Rejuvenation of the Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas Through Transdisciplinary Approaches—A Review

Abstract

The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, known as the “water tower of the world,” is experiencing severe water scarcity due to declining discharge of spring water across the HKH region. This decline is driven by climate change, unsustainable human activities, and rising water demand, leading to significant impacts on rural agriculture, urban migration, and socio-economic stability. This expansive review judiciously combines both the researchers’ experiences and a traditional literature review. This review investigates the factors behind reduced spring discharge and advocates for a transdisciplinary approach to address the issue. It stresses integrating scientific knowledge with community-based interventions, recognizing that water management involves not just technical solutions but also human values, behaviors, and political considerations. The paper explores the benefits of public–private partnerships (PPPs) and participatory approaches for large-scale spring rejuvenation. By combining the strengths of both sectors and engaging local communities, sustainable spring water management can be achieved through collaborative and inclusive strategies. It also highlights the need for capacity development and knowledge transfer, including training local hydrogeologists, mapping recharge areas, and implementing sustainable land use practices. In summary, the review offers insights and recommendations for tackling declining spring discharge in the HKH region. By promoting a transdisciplinary, community-centric approach, it aims to support policymakers, researchers, and practitioners in ensuring the sustainable management of water resources and contributing to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Full text

Citation: Pant, N.; Hagare, D.;
Maheshwari, B.; Rai, S.P.; Sharma, M.;
Dollin, J.; Bhamoriya, V.; Puthiyottil,
N.; Prasad, J. Rejuvenation of the
Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas
Through Transdisciplinary
Approaches—A Review. Water 2024,
16, 3675. https://doi.org/10.3390/
w16243675
Academic Editor: Amit Kumar
Received: 7 September 2024
Revised: 4 December 2024
Accepted: 4 December 2024
Published: 20 December 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Review
Rejuvenation of the Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas
Through Transdisciplinary Approaches—A Review
Neeraj Pant 1, * , Dharmappa Hagare 1, * , Basant Maheshwari 2, Shive Prakash Rai 3, Megha Sharma 4,
Jen Dollin 5, Vaibhav Bhamoriya 6, Nijesh Puthiyottil 3and Jyothi Prasad 7
1School of Engineering, Design and Built Environment, Western Sydney University,
Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
2School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
3Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
4G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Kosi-Katarmal 263601, Uttarakhand, India
5School of Education, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
6Indian Institute of Management, Kashipur 244713, Uttarakhand, India
7Department of Civil Engineering, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,
Pantnagar 263145, Uttarakhand, India
*Correspondence: 19990385@student.westernsydney.edu.au (N.P.); d.hagare@westernsydney.edu.au (D.H.)
Abstract: The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, known as the “water tower of the world”, is
experiencing severe water scarcity due to declining discharge of spring water across the HKH region.
This decline is driven by climate change, unsustainable human activities, and rising water demand,
leading to significant impacts on rural agriculture, urban migration, and socio-economic stability. This
expansive review judiciously combines both the researchers’ experiences and a traditional literature
review. This review investigates the factors behind reduced spring discharge and advocates for a
transdisciplinary approach to address the issue. It stresses integrating scientific knowledge with
community-based interventions, recognizing that water management involves not just technical
solutions but also human values, behaviors, and political considerations. The paper explores the
benefits of public–private partnerships (PPPs) and participatory approaches for large-scale spring
rejuvenation. By combining the strengths of both sectors and engaging local communities, sustainable
spring water management can be achieved through collaborative and inclusive strategies. It also
highlights the need for capacity development and knowledge transfer, including training local
hydrogeologists, mapping recharge areas, and implementing sustainable land use practices. In
summary, the review offers insights and recommendations for tackling declining spring discharge
in the HKH region. By promoting a transdisciplinary, community-centric approach, it aims to
support policymakers, researchers, and practitioners in ensuring the sustainable management of
water resources and contributing to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Keywords: Hindu Kush Himalaya; SDGs; sustainable spring water management; transdisciplinary
approach; migration; IAD framework; SES framework
1. Introduction
Given their significant contribution to global freshwater supplies and the polar regions,
the Himalayas are referred to as the earth’s third pole [
1
]. Across eight nations (India,
China, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan), the Hindu Kush
Himalayas (HKH) area stretches for around 3500 km. With approximately 12,000 glaciers
spanning 41,000 km
3
, the HKH region is home to the largest glacier systems [
2
]. Snow,
glaciers, and springs are the main contributing factors that keep the major rivers flowing
during the year’s lean-flow period [
3
,
4
]. Flowing from the Himalayan cryospheric system,
the principal rivers (Yangtze, Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Mekong, and Yellow) offer a
diverse array of ecosystem services, providing the foundation for one-fifth of the world’s
Water 2024,16, 3675. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243675 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2024,16, 3675 2 of 27
population, or 1.5 billion people, to survive [
5
]. It is well known that these rivers originate
in the Himalayas and are fed by glaciers. In contrast, precipitation in the form of rain and
snowfall contributes significantly to the water supply in river systems that are not fed
by glaciers.
Furthermore, springs are the sole reliable supply that keeps these rivers flowing
during the dry seasons. A working group on “Inventory and Revival of Springs of the
Himalaya for Water Security” was formed by the National Institution for Transforming
India (NITI) Aayog (Commission) in 2017 to assess the extent of spring-related issues.
Five million springs are thought to exist in India, almost three million of which are in the
Indian Himalayan Region alone, according to this research [
6
]. For the billions of people
living in the Himalayan region, springs are a major source of water and the natural outflow
of groundwater [
7
]. Whether in the lower plains or the headwater area, springs regulate the
hydrology of the river. Because of the major springs that contribute to their flow, nearly all
of the Himalayan rivers are perennial, flowing even during the dry season. The quality and
discharge of these springs therefore directly affects how long major rivers last. The primary
sources of water for households, agriculture, and drinking in the Himalayan regions are
springs. The majority of the river water is available for daily usage by the communities
residing near the foothills’ base. Nevertheless, the hamlets in the high-altitude regions
suffer greatly from the fact that rivers in these geographical areas are unreachable; as a
result, the communities in these locations rely mostly on the springs.
Recent climatic changes and rising temperatures, coupled with fewer rainy days
in the Himalayan region and a roughly 16% decrease in snow cover from 1990 to 2001,
have led to a reduction in spring discharge [
8
]. These changes have caused negative
mass balances, making springs increasingly vulnerable and highlighting the need for
effective spring rejuvenation efforts [
9
]. Climate change is clearly affecting precipitation
patterns and amounts, while land use changes, deforestation, reduced agricultural activities,
landslides, and soil erosion are all contributing to the decline in spring discharge observed
globally [
10
,
11
]. In the headwater regions, changes in water demand and supply have
led to disruptions in the ecosystem of the HKH region [
12
]. Therefore, it is essential to
develop comprehensive management strategies to tackle water shortages and manage
water resources in a more efficient and sustainable manner, given the fluctuations in the
factors that influence spring hydrology [11].
In recent decades, extensive research has been conducted to understand the effects of
climate change on global water resources [
13
–
15
]. Much of this research has concentrated
on surface-water hydrology because of its visibility, accessibility, and widespread use [
16
].
However, only recently have scientists, water resource managers, and policymakers started
to recognize the critical role of groundwater in providing drinking water, supporting com-
mercial and industrial activities, and sustaining global ecosystems [
13
,
17
]. The withdrawal
of groundwater from transboundary aquifers, much like surface water, is expected to have
significant political implications in the near future [
13
,
18
]. Ref. [
19
] provided a detailed
examination of issues related to transboundary aquifers and created a global map of these
groundwater resources. Nevertheless, assessing the impact of climate change on mountain
groundwater or spring hydrology remains challenging due to the numerous factors that
directly or indirectly influence these water sources [
20
]. The scarcity of discharge data,
climatic information, geological data, and land use coverage makes it particularly difficult
to gauge the extent of the problems and develop effective solutions for the water crisis in
the HKH region.
Water management extends beyond technical and scientific interventions to encom-
pass human values, behaviors, and political agendas [
21
]. Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM), as described by [
22
], integrates ecological, cultural, and economic
aspects while involving all stakeholders. [
23
] argue that the hydrosocial cycle “requires
investigating hydrosocial relations and as a broader framework for undertaking critical
political ecologies of water” (page 170), which links water changes to social impacts and
requires a transdisciplinary approach. This approach acknowledges that changes in water

