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Artykuł ma na celu ustalenie wpływu fluktuacji wskaźników makroekonomicznych na skłonności inwestycyjne przedsiębiorstw, mierzone wskaźnikiem intensywności inwestycji – zdefiniowanym jako stosunek wydatków inwestycyjnych do całkowitych przychodów. Analiza obejmuje pięć sektorów przemysłu przetwórczego w Polsce (według Klasyfikacji Działalności PKD) generujących największe przychody. Wykorzystując niepublikowane panelowe dane kwartalne GUS z lat 2008–2022 pochodzące z badań F-01 i F-02, w badaniu skoncentrowano się na średnich i dużych przedsiębiorstwach. Zastosowanie analizy kointegracji oraz modelu wektorowej korekty błędu (VECM) pozwala na określenie wskaźników makroekonomicznych, które trwale wpływają na skłonności inwestycyjne w poszczególnych sektorach. Badanie pozwoliło również stwierdzić sezonowość inwestycji w tych sektorach, ujawnić głęboką długoterminową korelację między inwestycjami korporacyjnymi a wskaźnikami makroekonomicznymi oraz uchwycić zarówno trwałe równowagi, jak i przejściowe fluktuacje. Co istotne dowiedziono w nim zróżnicowany wpływ makroekonomii na decyzje inwestycyjne z PKB i SP jako kluczowymi elementami w sektorze chemicznym (PKD-20) oraz to, że dynamika czasowa i międzysektorowa wyraźnie wpływa na sektor komputerów i elektroniki (PKD-26). Te spostrzeżenia dowodzą złożoności efektów makroekonomicznych w kontekście strategii inwestycyjnych funkcjonujących w ramach przemysłowej struktury Polski.
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Macroeconomic Determinants of
Investment Decisions for Medium
and Large Enterprises in Poland’s
Manufacturing Sector
Makroekonomiczne determinanty decyzji inwestycyjnych
średnich i dużych przedsiębiorstw sektora przetwórstwa
przemysłowego w Polsce
Keywords:
Poland, cointegration, medium and
large company, manufacturing sector,
Vector Error Correction Model
JEL classification codes:
C32, E20, E60, G30, L60
Article history:
submitted: November 22, 2023
revised: May 24, 2024
accepted: July 8, 2024
Abstract
-



-


-







-
-

Streszczenie


-
-
 




Istnieje od / Published since 1931
Adam Zając
Cardi nal Stefan Wyszyn ski Univer sity
in War saw, Poland
Michał Wielechowski
Wars aw Uni versity of Li fe Sciences – SGGW,
Poland
Krzysztof Smol
Univ ersity of War saw, Po land
Dariusz Karaś
Cardi nal Stefan Wyszyn ski Univer sity
in War saw, Poland
4(320)2024, 74–92
DOI: 10.33119/GN/190908
gnpje.sgh.waw.pl
Słowa kluczowe:
Polska, kointegracja, średnie i duże
przedsiębiorstwo, sektor przemysłu
przetwórczego, model wektorowej
korekty błędu
Kody klasyfikacji JEL :
C32, E20, E60, G30, L60
Historia artykułu:
nadesłany: 22 listopada 2023 r.
poprawiony: 24 maja 2024 r.
zaakceptowany: 8 lipca 2024 r.
GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
75
 
 






-

Introduction
-

Alperovych etal., 2019Audretsch, 2018Bloch and Bhattacharya, 2016Zając etal.,
2021-
Ordeñana etal., 2019
Korzyński, 2014

Korzyński etal., 2023

Karaś,
2020
Ianioglo, Põlajeva, 2016
Smyth 2000
Varum
and Rocha 2013
Harvey and Jones 1992
Ahrend and Martins 2003

Barrow and Hall 1995

Guo etal., 2020

Dresler, Czekaj,
2016
Sierpińska,
Jachna, 2007-
Michalak, 2007-

Walica, 1999-
-
Janik, Gałązka, 2014

Szymczak, 2017

76 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…

Milewski, Kwiatkowski, 2005
-
King 1974-



Tokuoka 2012
Mlambo and Oshikoya 2001

Rashid and Saeed 2017-

Białowolski and Węziak-Białowolska 2014
-
Grundy and Johnson 1993-
Männasoo and Maripuu 2015
  
Fernández-Gámez etal. 2020-
Aytürk 2017-
 
Farla 2014
Issah and Antwi 2017


Cieślik 2019

Cieślik, 2020
Sytnik etal. 2019
Walkenhorst 2004
Sachpazidu-Wójcicka 2017
Lisowski etal.
2021
-

