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The words of hate speech: A lexical study of homotransphobia in an Italian Twitter corpus
Abstract
Language is a key element in constructing and reinforcing social identities. Through hate speech, language becomes an instrument of creating and spreading stereotypes, discrimination, and social injustices based on attributes such as race, ethnicity, religion, gender, nationality, political ideology, disability, or sexual orientation. The rise of digital communication, especially social media, has made hate speech a major topic of research in various fields. An Investigation of Hate Speech in Italian analyses hate speech from a linguistic perspective. The focus is not only on lexical means, but also on more subtle grammatical and pragmatic strategies related to implicit meanings or conversational dynamics. The volume identifies the common linguistic characteristics of hate speech in different domains of communication and explores criteria that can help distinguish between hate speech and freedom of expression. The studies in this volume focus on English, but the methods and findings can easily be extended to other languages for comparative and contrastive purposes. The chapters utilize extensive research data. Social media platforms have provided linguistic data that would otherwise be challenging to collect and analyse systematically. The chapters allow readers to link linguistic insights to different real-world contexts, helping them understand the impact language has on various aspects of life and society.
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We present a cross-lingual study of homo-transphobia on Twitter, examining the preva-lence and forms of homotransphobic contentin tweets related to LGBT issues in seven lan-guages. Our findings reveal that homotranspho-bia is a global problem that takes on distinctcultural expressions, influenced by factors suchas misinformation, cultural prejudices, and re-ligious beliefs. To aid the detection of hate speech, we also devise a taxonomy that classifies public discourse around LGBT issues. By contributing to the growing body of research on online hate speech, our study provides valuable insights for creating effective strategies to combat homotransphobia on social media.
This article presents results from a survey exploring the understanding by emergency services personnel of the specific needs of LGBTI people before, during and after emergencies. The survey is part of a larger project assisting the emergency management sector to develop LGBTI-inclusive practices and is the first study of its kind in Australia. The survey found that participants felt that LGBTI people were at greater risk of discrimination than did other people both during and following an emergency event. Specific areas
identified included reduced access to services, lack of recognition of LGBTI couples and relationships, over-reliance on informal LGBTI networks and trust in mainstream emergency services. The survey also identified negative attitudes towards LGBTI people held by respondents. This article argues that developing LGBTI-inclusive emergency services depends on combining research on LGBTI people’s experiences of emergencies with research on emergency management and personnel’s knowledge and attitudes toward LGBTI people and their particular needs.
La collana pubblica gli atti del convegno annuale di Linguistica Computazionale (CLiC-it), che ha lo scopo di costituire un luogo di discussione di riferimento nel campo delle ricerce sulla linguistica computazionale. Gli atti includono interventi sul trattamento automatico della lingua, comprendenti le riflessioni teoriche e metodologiche sul tema, e forniscono un contributo importante per questo campo di ricerca. Le altre tematiche principali sono: la linguistica computazionale, la linguistica, le scienze cognitive, l'apprendimento automatico, l'informatica, la rappresentazione della conoscenza, l'information retrieval e l'umanistica digitale. L'organizzazione del convegno è il risultato dello sforzo dell'Associazione Italiana di Linguistica Computazionale (AILC http://www.ai-lc.it/), rappresentata ogni anno da alcuni dei membri organizzatori, che sono affiliati anche ad altre organizzazioni che operano nell'ambito della linguistica computazionale.
We report on the collection of social mediamessages — from Twitter in particular —in the Italian language that is continuouslygoing on since 2012 at the University ofTurin. A number of smaller datasets havebeen extracted from the main collectionand enriched with different kinds of anno-tations for linguistic purposes. Moreover,a few extra datasets have been collectedindependently and are now in the processof being merged with the main collection.We aim at making the resource availableto the community to the best of our pos-sibility, in accordance with the Terms ofService provided by the platforms wheredata have been gathered from.