Water 2024,16, 3675 3 of 27
quality and quantity can alter social structures, creating a continuous cycle of impact if not
addressed early.
Transdisciplinary research aims to bridge the gap between science and practice through
a holistic, problem-oriented approach [
24
–
26
]. Transdisciplinary water research supports
the critical decision points during the research process [
27
]. However, Ref. [
28
] suggested
that transdisciplinary research can thrive only when it is grounded in a strong foundation of
disciplinary knowledge. Apart from that, there must be a consensus among the stakeholders
to work in a transdisciplinary mode of work, rather than adopting disciplinary research
work. Ref. [
29
], argued that there must be sufficient allocation of time, funding, and
personnel to enhance and promote meaningful stakeholder participation throughout all
stages of the transdisciplinary project, from inception to completion.
In the context of the Himalayan spring ecosystem, while interdisciplinary knowledge
is present, transdisciplinary insights are still needed [
30
]. Therefore, addressing water man-
agement challenges in the Himalayas requires a transdisciplinary approach that integrates
diverse perspectives and expertise to develop solutions that address the region’s social,
ecological, and economic dimensions. This approach is crucial for managing the complex
and dynamic Himalayan spring ecosystem sustainably.
This paper reviews the current scientific understanding of spring water hydrology
globally, and specifically within the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region (Figure 1). It
examines the role of springs in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and
assesses international efforts to manage these resources amidst climate change and socio-
economic challenges. We have scrutinized scientific methodologies used in studying spring
hydrology, highlighted various interventions aimed at increasing spring discharge, and
explored initiatives by both government and non-governmental organizations. Our case
studies offer insights applicable on a global scale and advocate for a transdisciplinary
approach to enhancing SDG outcomes.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 29
Figure 1. Map of the Hindu Kush Himalayan region and the sub-watersheds Indus, Ganga, Brah-
maputra, Qinghai–Tibetan, and Irrawaddy. The population in each river basin is presented after
[31].
Our analysis stresses the importance of integrating scientific research with public
participatory models for effective spring water management. By involving local stake-
holders and fostering awareness, we aim to guide policymakers and managers in devel-
oping sustainable water resource strategies. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate how de-
creasing spring discharge can be mitigated and how springs can become valuable socio-
economic assets, thereby contributing to regional well-being and potentially reversing mi-
gration trends through collaborative and inclusive management practices.
2. Methodology
This paper combines a traditional literature review with an experiential analysis that
draws on 30 years of the authors’ transdisciplinary research experience in the Indian Him-
alayan region. The transdisciplinary research involved authors who are both university-
based researchers and management-focused practitioners. The university-based authors
draw on their experiences from investigations in the Central Himalayan region that in-
volved both monitoring spring water hydrological processes and supporting and analyz-
ing social interactions and stakeholder engagement within the Himalayan community.
The management-focused authors of this paper also have substantial practical and mana-
gerial experience working with the hydrological challenges outside the HKH region and
bring their experiences of connecting water with people to underpin the experiential-
based analysis provided by this review. Our combined experience of working in the Khul-
gad watershed for the last 30 years has helped us develop a deeper ethnographic and ex-
periential understanding of interconnected hydrological and social processes related to
the Himalayan springs. The result is that the analysis we present in this paper builds on
both our review of relevant research articles identified using a structured literature search
process (described immediately below) as well as our decades-long transdisciplinary re-
search experience into spring hydrology and the water sector more broadly.
Figure 1. Map of the Hindu Kush Himalayan region and the sub-watersheds Indus, Ganga, Brahma-
putra, Qinghai–Tibetan, and Irrawaddy. The population in each river basin is presented after [31].
Our analysis stresses the importance of integrating scientific research with public
participatory models for effective spring water management. By involving local stakehold-
ers and fostering awareness, we aim to guide policymakers and managers in developing

Water 2024,16, 3675 4 of 27
sustainable water resource strategies. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate how decreasing
spring discharge can be mitigated and how springs can become valuable socio-economic
assets, thereby contributing to regional well-being and potentially reversing migration
trends through collaborative and inclusive management practices.
2. Methodology
This paper combines a traditional literature review with an experiential analysis
that draws on 30 years of the authors’ transdisciplinary research experience in the In-
dian Himalayan region. The transdisciplinary research involved authors who are both
university-based researchers and management-focused practitioners. The university-based
authors draw on their experiences from investigations in the Central Himalayan region
that involved both monitoring spring water hydrological processes and supporting and an-
alyzing social interactions and stakeholder engagement within the Himalayan community.
The management-focused authors of this paper also have substantial practical and man-
agerial experience working with the hydrological challenges outside the HKH region and
bring their experiences of connecting water with people to underpin the experiential-based
analysis provided by this review. Our combined experience of working in the Khulgad
watershed for the last 30 years has helped us develop a deeper ethnographic and expe-
riential understanding of interconnected hydrological and social processes related to the
Himalayan springs. The result is that the analysis we present in this paper builds on both
our review of relevant research articles identified using a structured literature search pro-
cess (described immediately below) as well as our decades-long transdisciplinary research
experience into spring hydrology and the water sector more broadly.
Our literature search process follows [
32
]—who describe a structured literature review
as an iterative process involving keyword definition, literature search, and analysis—we
employed a six-step literature review process. This approach helped identify key works,
pinpoint recent research areas, and provide insights into current research trends and future
directions (Figure 2). Moreover, the snow-balling method has also been adopted to select
some of the literatures relevant to this review paper.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 29
Our literature search process follows [32]—who describe a structured literature re-
view as an iterative process involving keyword definition, literature search, and analy-
sis—we employed a six-step literature review process. This approach helped identify key
works, pinpoint recent research areas, and provide insights into current research trends
and future directions (Figure 2). Moreover, the snow-balling method has also been
adopted to select some of the literatures relevant to this review paper.
Figure 2. Schematic representing the systematic literature review (PRISMA method).
2.1. Defining Keywords
This study utilized the following query keywords: spring hydrology, spring rejuve-
nation, climate change, migration, sustainable water management, mountain forest, pub-
lic participation, socio-economic survey, land use change, community participation, and
transdisciplinary research. Based on these keywords, we created ten different combina-
tions and used the Boolean operator AND to identify the relevant literature.
1. “Spring hydrology” AND “sustainable water management”: 02.
2. “Spring rejuvenation”: 16.
3. “Springshed management”: 10.
4. “Mountain forest” AND “hydrology”: 54.
5. “Land use change” AND” spring hydrology”: 9.
6. “Public participation” AND “hydrology”: 44.
7. “Transdisciplinary research” AND “water”: 257.
8. “Participatory action research” AND “hydrology”: 4.
9. “Community participation” AND “Spring”: 63.
10. “Community engagement” AND “Spring”: 96.
These keyword combinations were chosen to identify any research articles that might
relate to the following topics deemed relevant, i.e., hydrological investigations, mountain
spring hydrology, spring rejuvenation techniques, springshed management, impact of cli-
mate change and land use change in spring hydrology, transdisciplinary research, and
public involvement in springshed management.
Figure 2. Schematic representing the systematic literature review (PRISMA method).
2.1. Defining Keywords
This study utilized the following query keywords: spring hydrology, spring rejuvena-
tion, climate change, migration, sustainable water management, mountain forest, public
participation, socio-economic survey, land use change, community participation, and trans-
disciplinary research. Based on these keywords, we created ten different combinations and
used the Boolean operator AND to identify the relevant literature.
1. “Spring hydrology” AND “sustainable water management”: 02.
2. “Spring rejuvenation”: 16.
3. “Springshed management”: 10.
4. “Mountain forest” AND “hydrology”: 54.

Water 2024,16, 3675 5 of 27
5. “Land use change” AND” spring hydrology”: 9.
6. “Public participation” AND “hydrology”: 44.
7. “Transdisciplinary research” AND “water”: 257.
8. “Participatory action research” AND “hydrology”: 4.
9. “Community participation” AND “Spring”: 63.
10.
“Community engagement” AND “Spring”: 96.
These keyword combinations were chosen to identify any research articles that might
relate to the following topics deemed relevant, i.e., hydrological investigations, mountain
spring hydrology, spring rejuvenation techniques, springshed management, impact of
climate change and land use change in spring hydrology, transdisciplinary research, and
public involvement in springshed management.
2.2. Initial Results
This section involved gathering articles from multidisciplinary databases, primarily
Scopus, accessed via the University Library of Western Sydney University. Scopus is known
for its extensive coverage of peer-reviewed journals across various disciplines; hence, it
was selected for its comprehensive scope [
33
]. Keywords were searched within the “title,
abstract, keywords” fields in Scopus. The search was filtered to include articles published
between 1985 and 2024, restricted to “Journal” documents and in “English,” resulting in
555 articles for analysis. An additional 49 reports and articles have been obtained through
the national records and snowballing that were not available in the Scopus directory or
under the keywords.
2.3. Refining the Initial Results
To refine the search results, duplicates and articles not streamlined with the present
work were removed, resulting in 429 papers (Figure 2). From the review of the 429 results,
338 records were found suitable under the mountain region water sources. It was observed
that some articles found using the keyword search for “spring” had no relation at all to
mountain springs; hence, manual filtering was carried out in order to select the relevant
articles. The manual filtering based on study relevance (present work) reduced the number
of relevant documents to 267, covering the period from 1985 to 2024. Some articles that were
identified though snowballing while reviewing the selected literature but not appearing in
the literature review process were also included in the review process. Based on the refined
research results, we were able to group papers around a set of linkage types, as detailed in
Table 1. Some of the themes listed in Table 1match the previously identified relevant topic
areas listed above.
Table 1. Summary of the eight major linkages related to the articles found relevant for the review.
S. No. Type of Linkages References No. of Studies
1 Hydrological investigation [1–5,7,10,19,30,34–48] 15
2 Mountain forest hydrology [9,10,19,38,39,46,49–72] 29
3 Spring rejuvenation activities [6,9,19,31,38,73–93] 26
4Socio-economic survey and
technology transfer [78,85,94–103] 12
5
Impact of climate and land use change
on the spring hydrology [9–11,13–16,18–20,37,40,41,48,52,53,55–62,73,76,77,80,91,104–133] 58
6 Springshed management [6,30,38,50,52,54,75,78,79,81,100,106,134–144] 23
7Transdisciplinary and public–private
participation model [24–26,30,145–153] 13