-

-



-





GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
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Literature review

-
-
Białowolski, Węziak-Białowolska,
2014


-


  

-
Barro, 1990Mankiw, 2010


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
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Bleaney, 1996
-
Mishkin, 2016

Romer, 2012
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Blanchard etal. 2017
Mankiw 2015

-
Aghion
etal. 2010Kopp etal., 2019-
  
-








Barro, 1990Aschauer
1989

 Afonso, Sousa, 2012Pérez-Montiel and Manera Erbina
78 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
2019


 
  
-
Bhatia and Mitchell 2016

Fiebiger 2018-

Zhang and Guo 2020
-


Boamah etal. 2018

 Amighini et al. 2017

Zaidi etal. 2019
Rules and Rules 1992-
-
Kitao 2008

Bayer 2008
-


-
Helpman etal., 2004
-
Handley, Limão, 2017


Melitz,
2003He and Huang 2021 
Montobbio and Rampa 2005
-
Liu and Lu 2015
Ottaviano and Volpe Martincus 2009
Esaku 2020
-

-

Grossman, Helpman, 1991Gonchar and Kuznetsov 2018
  

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Yang etal. 2004

Siedschlag and Yan 2021
Li etal. 2018

 




Swi 2006

Mohamed and Youssef 2004

Nucci and Pozzolo 2001-
Sercu and Vanhulle
1992
Lee 2017

Lotfal-
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Atella etal. 2003-
-
Aghion etal., 2009

Allayannis, Ofek, 2001
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-
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
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-

-

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Chirinko, 1993
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Modigliani, Miller, 1958-

Bernanke, Gertler, 1995Suyuan and Khurshid 2015
80 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
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Yoon and Ratti 2011-
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Lin and Moubarak 2014Sadath and Acharya 2015
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Uri 19801981
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  -
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 Haluska etal., 2021Freitas, Christianes, 2020
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
-
-
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-
  

Freitas, Serrano, 2015-

Basu, Budhiraja, 2021
Nah, Lavoie, 2019

Basu, Budhiraja, 2021Gabrisch,
2021
Basu, Budhiraja, 2021
Gabrisch,
2021-
Borsato, Lorentz,
2023
Pariboni, 2016
Molero-Simarro, 20152017
-
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Araujo, Moreira, 2021Hartwig, 2014
 
Pariboni, 2016-
Serrano, Freitas, 2017
-


   



-
 

-







Methodology
-
-
-
 





   
-

-
   
-


-
-

-


82 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
Granger, 1993
Janik, Gałązka, 2014


-


Charemza, Deadman, 1997

Favero, 2001Malczyk, 2011
 
Granger, 1981
Hendry, 1995Johansen, 1991Sims, 1972-


Engle, Granger, 1987Johansen,
1988Maddala, 2006Welfe, 1995Engle, Granger, 1987
  
Majsterek, 2014
-


-

 
 
 
 
 
  


-
Coleman, 2012Krugman, Wells, 2022



Engle, Granger, 1991Majsterek, 2014
Majsterek, 2014
Results


-


GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
83

-
-

Table 1. Description and summary of descriptive statistics for the time series used
Time series [label] Mean Median Standard
deviation
Coefficient
of Variation Skewness Kurtosis
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] . . . . . .
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] . . . . . .
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] . . . . . .
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] . . . . . .
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] . . . . . –.
Gross Domestic Product [PKB] . . . . –. .
Domestic demand [PK] . . . . –. .
Final consumption expenditure [SP] . . . . –. .
Consumption expenditure in households
sector [K] . . . . –. .
Public consumption [SPB] . . . . –. .
Gross capital formation [AKU] . . . . . .
Exports [EXP] . . . . –. .
Imports [IMP] . . . . –. .
Exchange rate EUR/PLN [EURPLN] . . . . –. .
Wage dynamics in the economy (y/y) [WAGE] . . . . . .
Interest rates WIBORM [WIBORM] . . . . . –.
CPI Energy (y/y) [CPI_ENERGY] . . . . . .
Unemployment rate [BEZR] . . . . –. –.