This study analyses the linguistic landscape of Wilton Manors, Florida, as it surfaces on its main street, Wilton Drive. Wilton Manors is a community with one of the largest LGBT populations in the US. The study thus makes a contribution to the field of linguistic landscapes and sexuality, using normativity as a central theoretical reference point. The data for the study were collected during a daytime walk on Wilton Drive and consist of photos of store fronts, restaurants, bars, advertisements and other signs, supplemented by printed material collected on the Drive and information provided by the official website of Wilton Drive. In my multimodal analysis, I investigate linguistic and non-linguistic signage, identifying mechanisms that render Wilton Drive a gay space. More specifically, I analyze how signage is used to discursively construct sexual identity, gender, desire and sexual practices. It is shown that homonormativity plays a central role in this context. Same-sex sexualities are discursively constructed as the local norm. At the same time, the signage on Wilton Drive is highly exclusive in the sense that it represents predominantly gay male experiences, whereas heterosexualities, lesbian and other sexualities are discursively marginalized or even silenced. At the same time, particular versions of gay masculinity are privileged, namely ones that can be described as white, middle-class and focused on consumption, gay identity politics and non-romantic forms of sexual activity.
Although ‘hate speech’ is often incorporated in legal and policy documents, there is no universally accepted definition, which in itself warrants research into how hatred is both expressed and perceived. The research project synthesises discourse analytic and corpus linguistics techniques, and presents its key findings here. The focus is especially on online comments posted in reaction to news items that could trigger discrimination, as well as on the folk perception of online hate speech as revealed through semi-structured interviews with young individuals across the various partner countries.
Drawing on Austin’s speech act theory, many influential scholars view hate speech in terms of speech acts, namely acts of subordination (MacKinnon 1987; Langton 1993, 2012, 2014; Hornsby and Langton 1998; McGowan 2003, 2004; Kukla and Lance 2009; Langton, Haslanger and Anderson 2012; Maitra 2012; Kukla 2014). Austin’s distinction between illocutionary and perlocutionary acts offers a way to set apart speech that constitutes subordination, and speech that merely causes subordination. The aim of my paper is to address the main objection to accounts of hate speech in terms of illocutionary speech acts, that is the Authority Problem. In particular I will claim that what is missing from previous proposals is attention to the broader social context in which ordinary instances of hate speech are embedded, and in particular, attention to the social status of both the speaker and the audience. While the social position of the speaker has been examined by several approaches, the social position of the audience has too often been neglected. I will show that not only must the speaker have a certain kind of standing or social position in order to perform speech acts of subordination, but also the audience must have a certain kind of standing or social position in order to either license or object to the speaker’s authority, and her acts of subordination.
Le migrazioni sono uno dei fenomeni sociali che più contraddistinguo-no la società moderna. L'interdipendenza tra aspetti economici, politici e mediatici tra le varie aree del globo maturata in epoca recente non ha, infatti, precedenti nella nostra storia; in questo quadro, l'Europa si trova sempre più di fronte a cambiamenti radicali della propria struttura socia-le e demografica. Da quando nei primi anni Novanta del secolo scorso l'I-talia è diventata una destinazione appetibile per migliaia di cittadini stra-nieri, il racconto mediatico, e soprattutto quello giornalistico, hanno svi-luppato delle linee di tendenza narrative rimaste costanti nell'arco dei due decenni successivi. E la centralità delle migrazioni nella comunicazione pubblica quotidiana non sembra certo arrestarsi. Il lavoro si concentra sul primo decennio degli anni Duemila e prende in esame un vasto corpus di articoli (oltre 100 milioni di parole e 200 mila articoli) estratti dai principali quotidiani nazionali italiani (Corriere della Sera, la Repubblica, La Stampa, Il Giornale, Libero). Grazie all'im-piego di metodi di analisi sia quantitativi sia qualitativi, il volume indivi-dua i temi maggiormente battuti dalla stampa quotidiana contemporanea (gli arrivi dei migranti nel Mediterraneo, la criminalità, il conflitto etnico nei contesti urbani) e mette in evidenza gli usi linguistici e discorsivi pre-valenti nella narrazione delle migrazioni.