Water 2024,16, 3675 6 of 27
3. Factors Contributing to the Decrease in Spring Discharge and Water Quality
3.1. Impact of Climate Change on Spring Hydrological Cycle
Climate change and unsustainable human activities heighten the vulnerability of Hi-
malayan ecosystems. Natural springs, vital for providing drinking water to the Himalayan
population, are significantly affected by shifts in precipitation patterns, temperature, and
glacier melt. Research shows that human-induced global warming alters precipitation and
evapotranspiration patterns, impacting the sustainability of both surface and groundwater
resources [
9
,
80
]. Rising temperatures can increase evaporation and evapotranspiration
losses, causing water stress that adversely affects crop growth and yields. Consequently,
changes in rainfall and temperature may drastically impact crop water needs, productivity,
and yields, potentially leading to food shortages [107].
The sustainability of spring water is heavily dependent on precipitation levels, making
the analysis of future climate projections crucial for understanding spring water potential
in the coming decades. Climate models, which have evolved since the 1960s, help us grasp
climate patterns on local, regional, and global scales. These models include simple climate
models (SCMs), energy-balance models, earth-system models of intermediate complexity
(EMICs), and comprehensive three-dimensional general circulation models (GCMs) [
13
].
According to the [
9
], these models can provide valuable predictions of future climate
changes at the continental level. However, accurately forecasting spring water discharge
trends remains challenging due to limited localized data. To address this, downscaling
techniques refine GCM outputs to local scales [13].
In the HKH region, a more pronounced warming trend is observed compared to the
plains (Figure 3) [
154
]. Detailed monthly analyses show a loss of seasonal contrast, with
warmer winters and reduced heat during the rainy season. The Himalayas are warming
faster than the global average, making them highly sensitive to climate changes [
155
].
Rainfall is decreasing, especially during the peak wet months from June to September,
indicating significant climate shifts in the region [
116
]. Projections suggest that areas
between 1000 and 2500 m above sea level in the Himalayas will see a significant reduction
in the frequency of wet days due to global warming [105,154].
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 29
Figure 3. The data for the HKH region showing the changes in temperature and rainfall paerns
from 1901 to 2016 at Srinagar, Kathmandu and Lhasa in the HKH region [Data source: Climate Re-
search Unit (CRU) Time Series (TS) Volume 4.01 [156]. Here, the black dot represents the respective
location Srinagar, Kathmandu and Lasha temperature and precipitation.
3.2. Impact of Land Use Change on the Spring Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological balance between upstream and downstream areas in the Himala-
yan region is significantly affected by changes in climate and physical factors such as land
use and land cover (LULC), snow cover, lean season flow, soil erosion, and sedimentation
[118]. Changes in forest and urban landscapes are impacting the recharge sites in the head-
water regions. There is limited research on how land use changes influence regional cli-
mate variables like precipitation, temperature, and humidity, and how these changes in-
teract with global warming and the hydrological cycle in the Hindu Kush Himalayan re-
gion. Additionally, there is a lack of multidisciplinary data on watershed-level soil and
geology that connects LULC changes with interactions between surface water and
groundwater, which can lead to the deterioration of stream and river water quality. While
land use and land cover changes do not directly increase pollution, they can exacerbate
pollution when combined with climate change due to reduced dilution capacity for in-
creasing non-point source pollutants. Furthermore, a key research question that remains
unresolved is whether forests consume more water than grasslands [115].
Both human activities and natural processes influence land use and land cover
(LULC) changes in watersheds. Ref. [129] noted that population growth and forest degra-
dation in the Nainital district have led to reduced spring discharge. Ref. [67] found that
converting native oak forests to pine forests in the Uarakhand Himalayas affected spring
hydrology. Pine forests, which have higher transpiration rates than oak forests, have been
linked to declining spring discharge, while oak forests are known for beer water infiltra-
tion and soil moisture retention [62]. In our research, we have found that there is a con-
version of barren land to pine forests in the Khulgad watershed (between 1990 to 2023)
(Figure 4). The micro watershed Kaneli in Khulgad had a perennial stream until 2005;
Figure 3. The data for the HKH region showing the changes in temperature and rainfall patterns from
1901 to 2016 at Srinagar, Kathmandu and Lhasa in the HKH region [Data source: Climate Research
Unit (CRU) Time Series (TS) Volume 4.01 [
156
]. Here, the black dot represents the respective location
Srinagar, Kathmandu and Lasha temperature and precipitation.

Water 2024,16, 3675 7 of 27
Precipitation is expected to become more erratic and intense, leading to increased
surface runoff and reduced aquifer recharge [
31
]. Ref. [
75
] reported that local residents,
despite lacking historical flow records, have observed many springs drying up, attributing
this to climate change. Ref. [
97
] found that while the overall frequency of droughts might
remain stable, extreme events are likely to increase with rising temperatures. Therefore,
understanding and evaluating long-term climate variability is essential for effective ground-
water resource planning and management, especially given the growing demands from
population growth and various sectors [71].
3.2. Impact of Land Use Change on the Spring Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological balance between upstream and downstream areas in the Himalayan
region is significantly affected by changes in climate and physical factors such as land use
and land cover (LULC), snow cover, lean season flow, soil erosion, and sedimentation [
118
].
Changes in forest and urban landscapes are impacting the recharge sites in the headwater
regions. There is limited research on how land use changes influence regional climate
variables like precipitation, temperature, and humidity, and how these changes interact
with global warming and the hydrological cycle in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region.
Additionally, there is a lack of multidisciplinary data on watershed-level soil and geology
that connects LULC changes with interactions between surface water and groundwater,
which can lead to the deterioration of stream and river water quality. While land use and
land cover changes do not directly increase pollution, they can exacerbate pollution when
combined with climate change due to reduced dilution capacity for increasing non-point
source pollutants. Furthermore, a key research question that remains unresolved is whether
forests consume more water than grasslands [115].
Both human activities and natural processes influence land use and land cover (LULC)
changes in watersheds. Ref. [
129
] noted that population growth and forest degradation in
the Nainital district have led to reduced spring discharge. Ref. [
67
] found that converting
native oak forests to pine forests in the Uttarakhand Himalayas affected spring hydrology.
Pine forests, which have higher transpiration rates than oak forests, have been linked to
declining spring discharge, while oak forests are known for better water infiltration and
soil moisture retention [
62
]. In our research, we have found that there is a conversion of
barren land to pine forests in the Khulgad watershed (between 1990 to 2023) (Figure 4). The
micro watershed Kaneli in Khulgad had a perennial stream until 2005; however, this stream
is now an ephemeral stream, and the conversion of barren to pine land can be estimated as
one of the reasons. Similarly, Ref. [
117
] explored how expanding urban areas in the Kumaon
Himalaya impact land use and water resources. Conversely, Ref. [
50
] found that increasing
plantation density reduces annual runoff. To address the impacts of climate change and
growing populations, further scientific research is needed on how plantation practices
affect spring recharge, discharge, and surface runoff, particularly in forested regions.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 29
however, this stream is now an ephemeral stream, and the conversion of barren to pine
land can be estimated as one of the reasons. Similarly, Ref. [117] explored how expanding
urban areas in the Kumaon Himalaya impact land use and water resources. Conversely,
Ref. [50] found that increasing plantation density reduces annual runoff. To address the
impacts of climate change and growing populations, further scientific research is needed
on how plantation practices affect spring recharge, discharge, and surface runoff, partic-
ularly in forested regions.
Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) are known to affect groundwater re-
charge rates, which can alter pore pressure and lead to slope instability and landslides
[58]. Increased groundwater levels from climatic or human activities can destabilize slopes
and impact geomorphological and engineering aspects [60]. Large-scale afforestation on
barren land, if not carefully managed with geological and scientific considerations, can
disrupt hydrological balance and cause landslides [113,119,130].
Figure 4. Change in LULC (Barren to Pine Forest) paern between 1990 and 2022 of Kanlei Village
in Khulgad watershed, Almora, India. The red arrow indicates the same tree as a marker location.
3.2.1. Deforestation
Forest cover significantly impacts water availability at both the local and regional
levels, but extensive forest loss due to population pressure and demand for forest prod-
ucts has been prevalent [108]. Common causes of deforestation include logging, land con-
version, frequent fires, agricultural expansion, and fuelwood collection [113,123]. Trees
affect hydrology through interception, evapotranspiration, and infiltration, which influ-
ence rainfall reaching the soil and groundwater [118,131]. Deforestation accelerates nega-
tive hydrological impacts, leading to land degradation, increased erosion, higher peak
discharges, and reduced dry season flows [73,77]. In Asia, efforts are underway to regen-
erate degraded landscapes to address soil erosion, flooding, and drought, and to reduce
pressure on remaining forests [57]. Ref. [157], has briefly summarized the first Swiss Fed-
eral Forest Law (1876), which prefers to establish the mountain forest as the natural means
of protection against the flood hazard.
While tree planting is seen as a climate change mitigation strategy, Ref. [53] empha-
size the need to balance the carbon and water cycles. Native forests generally use less
water and retain more soil moisture compared to plantations. Native forests also result in
less runoff and sedimentation than plantations or grasslands [76]. Studies, such as [109]
on the Nepal Himalayas, show that forestation of grazed grasslands can improve soil wa-
ter absorption. However, in the Uarakhand region, deforestation and reduced rainfall
led to a 35–75% decrease in spring flow from the Gaula River basin between 1958 and 1986
[69,70]. In Nainital, extensive deforestation has caused 159 natural springs to dry up and
50 to become seasonal in the past 30 years [129]. Similarly, in Almora, Kumaun Mountains,
270 out of 360 springs have dried up due to land use changes [121].
3.2.2. Population and Migration
Urban areas in the HKH region are rapidly growing due to rural-to-urban migration
and natural population increases. Ref. [17] found a 135.02% rise in built infrastructure in
Figure 4. Change in LULC (Barren to Pine Forest) pattern between 1990 and 2022 of Kanlei Village in
Khulgad watershed, Almora, India. The red arrow indicates the same tree as a marker location.
Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) are known to affect groundwater recharge
rates, which can alter pore pressure and lead to slope instability and landslides [
58
].

