SJ; methodology, SJ and
SMS; software, SMS and SJ; validation, LJ, SM and SMS; formal analysis, SJ;
investigation, SMS, LJ and SJ; resources, LJ, SJ and SM; data curation, SJ, SMS, LJ
and SM; writing—original draft preparation, LJ, SMS, SJ and SM; writing—review
and editing, SJ, SMS, SM and LJ; visualization, SMS and SJ; supervision, LJ; project
administration, SM; funding acquisition, SJ and SMS. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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