This article is an attempt to seek answers to the question of whether so-called hate speech in the media constitutes a reporting of facts and reflects real social and cultural life or pursues other aims, for example: the persuasive and manipulative creation of a desired reality innate in the functioning of a commercial and persuasive media. The author attempts from the axiological perspective of the media, as well as from the semiological and linguistic perspectives, to answer the question of what the role of media language is in shaping and promoting real attitudes of hostility and hatred, and conversely, how cultural and media tendencies shape hate speech in the media. The author does not analyse the material aspect of language, but rather tries to look critically at certain trends shaping new forms of media language that bear negative values.
This report provides a framework through which hate speech emerging and disseminated online can be identified and analysed. Its aims are twofold. Firstly, it is meant to offer an introductory guide for those interested in mapping and analysing hate speech, especially as communicated through online media and in divided societies. Section 1 offers an overview of the recent debates over the definition of hate speech, both from a scholarly and legal perspective. Section 2 surveys different methodological tools that can be adopted to map and analyse hate speech and the trade-offs between the ability of providing a contextually grounded analysis of instances of hate speech and the possibility of processing large volumes of data. The second aim is to interrogate how a rigorous and academically informed analysis of hate speech can offer a novel terrain for engagement among different actors in divided societies, with a particular focus on Ethiopia. Section 3 reflects on the importance of bringing different actors around the same table, from members of the government and the opposition to bloggers supporting agendas at different ends of the political spectrum, and to engage in debates that can ultimately bound them to a shared definition of what is and what is not speech that can promote hate and violence, and to collectively recognize and develop measures to counteract it.
This article is situated at the intersection of the applied linguistic fields of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Collective Action Framing (CAF) and a sociolinguistic field recently referred to as “Queer Linguistics” (QL). Drawing on a qualitative method of analysis, the article investigates the discursive (re)production of religiously-motivated arguments in favour of and against LGBT equality in two letters to the editor in the City Press newspaper. The paper aims to illustrate the ways in which religiously-framed pro- and anti-LGBT-equality arguments are discursively constructed in public discourses, and to demonstrate the methodological overlap between CDA and QL, and between CDA and CAF.
The article’s findings reveal that both the pro- and anti-LGBT-equality letters frame their religious arguments in ways that echo that which is predicted in the literature by making strategic use of lexical items, modifiers, implicature, presupposition, rhetorical devices, and attributive strategies; and that these discursive devices enable the realisation of the core framing tasks that are necessary for social mobilisation to varying extents. Further, the findings indicate that the anti-LGBT-equality letter is more explicit in its ideological positioning and framing tasks, and that it draws significantly more on disclaimers than the pro-LGBT-equality letter. Lastly, the discourse that is present in the diagnostic, prognostic and motivational framing tasks of the pro-LGBT-equality letter attempts to reframe and counterframe anti-LGBT-equality arguments by providing an alternative perspective of same-sex attraction within the religion frame.
Scholars often blame the occurrence of aggressive behavior in online discussions on the anonymity of the Internet; however, even on today’s less anonymous platforms, such as social networking sites, users write plenty of aggressive comments, which can elicit a whole wave of negative remarks. Drawing on the social identity and deindividuation effects (SIDE) model, this research conducts a laboratory experiment with a 2 (anonymity vs. no anonymity) × 2 (aggressive norm vs. non-aggressive norm) between-subjects design in order to disentangle the effects of anonymity, social group norms, and their interactions on aggressive language use in online comments. Results reveal that participants used more aggressive expressions in their comments when peer comments on a blog included aggressive wording (i.e., the social group norm was aggressive). Anonymity had no direct effect; however, we found a tendency that users’ conformity to an aggressive social norm of commenting is stronger in an anonymous environment.