Water 2024,16, 3675 8 of 27
Increased groundwater levels from climatic or human activities can destabilize slopes and
impact geomorphological and engineering aspects [
60
]. Large-scale afforestation on barren
land, if not carefully managed with geological and scientific considerations, can disrupt
hydrological balance and cause landslides [113,119,130].
3.2.1. Deforestation
Forest cover significantly impacts water availability at both the local and regional
levels, but extensive forest loss due to population pressure and demand for forest prod-
ucts has been prevalent [
108
]. Common causes of deforestation include logging, land
conversion, frequent fires, agricultural expansion, and fuelwood collection [
113
,
123
]. Trees
affect hydrology through interception, evapotranspiration, and infiltration, which influence
rainfall reaching the soil and groundwater [
118
,
131
]. Deforestation accelerates negative hy-
drological impacts, leading to land degradation, increased erosion, higher peak discharges,
and reduced dry season flows [
73
,
77
]. In Asia, efforts are underway to regenerate degraded
landscapes to address soil erosion, flooding, and drought, and to reduce pressure on re-
maining forests [
57
]. Ref. [
157
], has briefly summarized the first Swiss Federal Forest Law
(1876), which prefers to establish the mountain forest as the natural means of protection
against the flood hazard.
While tree planting is seen as a climate change mitigation strategy, Ref. [
53
] emphasize
the need to balance the carbon and water cycles. Native forests generally use less water
and retain more soil moisture compared to plantations. Native forests also result in less
runoff and sedimentation than plantations or grasslands [
76
]. Studies, such as [
109
] on
the Nepal Himalayas, show that forestation of grazed grasslands can improve soil water
absorption. However, in the Uttarakhand region, deforestation and reduced rainfall led to
a 35–75% decrease in spring flow from the Gaula River basin between 1958 and 1986 [
69
,
70
].
In Nainital, extensive deforestation has caused 159 natural springs to dry up and 50 to
become seasonal in the past 30 years [129]. Similarly, in Almora, Kumaun Mountains, 270
out of 360 springs have dried up due to land use changes [121].
3.2.2. Population and Migration
Urban areas in the HKH region are rapidly growing due to rural-to-urban migration
and natural population increases. Ref. [
17
] found a 135.02% rise in built infrastructure
in Himalayan cities over the past 30 years, while ecological infrastructure has decreased
by about 24%. As urban populations grow, so does the demand for water for drinking,
sanitation, and industry [
91
]. Urbanization has expanded from mid-elevation areas to
higher Himalayan regions, driven by economic and technological changes and increased
tourism. This expansion in tectonically active and ecologically unstable areas, along with
improved road connectivity, has led to resource depletion, biodiversity loss, and changes
in climate, forests, and water availability, along with flash floods, slope failures, and
landslides. These developments have altered the hydrosocial cycle in the HKH region [
48
].
Increased infrastructure and human activities have led to higher surface water runoff and
reduced groundwater recharge, diminishing spring and stream discharge [
133
]. Examples
from Shimla and Almora highlight the insufficient protection of water supplies that have
historically supported these communities.
The town of Almora now relies on the Kosi River for water instead of the over
300 springs it previously used. Despite increased pumping capacity, the community faces
shortages when the river dries up in the summer [
158
]. Mussoorie plans to lift water
from the Yamuna River, located about 18 km away, using a four-stage pumping system.
In contrast, Nainital has shifted from relying solely on springs to obtaining 95% of its
water through lake bank filtration [
39
]. Most springs in the watershed have dried up
or become seasonal, with only a small fraction of water supplied by a single remaining
spring [
45
]. Rising populations have increased water demand and sewage generation,
worsening river pollution [
143
]. Socio-economic factors such as agricultural, industrial,
and domestic needs, along with sewage treatment and effluent characteristics, also affect

Water 2024,16, 3675 9 of 27
river water quality [
103
]. In Uttarakhand, permanent and semi-permanent migration has
led to depopulation and land abandonment. Between 2001 and 2013, male out-migration
surged by 686%, resulting in a high sex ratio of 1037 women per thousand men [
133
,
150
].
The 2011 census recorded permanent migration in 3946 villages (25.1% of all villages) and
semi-permanent migration in 6338 villages (40.25%) [150].
Migration from the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region is primarily driven by
the search for employment opportunities elsewhere. Contributing factors include low
agricultural productivity worsened by climate change, declining water availability, limited
education, poor transportation and healthcare, and wildlife issues. As the region shifts from
agrarian to wage-based livelihoods, traditional farming practices are being abandoned [
150
].
The region’s challenging terrain hampers industrial development, pushing both educated
and uneducated youth to seek opportunities outside. This outmigration disproportionately
affects women, impacting their health, nutrition, and daily responsibilities, including
fetching water from distant sources [147].
Climate change is altering rainfall patterns and reducing irrigation water sources,
leading to decreased agricultural yields and accelerating migration from villages to cities.
This cycle diminishes irrigated agricultural land, increases runoff from hilly areas, and
reduces groundwater recharge and spring discharge. These issues contribute to socio-
economic challenges and environmental degradation in the Himalayan region. An inte-
grated, transdisciplinary watershed management approach is essential to sustaining the
HKH ecosystem.
3.2.3. Forest Fire
Wildfires significantly impact the hydrological and soil processes in catchments. Cli-
mate predictions indicate that wildfires will become more frequent and severe, affecting
the mountain regions’ hydrological cycle [
52
]. Factors such as lack of winter precipitation
and extreme early spring heat increase the risk of severe forest fires [
56
]. Dry watersheds
with historically low moisture levels also contribute to higher fire risk [
61
]. Forest fires
rapidly alter leaf area, transpiration, and interception, which disrupt regional water balance
controls [
63
,
65
,
70
]. This dryness and the reduction in cover can lead to complex and un-
predictable changes in catchment storage and hydrology, making it crucial to understand
these changes for effective water resource management [54].
During a forest fire, canopy destruction, changes in soil water repellence, and alter-
ations in soil macropore structure can increase peak and storm flows while decreasing
baseflow and low flows [
37
,
49
]. The formation of a hydrophobic layer or soil sealing is
believed to contribute to these changes [
83
,
139
]. Such alterations can significantly affect
groundwater recharge rates, streamflow, and soil moisture storage [
37
]. Additionally,
severe dryness exacerbates the reduction of groundwater and soil water reserves [61].
Each watershed responds differently to these hydrological changes during forest fires,
and effective management relies on-site monitoring, water age estimation, groundwater
residence duration, and hydrological modeling [
52
]. Various studies have explored fire
impacts on streamflow dynamics using methods like paired catchment experiments, isotope
mass balance, geochemical analysis, and runoff modeling [
4
,
34
–
36
,
44
,
76
,
124
,
127
,
140
,
159
,
160
].
Research by [
126
] indicates that wood burning is a major source of black carbon (BrC)
emissions, which peak during the pre-monsoon and are primarily due to local forest fires.
Black carbon affects local and global climates by altering cloud properties, radiative forcing,
snow albedo, and precipitation [
55
]. Similarly, Ref. [
52
] studied the impact of forest fires on
mean transit times (MTTs) of streamflow in central Chile, finding no significant changes in
runoff and baseflow post-fire. However, more data on groundwater with high residence
times are needed to detect any fluctuations in stream and baseflow.
3.3. Change in Spring Water Quality
Himalayan springs are celebrated for their fresh, mineral-rich water [
161
]. The chem-
istry of spring water is influenced by surface and subsurface geology, residence time,

Water 2024,16, 3675 10 of 27
weathering rates, and local climate. Unlike surface waters, the hydrochemical processes
affecting springs are more complex. Major factors leading to reduced spring discharge and
water quality include changes in land use, altered rainfall patterns, and rising tempera-
tures [
68
,
162
]. Anthropogenic activities have further worsened spring water quality by
introducing new contaminants or exposing existing ones [85,163,164].
Spring water quality is impacted by both geogenic factors, such as fluoride (F
−
)
and iron (Fe) [
41
,
51
,
165
], and anthropogenic factors like nitrates (NO
3
−
) and fecal col-
iforms [
125
]. In the drinking water, the fecal matter up to 160 CFU and turbidity >10 NTU
are responsible for causing gastrointestinal illness [
166
]. In the Kashmir Himalayas, fecal col-
iforms and total coliform streptococci ranged from 2–92, 13–260, and 3–15 MPN/
100 mL [125]
.
Nitrate contamination often results from agricultural chemicals and inadequate sewage
management [
47
,
112
,
167
], with concentrations averaging 50–60 mg/L and reaching up to
224 mg/L in some areas [
47
]. Fecal coliforms are linked to settlements and cattle graz-
ing [
85
,
125
] while high electrical conductivity (EC) and low dissolved oxygen (DO) are asso-
ciated with agricultural activities, making the water unsuitable for consumption [
41
,
42
,
168
].
According to CHIRAG, 80% of tested springs had fecal coliform contamination. Karst
springs in Jammu and Kashmir show higher levels of coliform, streptococci, nitrate, and
chloride compared to other springs [
11
,
114
,
128
]. In the Kandela watershed of Himachal
Pradesh, spring water is supersaturated with carbonate minerals and undersaturated with
evaporites, indicating significant rock–water interaction [51].
Population growth and tourism have further deteriorated water quality in the HKH
region due to unregulated waste [
96
,
101
]. The region lacks adequate wastewater treatment
infrastructure, with heavy tourism exacerbating the problem. For example, Namche Bazaar,
a key stop for Mount Everest trekkers, has no wastewater treatment facilities despite
significant tourist traffic. Sewage from local lodges flows directly into the Kosi River [96].
Regular monitoring of select springs is recommended to address risks such as nutrient
enrichment and pollution from heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics [
38
]. In the Tehri
Garhwal area of Uttarakhand, spring water shows positive correlations among bicarbonates
(HCO
3−
), total hardness, calcium (Ca
2+
), magnesium (Mg
2+
), and total dissolved solids
(TDS), indicating geological controls, while chloride (Cl
−
), potassium (K
+
), sulfate (SO
42−
),
and nitrate (NO
3−
) suggest anthropogenic contamination [
40
]. Climate change and natural
variability impact the quantity and quality of the hydrological cycle, affecting spring and
river discharge [
9
,
43
,
48
,
110
]. Reduced low flow volumes further compromise water quality
during these periods [64].
4. Spring Recharge Interventions and Rejuvenations
To address the declining spring discharge and water crisis in the Himalayan regions,
communities have increasingly adopted various water conservation methods. Over the
past few decades, numerous Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Non-Government Or-
ganizations (NGOs), and government organizations have launched spring rejuvenation
programs. Some of the organizations that are effectively working with community-level
partners for the spring rejuvenation are the Advanced Centre for Water Resources De-
velopment and Management (ACWADAM) in Maharashtra, the International Centre for
Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in Nepal, and the People’s Science Institute
(PSI) in Dehradun.
Ref. [
6
] has advised transitioning from the traditional ridge-to-valley approach to a
valley-to-valley model to more effectively pinpoint and manage spring recharge zones
for targeted restoration and protection. This new approach includes providing technical
and capacity-building support in hydrogeology and aquifer management. Recharge in-
terventions are generally categorized into two main types: mechanical interventions and
biological interventions. Among these, mechanical interventions have proven particularly
effective. However, given the diverse topography and geology of the Himalayan region,
it is crucial to conduct watershed-level research to develop tailored methodologies for
designing and selecting recharge structures that align with local hydrology, groundwater