-


 


Socha, Wdowiński, 2018
-
Elliott etal., 1996-
Elliott
etal., 1996
Stock, Watson, 2007

Malczyk, 2011

Socha, Wdowiński, 2018



84 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
Table 2. ADF-GLS test results for the tested time series
Time series [label] ADF-GLS test with intercept and linear trend
H: I(), H: I() H: I(), H: I() H: I(), H: I()
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] –. –.***
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] –. –.***
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] –. –.***
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] –. –.***
Investment to revenue ratio PKD  [Y] –. –.***
GDP growth [PKB] –.* –.**
[PK] –.* –.* –.***
[SP] –.* –.**
[K] –.* –.**
[SPB] –.***
[AKU] –.* – .**
[EXP] –.***
[IMP] –.**
[EURPLN] –.**
[WAGE] –. –. –.***
[WIBORM] –. –.***
[CPI_ENERGY] –. –. –.**
[BEZR] –. –. –.***
          
            
 α α  α 



α
-


-

Johansen, 1988 


Majsterek, 2014
Johansen, Juselius, 1990
 -
Hansen, Johansen, 1999
Syczewska, 2014
Table 3. Cointegration analysis using the Johansen method – results of the trace test
Order Eigenvalue Trace test [p value]
. . [.]
. . [.]
. . [.]
. . [.]

GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
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
α
-


-

-
Salamaga, 2015
Table 4. Results of VECM model estimation
Explanatory
variables
Modelled variable DYt in the VECM model
DPKD DPKD DPKD DPKD DPKD
DPKD_ −.*** −. −. .* −.
DPKD_ . −.* . −. .*
DPKD_ −. . −.*** . .
DPKD_ .** −.** . . −.
DPKD_ . .** . −.* .
PKB . −.*** . .* −.
SP . .** −. −. −.
K −. −. −. . .
AKU .* . −. . .
WIBORM −. −. −. . −.
S −.*** −.*** −.*** −.*** −.***
S −. −. −. . −.
S −. −.*** −.*** . −.*
time −. .** −. −.*** .
const −. .** −. −.* .
EC −.* .*** −. −.*** .**
R squared .% .% .% .% .%
          -
ααα

-
-

-
-


-




-




86 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
Conclusions
-

-
-





Becchetti, 2007
-
    
 
-
  

-




-

-


-




References
Applied Economics 


 


 
Post-Communist Economies 



Journal of International

GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
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
-






  






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






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





    Applied Economics



   Economics






     




Nowa ekonometria

Journal of Economic Literature
 

88 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…











Econometrica





Economics
Applied Economics

Applied Macroeconomics













Empirica


Journal of Econo-
metrics




-


Metroeconomica


    Econometrics Journal 
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GOSPODARKA NARODOWA / The Polish Journal of Economics / 4(320)2024
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



 







    -



Ekonomia

 

Econo-



-
-


     



Central


International

Macroeconomics


-

 

    
 
  Journal of International



90 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
Ekonometria



Macroeconomics
Principles of Economics


  

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  

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
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

Journal of

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 
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    


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


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

European

   











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-





-


   



European Journal




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
    






Corporate

   
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

-
nomiczne




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



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


92 Adam Zając, Michał Wielechowski, Krzysztof Smoleń, Dariusz Karaś, Macroeconomic Determinants…
  
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   
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