This paper engages with the recent dignity-based argument against hate speech proposed by Jeremy Waldron. It’s claimed that while Waldron makes progress by conceptualising dignity less as an inherent property and more as a civic status which hate speech undermines, his argument is nonetheless subject to the problem that there are many sources of citizens’ dignitary status besides speech. Moreover, insofar as dignity informs the grounds of individuals’ right to free speech, Waldron’s argument leaves us balancing hate speakers’ dignity against the dignity of those whom they attack. I suggest instead that a central part of the harm of hate speech is that it assaults our self-respect. The reasons to respect oneself are moral reasons which can be shared with others, and individuals have moral reasons to respect themselves for their agency, and their entitlements. Free speech is interpreted not as an individual liberty, but as a collective enterprise which serves the interests of speakers and the receivers of speech. I argue that hate speech undermines the self-respect of its targets in both the agency and entitlement dimensions, and claim, moreover, that this is a direct harm which cannot be compensated for by other sources of self-respect. I further argue that hate speakers have no basis to respect themselves qua their hate speech, as self-respect is based on moral reasons. I conclude that self-respect, unlike dignity, is sufficient to explain the harm of hate speech, even though it may not be necessary to explain its wrongness.
In this paper, we consider the limited chapter book options with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) characters available for upper elementary readers. While these texts all include one or more LGBT character(s), the overall representations of LGBT people and issues highlight particular normative identities and silence others. We are concerned that these representations reify neoliberal ideas about sexuality's relationship to race and class, and encourage gay assimilation into normative but problematic, nonequitable institutions. Yet we also believe that an analysis of books focusing only on representations of LGBT characters’ identities limits the queer potential of texts. Therefore, in addition to looking at representations within these books, we also consider how a second look at these books through a queer lens can help disrupt normative representations of a range of identity categories. We undertake this dual analysis for several purposes: (1) to find and review LGBT-inclusive chapter books available for pre-YA (young adult) readers, (2) to analyze gaps in this corpus of literature so as to push back against normativizing frameworks, and (3) to show how bringing queer critique and analysis of such texts can be used to deconstruct and diversify representations of LGBT people and families until/in addition to the publication of additional and more diverse texts.
We present an approach to detecting hate speech in online text, where hate speech is defined as abusive speech targeting specific group characteristics, such as ethnic origin, religion, gender, or sexual orientation. While hate speech against any group may exhibit some common characteristics, we have observed that hatred against each different group is typically characterized by the use of a small set of high frequency stereotypical words; however, such words may be used in either a positive or a negative sense, making our task similar to that of words sense disambiguation. In this paper we describe our definition of hate speech, the collection and annotation of our hate speech corpus, and a mechanism for detecting some commonly used methods of evading common "dirty word" filters. We describe pilot classification experiments in which we classify anti-semitic speech reaching an accuracy 94%, precision of 68% and recall at 60%, for an F1 measure of. 6375.
This paper addresses the charge sometimes made against corpus linguistics that CL cannot deal with absences, that is, information not to be found in a corpus. We begin by examining what absence means in a linguistic sense and distinguish among different varieties of absences, e. g. 'known absence' compared with 'unknown absence', absence from a sizeable corpus, from a limited set of texts or from a position in a single text, relative absence and absolute absence, and absence defined as 'hidden from open view', that is, hidden meaning. We then examine how CL can address each of these kinds of absences. We demonstrate too how certain concepts arising from CL, especially evaluative (semantic) prosody and lexical priming, are extremely relevant to research into absence. Overall, corpus techniques can be invaluable in not only locating absence but in identifying types of absence, in quantifying it and in assisting the researcher to evaluate the relevance of absences.
This article examines interactions from tertiary-level foreign languages classes in which students challenge the heteronormative construction of their sexual identity. These interactions are triggered by questions that potentially reference students' real-world identities but which attribute a heteronormative identity to the questions' recipients. Attempts to challenge this assigned identity establish an interactional trajectory between teacher and student in which students pursue a project of expressing identity while teachers construct such talk as linguistic failure. It is argued that the domination of the classroom by a heteronormative framing of identities coupled with the discursive construction of the purpose of language classes to focus on language contribute to this unfolding trajectory.