Water 2024,16, 3675 11 of 27
flow, terrain conditions, and water demand. Moreover, Assistive Natural Regeneration
(ANR) has recently gained prominence for its cost-effective and environmentally friendly
benefits in spring rejuvenation.
4.1. Mechanical Interventions
Springshed development approaches using rainwater harvesting structures and planta-
tions of native trees have been considered the main rejuvenation practices in the Himalayan
region to rejuvenate the springs in the Himalayan region. The mechanical intervention
approach consists of trenches, hedge rows, percolation pits, check dams, and fencing
with barbed wire, reducing grazing activities and preventing deforestation [
84
]. Before
intervention work, hydrogeological investigations, delineation of aquifer boundaries, and
recharge zone identification were considered the primary tasks to be taken into account [
82
].
Typically, in seismically active mountain terrain, it is impractical to harness and store
enormous amounts of water [
46
]. Under the spring rejuvenation program, we carried out
mechanical interventions in the Khulgad watershed of the Almora district in Uttarakhand,
India, during the pre-monsoon period of 2023 (Figure 5). Under this approach, the local
community was involved after the stakeholders met and focused group discussions.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 29
Figure 5. Community participation in constructing trenches and pits for rainwater harvesting under
mechanical recharge interventions.
Moreover, the region selected for the recharge interventions was a landslide-free
zone with a slope of less than 50%, which will reduce soil erosion and increase the chances
of infiltration. After identifying the suitable location, various trenches and percolation pits
were constructed for the rainfall recharge. The primary objective of the mechanical inter-
vention is to develop a comparative discharge analysis of the springs and streams origi-
nating from the Khulgad watershed in pre- and post-intervention scenarios.
Under the spring sanctuary development initiative, Ref. [84] conducted a study on
spring rejuvenation in the Dugar Gad micro watershed of Pauri-Garhwal, Indian Hima-
laya. They implemented engineering, vegetation, and social measures to improve water
availability during the lean flow period (April–June). Their findings indicated that me-
chanical interventions positively affected spring rejuvenation. However, Negi & Joshi
stressed the need for long-term monitoring to assess the full impact of these interventions.
This includes comparing post-intervention data with historical discharge and demo-
graphic information to evaluate effectiveness. Similarly, efforts in Nagaland Mountain by
the Land Resources and Rural Development Departments, NEIDA, and Tata Trusts in-
volved springshed recharge activities on about 50 hectares. These activities included dig-
ging trenches, creating recharge ponds, building gabion structures, and planting trees,
alongside regular monitoring of rainfall and spring discharge [138]. Moreover, in Nepal
and India, the pilot project by ICIMOD, ACWADAM, and HELVETAS in 2015 showed
improvements in spring discharge in the Dailekh and Sindhupalchok catchments within
a year of implementing recharge interventions [12].
In the Dhara Vikas program in Northeast India, trenches and pits were created to
rejuvenate springs. However, there has been no direct scientific assessment of the effec-
tiveness of these mechanical interventions on spring discharge [75]. Additionally, Hima-
laya Sewa Sangh (HSS) and Himalaya Consortia for Himalayan Conservation (HIMCON)
have installed slow sand filters in Uarakhand’s Henwal River valley, with the filtered
water stored in tanks and distributed via pipelines [122]. Moreover, activist Chandan Na-
yal has planted over 60,000 oak trees and built numerous recharge structures in the Okhal-
kanda block of Kumaun. Despite his significant efforts for groundwater conservation, his
work lacks scientific evaluation. Hence, this highlights the need for transdisciplinary col-
laboration and support to provide data-driven results and enhance the effectiveness of
such initiatives. Overall, conservation, restoration and management activities need to be
highly individualized and site-specific [169].
Figure 5. Community participation in constructing trenches and pits for rainwater harvesting under
mechanical recharge interventions.
Moreover, the region selected for the recharge interventions was a landslide-free zone
with a slope of less than 50%, which will reduce soil erosion and increase the chances
of infiltration. After identifying the suitable location, various trenches and percolation
pits were constructed for the rainfall recharge. The primary objective of the mechanical
intervention is to develop a comparative discharge analysis of the springs and streams
originating from the Khulgad watershed in pre- and post-intervention scenarios.
Under the spring sanctuary development initiative, Ref. [
84
] conducted a study on
spring rejuvenation in the Dugar Gad micro watershed of Pauri-Garhwal, Indian Himalaya.
They implemented engineering, vegetation, and social measures to improve water avail-
ability during the lean flow period (April–June). Their findings indicated that mechanical
interventions positively affected spring rejuvenation. However, Negi & Joshi stressed
the need for long-term monitoring to assess the full impact of these interventions. This
includes comparing post-intervention data with historical discharge and demographic
information to evaluate effectiveness. Similarly, efforts in Nagaland Mountain by the Land
Resources and Rural Development Departments, NEIDA, and Tata Trusts involved spring-

Water 2024,16, 3675 12 of 27
shed recharge activities on about 50 hectares. These activities included digging trenches,
creating recharge ponds, building gabion structures, and planting trees, alongside regular
monitoring of rainfall and spring discharge [
138
]. Moreover, in Nepal and India, the pilot
project by ICIMOD, ACWADAM, and HELVETAS in 2015 showed improvements in spring
discharge in the Dailekh and Sindhupalchok catchments within a year of implementing
recharge interventions [12].
In the Dhara Vikas program in Northeast India, trenches and pits were created to
rejuvenate springs. However, there has been no direct scientific assessment of the effective-
ness of these mechanical interventions on spring discharge [
75
]. Additionally, Himalaya
Sewa Sangh (HSS) and Himalaya Consortia for Himalayan Conservation (HIMCON) have
installed slow sand filters in Uttarakhand’s Henwal River valley, with the filtered water
stored in tanks and distributed via pipelines [122]. Moreover, activist Chandan Nayal has
planted over 60,000 oak trees and built numerous recharge structures in the Okhalkanda
block of Kumaun. Despite his significant efforts for groundwater conservation, his work
lacks scientific evaluation. Hence, this highlights the need for transdisciplinary collabo-
ration and support to provide data-driven results and enhance the effectiveness of such
initiatives. Overall, conservation, restoration and management activities need to be highly
individualized and site-specific [169].
4.2. Assistive Natural Regeneration (ANR)
Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) is an effective, cost-efficient method for rehabil-
itating degraded forests and grasslands. It involves controlling fires, restricting grazing,
managing unwanted plant growth, and engaging local communities [
81
]. ANR is less ex-
pensive than traditional reforestation techniques and results in biologically diverse forests
that benefit local populations.
ANR encompasses three dimensions: technological, bio-physical, and socio-cultural
(including economic and institutional aspects) [
81
,
88
] (Figure 6). Successful implementation
requires protecting the area from disturbances like fire and grazing, which allows ecological
succession to occur. [
90
] outlined a five-step methodology for ANR, though it can be
adapted based on local conditions, resources, and goals. ANR is particularly suited for
forest protection, biodiversity conservation, soil conservation, and establishing protective
cover in hydrologically critical areas.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 29
4.2. Assistive Natural Regeneration (ANR)
Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) is an effective, cost-efficient method for reha-
bilitating degraded forests and grasslands. It involves controlling fires, restricting grazing,
managing unwanted plant growth, and engaging local communities [81]. ANR is less ex-
pensive than traditional reforestation techniques and results in biologically diverse forests
that benefit local populations.
ANR encompasses three dimensions: technological, bio-physical, and socio-cultural
(including economic and institutional aspects) [81,88] (Figure 6). Successful implementa-
tion requires protecting the area from disturbances like fire and grazing, which allows
ecological succession to occur. [90] outlined a five-step methodology for ANR, though it
can be adapted based on local conditions, resources, and goals. ANR is particularly suited
for forest protection, biodiversity conservation, soil conservation, and establishing protec-
tive cover in hydrologically critical areas.
For effective ANR, ensuring a sufficient number of native seedlings and appropriate
soil conditions is crucial. Adequate seed dispersal by biotic and abiotic agents also sup-
ports natural forest regeneration [87]. Successful ANR depends on matching site-specific
species and understanding the ecological needs of the natural forest, which can be com-
plex due to limited ecological knowledge [142]. Local communities often have valuable
knowledge about their resources, which is sometimes underappreciated by experts and
officials [144].
Figure 6. Conceptual framework of Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) strategy for forest reha-
bilitation (modified after [88].
The socio-cultural and institutional dimensions are critical for the success of Assisted
Natural Regeneration (ANR) projects. These elements include the community’s values
and the policies governing natural resource use. Community values involve the relation-
ship between local people and their natural resources, including the economic benefits
and protective practices that aid forest restoration.
In the Philippines, Community-Based Resource Management (CBRM) projects have
effectively protected areas from grassland fires [88]. ANR has been successfully imple-
mented in countries like China, Nepal, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka under various
names [78,89]. For example, in Ifugao, the Philippines, ANR is used to restore forests on
degraded grasslands [81]. In China, ANR is categorized into special and general types:
Special ANR addresses cutover land with natural sowing capacity but lacking essential
Figure 6. Conceptual framework of Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) strategy for forest rehabili-
tation (modified after [88]).