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

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
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Velho G, Froguel P, Clement K, Pueyo ME, Rakotoambinina B, et al. Primary pancreatic beta-cell secretory defect caused by mutations in glucokinase gene in kindreds of maturity onset diabetes of the young.
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Objective: The article aims to examine the use of technology in leadership, and whether it can bring real advantages to leadership effectiveness. Research Design & Methods: In this article, we provide a preliminary analysis of empirical research conducted among managers working in the USA, Japan, India, and France on technology use. The analysis was conducted on a country level. Findings: We found that technology is an important issue, but the application of too many technological solutions is not effective for leaders. Analysis of non-technological solutions to overcome a constraint is necessary, especially in the long term. Implications & Recommendations: The study was devoted to the use of new technologies by leaders in different countries. We examined technologies that have influenced present-day leadership and contemporary business in recent years. Without any doubt, new technologies such as ChatGPT will have an impact on the current leadership. Contribution & Value Added: The article’s added value consists of the updated and synthetic presentation of the application of different technologies in leadership activities.
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There is much research about the determinants of investments, but there is a shortage of similar studies for Poland. Therefore, the overall goal of the paper is to analyze the determinants of investments made by enterprises from the energy sector as well as their delays in Poland in the years 2000–2019. In this period, a strong growth of investments in energy was observed in the country. In connection to this, the authors set four hypotheses and verified them with the following statistical methods: canonical analysis, linear and causality correlation, autocorrelation and cointegration tests. The paper found that there is a relationship between public consumption and investment spending of small enterprises in Poland. That means that only some macroeconomic parameters are connected with investments. Moreover, the changes in the value of past investments has a negative influence in current investments.
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This paper contributes to the literature around the Kaldor–Verdoorn law and analyses the impact of robotisation on the channels through which the law shapes labour-productivity growth. We start with a simple evolutionary reinterpretation of the law that combines Kaldorian and neo-Schumpeterian arguments. We then apply a GMM estimator to a panel of 17 industries in 25 OECD capitalist economies for the period 1990–2018. After elaborating on the general evidence of the evolutionary interpretation of the law, the estimates suggest a positive influence from robotisation: a higher robot density strengthens both the channel that ties labour productivity dynamics with mechanisation, and the one connected with the general advancement of science and technology which joins productivity to aggregate demand. This overall result is robust to several specifications of the underlying econometric model. Moreover, we find some evidence of technological unemployment out of the macroeconomic factor. Results agree with the empirical literature that suggests different impacts from robotisation on the basis of the level of economic activity considered.
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This paper builds a fully specified parsimonious Sraffian supermultiplier stock-flow consistent model (SSM-SFC) with two non-capacity-creating autonomous expenditures: residential investment and capitalist consumption. Our model represents a closed economy without a government sector with workers and capitalist households and only the latter are not credit-constrained. The introduction of residential investment implies that our SSM-SFC model has two real assets: firms’ productive capital and households’ real estate. In our model, the residential investment growth rate responds to changes in house price inflation, and capitalist consumption is financed out of financial wealth. The numerical simulation experiments show that our model adheres to the main results of the standard Sraffian supermultiplier growth model. As a particular result, an increase in the residential investment growth rate implies a decrease in real estate share in total real assets. Our numerical simulations can reproduce some stylised facts such as residential investment leading the business cycle and capital accumulation and a clockwise pattern between non-capacity creating autonomous expenditures and capacity utilisation rate.
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We present an extension of the Goodwin growth-cycle model that considers the rate of capacity utilization as a new variable in an adapted Lotka–Volterra system of differential equations. We derive a differential equation for the capacity utilization that is proportional to the difference between the output expansion function and capital accumulation. With this approach, we clarify the connections between demand, labour market, and capital accumulation in a model that generates a cyclical pattern for employment rate, profit share, and capacity utilization. After studying the obtained model from a qualitative viewpoint, we test it by using a vector autoregression (VAR) on the US economy using quarterly data from 1970 to 2019. From generalized impulse-response functions, we conclude that a positive profit share innovation positively affects both the employment rate and the rate of capacity utilization, suggesting a profit-led pattern. These results support the theoretical model presented, especially regarding the profit-squeeze mechanism. In sum, the results support Goodwin’s idea that, in the last decades, cycles have been an inherent characteristic of the growth process for the US economy.
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With the continuous development of the global economy, global energy resources have been severely consumed in the past few decades. Under this situation, can trade play a positive role in optimizing the allocation of resources and help to solve the global energy problem? This topic is extremely important for promoting the sustainable development of global economy. However, up to now, little is known about the relationship between trade and energy consumption in production. This paper establishes a trade model at the firm-level to analyze the impacts of export on firms’ energy efficiency in production. Our model shows that export can lead to the increase of firms’ energy efficiency. We also propose a novel mechanism of innovation investment to explain why export affects firms’ environmental performance. Export can stimulate firms to invest more in innovation, and thereby improving firms’ energy efficiency, which implies that trade liberalization is beneficial to the improvement of firms’ environmental performance. These findings in our theoretical model can be applied to different industries and different countries. Altogether, this paper is the first theoretical analysis to study the impacts of export on firms’ energy efficiency, having important policy implications on promoting sustainable development of the global economy.
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The Kaldor-Verdoorn law refers to a positive but less than one-for-one causal relationship between the growth rates of output and labour productivity. While empirical research has found that the Kaldor-Verdoorn coefficient lies between 0 and 1, the interpretation of this finding remains unclear. In this paper, we present a model to derive the Kaldor-Verdoorn law. Our results show that the Kaldor-Verdoorn coefficient is jointly determined by the elasticity of factor substitution, labour supply elasticity, the profit share and the increasing returns to scale (or demand-induced technical change) parameter. Hence, estimated Kaldor-Verdoorn coefficients cannot be used, on their own, to infer the presence of aggregate increasing returns to scale—with the exception of the benchmark case of Leontief Production technology (and steady-state analysis coupled with the assumption of Cobb-Douglas production technology). We also report a surprising result: an economy without aggregate increasing returns to scale (or without any demand-induced technical progress) can generate a Kaldor-Verdoorn coefficient that lies between 0 and 1.