This article discusses the extent to which methods normally associated with corpus linguistics can be effectively used by critical discourse analysts. Our research is based on the analysis of a 140-million-word corpus of British news articles about refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants (collectively RASIM). We discuss how processes such as collocation and concordance analysis were able to identify common categories of representation of RASIM as well as directing analysts to representative texts in order to carry out qualitative analysis. The article suggests a framework for adopting corpus approaches in critical discourse analysis.
The present article investigates the recent history of the Romanian national construct as a matrix for gendered metaphors at the beginning of the twenty-first century, as it is heralded by the main radical-right populist party the Greater Romania Party (Partidul România Mare, PRM). Focusing on the Greater Romania Magazine (Revista România Mare, RRM) – the party's main media outlet – the analysis is centered on the PRM leader's editorials during a well-defined timeframe in the recent history of Romanian radical-right populism, from the preparations for presidential elections in 2000, which witnessed Tudor's surprising runoff, through the subsequent presidential elections in 2004, and up to EU parliamentary elections in 2009, which enabled the PRM to send three representatives to the EU Parliament. The staunchly restrictive definition of the family, portrayed as the exclusive heteronormative domain of the Romanian male, has been developed in time with the help of the “nation is a family” and the “strict father” conceptual metaphors to proscribe the existence of family narratives including ethnically diverse or any sexually different Others. The article accounts for the discursive (re-)definitions of Romanianness enabled by conceptual metaphors so as to accommodate centrally located heterosexist masculinities, and underlines the need for further explorations of the radical-right populist narratives of national purity.
The field of language and sexuality has gained importance within
socioculturally oriented linguistic scholarship. Much current work in
this area emphasizes identity as one key aspect of sexuality. However,
recent critiques of identity-based research advocate instead a
desire-centered view of sexuality. Such an approach artificially
restricts the scope of the field by overlooking the close relationship
between identity and desire. This connection emerges clearly in queer
linguistics, an approach to language and sexuality that incorporates
insights from feminist, queer, and sociolinguistic theories to analyze
sexuality as a broad sociocultural phenomenon. These intellectual
approaches have shown that research on identity, sexual or otherwise,
is most productive when the concept is understood as the outcome of
intersubjectively negotiated practices and ideologies. To this end, an
analytic framework for the semiotic study of social intersubjectivity
is presented. a
As an introduction to the special issue, this paper presents an overview of previous corpus linguistic work in the field of language and sexuality and discusses the compatibility of corpus linguistic methodology with queer linguistics as a central theoretical approach in language and sexuality studies. The discussion is structured around five prototypical aspects of corpus linguistics that may be deemed problematic from a poststructuralist, queer linguistic perspective: quantification and associated notions of objectivity, reliance on linguistic forms and formal presence, concentration on highly frequent features, reliance on categories, and highlighting of differences. It is argued that none of these aspects rules out an application of corpus linguistic techniques within queer theoretically informed linguistic work per se and that it is rather the way these techniques are employed that can be seen as more or less compatible with queer linguistics. To complement the theoretical discussion, a collocation analysis of sexual descriptive adjectives in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is conducted in an attempt to address some of the issues raised. The concluding section makes suggestions for future research.
In this report, we present a study of eight corpora of online hate speech, by demonstrating the NLP techniques that we used to collect and analyze the jihadist, extremist, racist, and sexist content. Analysis of the multilingual corpora shows that the different contexts share certain characteristics in their hateful rhetoric. To expose the main features, we have focused on text classification, text profiling, keyword and collocation extraction, along with manual annotation and qualitative study.