Water 2024,16, 3675 13 of 27
For effective ANR, ensuring a sufficient number of native seedlings and appropriate
soil conditions is crucial. Adequate seed dispersal by biotic and abiotic agents also supports
natural forest regeneration [
87
]. Successful ANR depends on matching site-specific species
and understanding the ecological needs of the natural forest, which can be complex due to
limited ecological knowledge [
142
]. Local communities often have valuable knowledge
about their resources, which is sometimes underappreciated by experts and officials [
144
].
The socio-cultural and institutional dimensions are critical for the success of Assisted
Natural Regeneration (ANR) projects. These elements include the community’s values and
the policies governing natural resource use. Community values involve the relationship
between local people and their natural resources, including the economic benefits and
protective practices that aid forest restoration.
In the Philippines, Community-Based Resource Management (CBRM) projects have
effectively protected areas from grassland fires [
88
]. ANR has been successfully imple-
mented in countries like China, Nepal, Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka under various
names [
78
,
89
]. For example, in Ifugao, the Philippines, ANR is used to restore forests on
degraded grasslands [
81
]. In China, ANR is categorized into special and general types:
Special ANR addresses cutover land with natural sowing capacity but lacking essential
regeneration conditions, while General ANR involves artificial sowing and other treatments
on barren or degraded lands.
A notable example of community-based ANR is in the Shyahidevi forest, Almora
district, India. Local efforts to prevent forest fires have led to successful regeneration with
native species like Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), and Raga
(Cupressus torulosa) (Figure 7). This forest is a key recharge source for the Kosi River
basin, and the sustained community involvement over 20 years has demonstrated the
effectiveness of ANR as a model for sustainable development in the 14 recharge zones in
the Kosi River basin [170].
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 29
regeneration conditions, while General ANR involves artificial sowing and other treat-
ments on barren or degraded lands.
A notable example of community-based ANR is in the Shyahidevi forest, Almora dis-
trict, India. Local efforts to prevent forest fires have led to successful regeneration with
native species like Banj (Quercus leucotrichophora), Deodar (Cedrus deodara), and Raga
(Cupressus torulosa) (Figure 7). This forest is a key recharge source for the Kosi River
basin, and the sustained community involvement over 20 years has demonstrated the ef-
fectiveness of ANR as a model for sustainable development in the 14 recharge zones in
the Kosi River basin [170].
Figure 7. Comparison of the Shyahidevi Reserve Forest of Almora, India, between 2012 and 2023
(Source of Photograph: Mr. Gajendra Pathak, Shitalakhet).
Overall, results suggest that ANR helps in soil and water conservation, biomass ac-
cumulation, and biodiversity protection and enhances ecosystem services [93] which
could be thus implemented with high success in the Himalayan region. These socio-eco-
nomic and institutional arrangements must be used to ensure that local communities will
have both the responsibility and accountability for protecting and enhancing forest resto-
ration through ANR or other appropriate means while at the same time securing the ben-
efits that should accrue to them more sustainably and equitably.
5. Effectiveness of Various Scientific Interventions
The management of groundwater and spring water differs significantly from surface
water, making it a complex task. In order to address the water-related challenges in the
HKH region, the ultimate objective must be focused on the execution or effect of different
scientific and community-based interventions for socio-economic gain. Supply-side im-
provements are prioritized alongside charting and safeguarding recharge zones, employ-
ing social or physical fences, and establishing capacity for para-hydrogeologists within
the community. The springshed approach, as demonstrated by the Dhara Vikas program
in Sikkim, India, has proven effective by addressing the entire catchment area rather than
relying solely on political boundaries or traditional ridge-to-valley methods [68]. Nepal
has similarly highlighted the value of this approach in revitalizing wetlands [86]. Imple-
menting Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) can be transformative for sustainable ground-
water management, as it not only enhances groundwater recharge but also improves wa-
ter quality [137,171].
The adoption of hydrogeological mapping and the drawing of public investments
have been made possible in large part by the joint efforts of local institutions and commu-
nities. For instance, a six-step strategy for spring revival in the HKH has been devised by
ICIMOD and ACWADAM [162]. A thorough approach was created for study and practice
on reviving springs in the HKH region based on the lessons learned from these efforts.
The Sustainable Development Investment Portfolio (SDIP) of the Australian government
Figure 7. Comparison of the Shyahidevi Reserve Forest of Almora, India, between 2012 and 2023
(Source of Photograph: Mr. Gajendra Pathak, Shitalakhet).
Overall, results suggest that ANR helps in soil and water conservation, biomass
accumulation, and biodiversity protection and enhances ecosystem services [
93
] which
could be thus implemented with high success in the Himalayan region. These socio-
economic and institutional arrangements must be used to ensure that local communities
will have both the responsibility and accountability for protecting and enhancing forest
restoration through ANR or other appropriate means while at the same time securing the
benefits that should accrue to them more sustainably and equitably.
5. Effectiveness of Various Scientific Interventions
The management of groundwater and spring water differs significantly from surface
water, making it a complex task. In order to address the water-related challenges in
the HKH region, the ultimate objective must be focused on the execution or effect of

Water 2024,16, 3675 14 of 27
different scientific and community-based interventions for socio-economic gain. Supply-
side improvements are prioritized alongside charting and safeguarding recharge zones,
employing social or physical fences, and establishing capacity for para-hydrogeologists
within the community. The springshed approach, as demonstrated by the Dhara Vikas
program in Sikkim, India, has proven effective by addressing the entire catchment area
rather than relying solely on political boundaries or traditional ridge-to-valley methods [
68
].
Nepal has similarly highlighted the value of this approach in revitalizing wetlands [
86
].
Implementing Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) can be transformative for sustainable
groundwater management, as it not only enhances groundwater recharge but also improves
water quality [137,171].
The adoption of hydrogeological mapping and the drawing of public investments
have been made possible in large part by the joint efforts of local institutions and communi-
ties. For instance, a six-step strategy for spring revival in the HKH has been devised by
ICIMOD and ACWADAM [
162
]. A thorough approach was created for study and practice
on reviving springs in the HKH region based on the lessons learned from these efforts.
The Sustainable Development Investment Portfolio (SDIP) of the Australian government
was used to explore and revitalize springs in three districts of Bhutan and the Godavari
landscape in Nepal. These activities have also been linked to an increase in spring discharge
and a decrease in fecal coliform contamination [74,79,92]
Groundwater management must start at the village level. Data from the MARVI
project show that effective groundwater collaboration and sustainable water sharing are
feasible at local and aquifer scales. For long-term water security, groundwater management
should be interdisciplinary, cross-departmental, and comprehensive [
98
]. Baseline surveys
by ICIMOD and ACWADAM are essential for substantiating the benefits of spring revival
initiatives in mountainous areas [
162
]. Similarly, the Central Himalayan Rural Action Group
(CHIRAG)’s approach to mapping and managing springsheds with local involvement
demonstrates effective knowledge transfer and capacity building. CHIRAG has also
conducted recharge initiatives across ten distinct spring catchments in the Kumaun region
of Uttarakhand [
136
]. CHIRAG’s strategy, supported by the Spring Initiative Partners,
provides a model for state-wide spring conservation. Their spring atlas details essential
procedures for systematic springshed management, from surveys to impact assessments,
making it a valuable resource for ongoing projects.
6. Impact of Various Government Policies over Spring Hydrology
To effectively plan and assess spring revival efforts, a thorough understanding of water
use, distribution patterns, and existing governance systems is crucial. Engaging researchers
and stakeholders is an effective way to enhance the broader impacts of research and to
investigate questions related to water sustainability within social–ecological systems [
29
].
In the HKH region, water-lifting schemes have helped supplement water supplies as
spring flows declined, providing year-round access for villagers and easing the burden on
women who previously had to fetch water from afar. However, this reliance on external
water sources has led to reduced local involvement in water conservation, leaving springs
unprotected and causing hydrological imbalances. Unplanned development in key recharge
zones has increased surface runoff and diminished land recharge potential, exacerbating
issues like flooding, soil loss, and landslides.
Furthermore, pumping water from distant sources is vulnerable to disruptions from
extreme weather, pipe damage, power outages, or source changes. These engineering
solutions, characterized by high costs and heavy capital investments, are unsustainable
long-term, especially with catchment degradation and climate change impacting distant
sources. To address these challenges, integrating nature-based solutions such as springshed
management and leveraging indigenous knowledge is essential. Despite the potential
and existing research, these local practices are often underutilized by governments and
municipalities [
158
]. Effective community involvement and local knowledge are crucial
for the success of Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) projects. To ensure communities

Water 2024,16, 3675 15 of 27
are motivated to participate, they must see tangible benefits from the restoration efforts,
particularly in the long-term products and services. This can be achieved by promoting high-
value, market-oriented products, such as medicinal plants, provided they are harvested
sustainably. Governments can also contract local communities to protect forests and
implement ANR, but clear agreements on the distribution of benefits are essential. A well-
designed national land use policy that integrates ANR technologies for forest restoration
will enhance the overall effectiveness and efficiency of these efforts.
In Darjeeling, India, the central town relies on a formal, centralized water supply,
while the surrounding areas depend on informal sources such as water tankers and springs.
Ref. [
46
] highlight that the water crisis in Darjeeling stems from a complex interplay of
issues, including political indifference, inadequate funding, poor coordination between
state and regional authorities, and weaknesses in local governance. To address this crisis,
several initiatives are underway. Notably, two programs show promise: one under the
AMRUT plan [
135
] and the other funded by the National Adaptation Fund (Department of
Environment, 2016).
In India, the Dhara Vikas spring rejuvenation program, part of the National Employ-
ment Guarantee Scheme, has seen success with mechanical interventions like trenching and
pit digging in the Himalayan States. However, there is a lack of detailed scientific studies
to evaluate the full impact of these interventions [
75
]. Similarly, the Jal Jeevan Mission
(JJM), which aims to provide safe and adequate tap water to every rural household by
2024, also emphasizes sustainability through recharge and reuse, greywater management,
and rainwater harvesting. JJM prioritizes community involvement as a core component,
including extensive information collection, education, and communication. Additionally,
integrating community-centric approaches into national plans such as the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other missions (e.g., the National Water Mission,
National Mission on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem) can further support adaptation
and mitigation efforts at the national level [172].
7. Public–Private Partnerships in Water Resource Management
The Public–Private Partnership (PPP) model has recently gained prominence as a
strategy for enhancing water resource management [
173
]. Participatory research methods
tackle various issues in water research, such as the undervaluation of local knowledge, the
exclusion of marginalized communities, the bias toward elite and expert viewpoints, and ex-
ploitative research practices [
174
]. While involving major stakeholders in decision-making
can be resource-intensive, it can reduce political uncertainty and foster broader acceptance
of policies [
175
]. Research across disciplines shows that some government-driven poli-
cies have led to natural resource degradation, whereas some public–private models have
supported sustainable development [
100
]. Isolated scientific studies often address issues
with varying concepts and languages, leaving gaps in sustainable development under-
standing. Ref. [
100
] proposed a common framework to integrate scientific knowledge and
socio-ecological systems for achieving sustainability goals. Studies indicate that wealth and
income disparities within rural groups can lead to local leaders who effectively organize
and manage resources [94,144,176,177].
Water resources are crucial for the socio-economic development of the HKH region,
which comprises the northeast hills, central hills, and northwest hills. Despite ample precip-
itation, water shortages affect agriculture and drinking needs. Thus, it is essential to explore
options to increase crop water productivity and meet community water requirements. This
includes improving water supply and conservation through technological advancements,
restoring forest–water links, constructing water harvesting structures, enhancing water use
efficiency through agronomic measures, and adopting a watershed management approach.
Before 1993, Nepal’s forest management was largely ineffective, with minimal public
involvement and no incentives for conservation, leading to extensive deforestation and
overgrazing. The introduction of forestry legislation in 1993 marked a shift, transferring
forest control to local public organizations. This change, supported by community-led

Water 2024,16, 3675 16 of 27
management, nearly doubled the country’s forest cover, according to recent NASA-funded
research [
178
]. This demonstrates the effectiveness of self-governance, though it also
highlights the risk of over-harvesting when resources are shared. To address these issues,
external regulation or privatization can be impactful [
141
]. Additionally, providing special
benefits to communities in recharge zones can help mitigate forest fires, reduce degradation,
prevent soil loss, and enhance surface infiltration. An integrated Land and Water Resource
Management (ILWRM) approach can be employed at the watershed level to align interests
and demands from both upstream and downstream areas for more effective land and water
management (Figure 8).
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 29
Figure 8. Collective action for water resource management with PPP model.
8. Converting Research into Action Research/Transdisciplinary Approach
Using advanced tools is essential for planning and managing complex systems effec-
tively [134]. To translate research into actionable strategies, a transdisciplinary approach
is needed to integrate stakeholders from both upstream and downstream areas for beer
land and water management [145]. Analysis of water scenarios in the Hindu Kush Hima-
layan region over three decades has led to the development of a simple, sustainable eco-
nomic model. Four key factors identified through literature reviews and SMART (Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely) analysis for effective research translation
are adopting a transdisciplinary approach, land use planning, capacity building, and
achieving sustainable development goals (Tables 2 and 3, Figure 9). Tools like AQUA-
TOOL have proven useful for decision support in complex watersheds [134]. Additionally,
the open-source InVest (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) tool
has been recommended for mapping and valuing spring products and services, providing
a systematic inventory of the spring ecosystem [30].
Table 2. Three decadal water scenarios in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region.
Before 1990 1990 to 2005 2005 to 2023
Traditional water utilization
and conservation methods.
The climate change effect can
be seen in the precipitation
and temperature paern.
Growing domestic and in-
dustrial demand for water.
Agriculture was the main
source of livelihood; hence, a
major portion of LULC was
agricultural land.
Decline in spring discharge.
Migration has increased the
barren lands in the region,
resulting in high surface
runoff.
Springs were perennial.
The quantity of water
emerged as a major problem
in the region.
Degraded water quantity
and quality.
Less scientific knowledge. Development of data-driven
management plans.
Perennial to seasonal
springs.
Far-distance water fetching is-
sues.
Construction of water-lifting
schemes and piped water
supply schemes at the village
level.
The high impact of climate
change and anthropogenic
activities in spring hydrol-
ogy.
Figure 8. Collective action for water resource management with PPP model.
8. Converting Research into Action Research/Transdisciplinary Approach
Using advanced tools is essential for planning and managing complex systems effec-
tively [
134
]. To translate research into actionable strategies, a transdisciplinary approach is
needed to integrate stakeholders from both upstream and downstream areas for better land
and water management [
145
]. Analysis of water scenarios in the Hindu Kush Himalayan
region over three decades has led to the development of a simple, sustainable economic
model. Four key factors identified through literature reviews and SMART (Specific, Mea-
surable, Achievable, Realistic, and Timely) analysis for effective research translation are
adopting a transdisciplinary approach, land use planning, capacity building, and achiev-
ing sustainable development goals (Tables 2and 3, Figure 9). Tools like AQUATOOL
have proven useful for decision support in complex watersheds [
134
]. Additionally, the
open-source InVest (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) tool has
been recommended for mapping and valuing spring products and services, providing a
systematic inventory of the spring ecosystem [30].
Table 2. Three decadal water scenarios in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region.
Before 1990 1990 to 2005 2005 to 2023
Traditional water utilization
and conservation methods.
The climate change effect can
be seen in the precipitation
and temperature pattern.
Growing domestic and
industrial demand for water.
Agriculture was the main
source of livelihood; hence, a
major portion of LULC was
agricultural land.
Decline in spring discharge.
Migration has increased the
barren lands in the region,
resulting in high
surface runoff.

Water 2024,16, 3675 17 of 27
Table 2. Cont.
Before 1990 1990 to 2005 2005 to 2023
Springs were perennial.
The quantity of water
emerged as a major problem
in the region.
Degraded water quantity
and quality.
Less scientific knowledge. Development of data-driven
management plans. Perennial to seasonal springs.
Far-distance water
fetching issues.
Construction of water-lifting
schemes and piped water
supply schemes at the
village level.
The high impact of climate
change and anthropogenic
activities in spring hydrology.
The culmination of traditional
and scientific interventions
Rejuvenation activities has
increased by government and
non-government
organizations.
Migration has decreased the
awareness of water
conservation among villagers.
An interdisciplinary approach
of water conservation at the
basin level has adopted.
Door-to-door water pipeline
supply schemes are
developed; however, there is
no water to supply.
Water 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 29
The culmination of tradi-
tional and scientific interven-
tions
Rejuvenation activities has
increased by government
and non-government organ-
izations.
Migration has decreased the
awareness of water conserva-
tion among villagers.
An interdisciplinary ap-
proach of water conserva-
tion at the basin level has
adopted.
Door-to-door water pipeline
supply schemes are devel-
oped; however, there is no
water to supply.
Figure 9. Conceptual diagram representing the four major pillars of spring water resources man-
agement, highlighting major contributing subsets collaborated after the critical review.
Figure 9. Conceptual diagram representing the four major pillars of spring water resources manage-
ment, highlighting major contributing subsets collaborated after the critical review.