During the last decade, the development of Artificial Intelligence techniques for human language processing has opened new frontiers in the analysis of the data generated by users through social media. The possibility of investigating the human behavior with large scale data provides not only new opportunities for research and industry, but also new responsibilities for the AI and Computational Linguistics community as a whole. What is it ethical to infer from social data, where users freely express their feelings and opinions? How should we deal with the biases and stereotypes that are latent in the user generated data? In this paper, we survey the risks and opportunities of analyzing the explicit and implicit affective content in the expressions spontaneously provided by humans in online social fora, with the main aim of highlighting the need to acquire a new awareness of the possible non-ethical uses of automatic human language processing tools and the potential for their ethical uses, such as fighting hate speech.
The social work profession has an enduring history of commitment to American families; in fact, it has often led the way in embracing alternative family arrangements. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) families are gaining more political visibility and lobbying for rights and protections from which they were previously excluded. Therefore, this study is an analysis of social work's contemporary, defining representations of LGBTQ families. Twelve LGBTQ “family” research studies were culled from the database Social Work Abstracts, and subjected to queer discourse analysis in order to illuminate how these alternative family forms are being constructed within the discipline. This analysis details the multiple ways in which heterosexual norms are privileged throughout the research studies. For example, the heterosexual family is often constructed as an unchallenged index for psychological health, appropriate partnering, and child rearing practices, social acceptability, and general normative behavior. LGBTQ relationships often earn their “family” designations by their ability to approximate these legible, heteronormative “family” characteristics. As such, this queer discourse analysis indicates that LGBTQ families are ultimately invited to join, but not to change, the traditional terms of “family,” thus making the social work research less of an exploration of alternative family forms and more of an endorsement of same-sex, nuclear families.
This article profiles homophobia as a form of hate speech in the African context by locating the issue of homophobia and hate speech primarily within the context of language and gender. The article draws on insights from language and gender, queer theory, discourse analysis and Foucauldian post-structuralism to offer a preliminary reading of homophobia as a form of hate speech. It seeks to provide a better understanding of homophobia by analysing the linguistic choices that speakers make in a particular context or situation; and to explain how the choices are intrinsically linked to issues of gender, language and power. Namibia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia and Egypt are used as primary examples, and data are drawn from media reports in both the print and electronic format. The conclusions show how homophobia and hate speech threaten democracy and human rights.
In this article, I examine the role of talk in constructing speakers as heterosexual beings. Heterosexuality is a cultural construction relying on strictly enforced norms for its continuing dominance. Queer linguistics initially focused on the language of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) groups, but is now widening its focus to explore the discursive construction of heterosexuality, and to show that language does not just reflect the heteronormative order; it is also involved in reproducing that order. I shall explore how heterosexuality is ‘done’ in everyday talk, drawing on Cameron and Kulick’s idea of ‘the heteronormative hierarchy’. I shall also show how closely sexuality and gender are linked, and will argue that this closeness is essential to the maintenance of heteronormativity.
This introductory essay to the Discourse & Society special issue on Queer Linguistic Approaches to Discourse discusses the theoretical underpinnings of the connection between discourse studies and Queer Theory within Queer Linguistics – a strand of research that has recently gained great momentum. It outlines basic issues in Queer Theory and their repercussions in Queer Linguistic debates and research. The Queer Linguistic objective to provide critical heteronormativity research is then related to Queer Discourse Studies in its various forms and approaches. An overview of the contributions to the special issue and suggestions for future research conclude the article.
This article arguesthat language, interaction and culture cannot be reduced to literal performance – the ‘there’ in an interaction. Instead, language in interaction should also be understood in relation to what is barred from performance, what is not or cannot be performed – the not-there, or, rather, the unsaid traces, the absent presences, that structure the said and the done. If this is accepted, the question becomes: how can we engage with those processes, both theoretically and empirically? Drawing on work presented in the book Language and Sexuality(Cameron and Kulick, 2003), as well as research concerned with performativity, desire, and mimesis, this article presents a brief overview of the kinds of questions that appear when we turn our attention to what tends to get left out, both in specific linguistic interactions, and in our models of language.
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