Water 2024,16, 3675 18 of 27
Table 3. SMART framework-based analysis is used to draft and set the goal of converting research
into action research to promote SDGs.
Specific
LULC-Based Interventions and Civil Construction/Urbanization
Capacity Building of Local Stakeholders
Spring Rejuvenation
Measurable
The trend of discharge in springwater
Impact of climate change and anthropogenic activities on spring discharge
Impact of public–private partnerships in rejuvenation of the springs
Achievable Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Relevant
Understand the impact of rejuvenation on spring hydrology
Role of public participation in spring rejuvenation
Develop various policies and methodologies for achieving SDGs
Time frame 2030
8.1. Land Use Planning
Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) planning has become crucial in adapting to chang-
ing climatic conditions. Effective management of recharge zones can enhance ecosystem
restoration and improve the recharge rate and water residence time of mountain aquifer
systems. Civil construction in the HKH region should prioritize water resources and their
sustainability as key components of urban planning. Forests and native plants are central
to the hydrological system in the HKH, but shifts in plantation practices have led to an
increase in pine forests at the expense of mixed or native species. Pine species, requiring
significant water and producing needle-like leaves, hinder the survival and regeneration of
native plants and have contributed to an increase in forest fires [59,106].
To mitigate fire risks, integrating local communities, NGOs, and community-based
organizations (CBOs) is essential. In Uttarakhand, Van Panchayats have long managed
forests successfully, but forest communities need to adapt modern strategies to manage
fire risks. Establishing Forest Self-Help Groups (FSHGs) or Forest Special Purpose Vehicles
(FSPVs) can turn pine needles into useful resources, such as bio-briquettes, compost, or
composite materials [
59
]. In the HKH Mountains, both natural and human-made forests are
heavily utilized, and the removal of leaf litter and grazing by livestock have been significant
contributors to the degradation of forest hydrological functioning [62].
Restoring watershed hydrological performance requires more than just replanting
trees; ongoing management is crucial to balance resource use and spring renewal [
43
].
Springs are vital in the HKH region, but overreliance on groundwater could lead to adverse
effects due to the fragile nature of mountain aquifers. Therefore, LULC planning and
recharge programs must be well-conceived and long-term. Approaches that account for the
vulnerabilities of mountain ecosystems and focus on ecological restoration are necessary.
Urban centers in the HKH face significant water challenges exacerbated by climate change,
underscoring the need for sustainable urban planning and stakeholder accountability.
8.2. Capacity Building
In remote regions, gathering baseline data and establishing monitoring networks
are challenging tasks. Effective spring management necessitates cooperation among re-
searchers, government officials, and local communities, with a strong emphasis on en-
hancing local capabilities. Citizen science initiatives are valuable for increasing awareness,
collecting detailed field data, and ensuring ongoing monitoring. Combining satellite-based
hydrology and meteorology data with springshed monitoring improves the understanding
and prediction of spring conditions, leading to more effective management strategies [
102
].
Ref. [
30
] identified six key factors for assessing spring ecosystem health: aquifer and water

Water 2024,16, 3675 19 of 27
quality, geomorphology, human impacts, institutional context, habitat, and biota. Springs,
as common-pool resources, benefit from [
179
] Socio-Ecological System (SES) framework for
sustainable watershed management [
99
]. The MARVI project demonstrates a transdisci-
plinary approach by integrating local, indigenous, and scientific knowledge into a unified
framework, improving water security and adaptability in evolving landscapes [95,98].
A lack of detailed hydrogeological data, such as precipitation and discharge, con-
tributes to uncertainties in assessing climate change and human impacts on spring hydrol-
ogy. The absence of a comprehensive spring inventory hampers research on hydrological
characterization and vulnerability [43]. Promoting mobile applications like MyWell at the
village level, with support from local leaders and para-hydrologists, can facilitate mapping
and monitoring of spring hydrology and water quality. Training local school students
and women to gather basic meteorological and hydrological data can further support
these efforts. Establishing a central agency to collect and integrate data on village bound-
aries, population density, water demand, and land use will aid in developing effective
management plans for aquifers and springs at both the local and regional scales.
8.3. Adopting the Transdisciplinary Mode of Research and Rejuvenation
Transdisciplinary work integrates diverse disciplines and stakeholders to address
real-world problems and produce sustainable outcomes. [
149
] outline three phases of trans-
disciplinary research: Framing, Analyzing, and Exploring. [
145
] define transdisciplinary
work as collaborative efforts involving researchers and non-academic participants working
towards a common goal to improve complex situations. Understanding traditional water
harvesting and conservation methods is crucial before applying new scientific methods.
While traditional practices provide valuable insights, they may not always be suitable for
contemporary challenges. Modern scientific approaches can enhance water management
by offering new technologies and methodologies. For example, [
26
,
153
] conducted an
11-month training program for Young Water Professionals (YWPs) as part of the Situation
Improvement Projects (SUIPs) and Australia India Water Centre (AIWC). This program
enhanced YWPs’ skills in project planning, implementation, and management using a
transdisciplinary approach.
Several frameworks demonstrate the effectiveness of transdisciplinary approaches in
societal development. For example:
•
i2s (Integration and Implementation science) Framework: Focuses on complex societal
and environmental research through Synthesizing Knowledge, Managing Knowledge,
and Supporting Improvement [146].
•
CANDHY (Citizen and Hydrology) Framework: Integrates traditional Aboriginal
Australian knowledge with modern hydrology and policy through collaboration
among hydrologists, public servants, and researchers [151].
•
ANU Framework: Emphasizes a transdisciplinary approach with characteristics like
being Change-oriented, Systemic, Context-based, Pluralistic, Interactive, and Integra-
tive [152].
Overall, in the HKH region, addressing sustainable watershed management chal-
lenges requires local springshed interventions, regional recommendations, and effective
stakeholder participation [148].
8.4. Promoting the Suitable Development Goals
Groundwater accounts for 97% of the world’s freshwater, making its sustainability
a critical concern. The UN-Water Sustainable Development Global Acceleration Frame-
work, launched in 2020, highlights the importance of capacity development for achieving
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which focuses on ensuring water availability and
sustainable management. In the HKH region, women often spend significant time collecting
water from distant sources, which limits their opportunities for other productive activities.
Despite their central role in household water management, women are underrepresented in
water resource planning. Involving women in water management is crucial for achieving

Water 2024,16, 3675 20 of 27
gender equity (SDG 5) and reducing global inequalities. Improving water availability
can enhance the economic, physical, and mental well-being of people, contributing to
reduced inequalities (SDG 10). The HKH region, with its potential for organic food and
milk production, requires a steady water supply. Enhancing water quantity and quality
will boost livelihoods and support sustainable food production (SDG 12). Effective spring
management will also improve environmental flows and support aquatic biodiversity
(SDG 14). Partnerships at various levels—local, national, and global—are essential for
achieving SDG 17, which focuses on strengthening global partnerships and leveraging
technology to meet sustainable development goals by 2030.
9. Conclusions
The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, vital for millions, faces severe water
scarcity, impacting rural agriculture and driving urban migration. This paper reviews
the challenges of declining natural spring discharge in the HKH and assesses the role
of a transdisciplinary approach in addressing these issues. The authors’ experiences in
Himalayan springs and transdisciplinary water resource management over the last 30 years
have helped to develop an ethnographic review of the Himalayan springs.
Climate change, unsustainable human activities, and rising water demand are major
drivers of reduced spring health. Factors such as altered precipitation, rising temperatures,
deforestation, land use changes, and infrastructure development have led to diminished
spring discharge and poorer water quality, resulting in agricultural losses, migration, and
socio-economic disruptions.
The study emphasizes the need for a transdisciplinary approach that integrates sci-
entific expertise with community-based interventions. Water management involves not
only technical aspects but also human values, behaviors, policy, and politics. By involving
scientists, local villagers, and stakeholders, the study advocates for holistic solutions that
address social, ecological, and economic dimensions of spring management.
Public–private partnerships (PPPs) and participatory approaches are highlighted as
effective for large-scale spring rejuvenation. Leveraging the strengths of both sectors and
engaging local communities can achieve sustainable spring management. The study also
underscores the importance of capacity development and knowledge transfer, including
training para-hydrogeologists, mapping recharge areas, and implementing sustainable
land use practices.
In conclusion, addressing the declining spring discharge in the HKH region requires
a transdisciplinary, community-centric approach. Integrating scientific knowledge with
local wisdom, fostering stakeholder collaboration, and empowering communities can help
overcome water scarcity challenges and achieve sustainable water resource management in
the HKH region. This review also highlights the progress achieved in Khulgad spring shed
management through targeted interventions.
Author Contributions: N.P. (Neeraj Pant) and D.H.: Conceptualization, Visualization, Methodology,
Investigation, Software, Data curation, Writing—Original draft preparation; B.M.: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Data curation, Supervision, Writing—Reviewing and Editing; S.P.R.: Visualization,
Supervision, Writing—Reviewing and Editing; M.S.: Methodology, Investigation, Software, Data
curation, Writing—Original draft preparation; J.D. and V.B.: Methodology, Writing—Original draft
preparation, Supervision, Writing—Reviewing and Editing; N.P. (Nijesh Puthiyottil): Software, Data
curation, Writing—Original draft preparation; and J.P.: Visualization, Reviewing and Editing. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This project was partially funded by the Scheme for Promoting Academic and Research
Collaboration (SPARC) of the Department of Human Resources, India (Grant number P00025879).
The project team gratefully acknowledges the SPARC funding. As part of the SPARC project, a Ph.D.
scholarship was provided by Western Sydney University.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.

Water 2024,16, 3675 21 of 27
Acknowledgments: The authors express their sincere thanks to Western Sydney University for
providing the scholarship and research infrastructure funding for the first author. In addition,
the support provided by several scientists such as J.S. Rawat, Kireet Kumar, S.K. Jain and Sumit
Sen is greatly acknowledged. Furthermore, the authors extend their sincere thanks to the local
community leaders such as R.D. Joshi, Gajendra Singh Pathak, Chandan Nayal, and Chandan Bhoj.
The authors thank the field monitoring team, and the community of Khulgad, Uttarakhand for their
unwavering support for the project. We also acknowledge the Editor, and two anonymous reviewers
for their valuable constructive comments and suggestions, which made a significant contribution
towards improving the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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