ArticlePDF Available

Positivity Bias and Cultural Differences in Acquiring Haihao in Chinese as a Second Language

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

This study examines how Chinese as a Second Language (CSL) learners acquire the Chinese stance marker haihao with a focus on type and saliency. A total of 56 participants took part in the research, including 28 English-speaking CSL learners and 28 native Chinese speakers. The study utilized two evaluation judgment tasks. Results showed that participants categorized haihao into two simplified groups, guided by the economy principle and a positivity bias. English-speaking learners, influenced by a stronger positivity bias, tended to select more positive options, while Chinese participants favored slightly negative ones. Saliency improved the accuracy of recognizing negative haihao among American learners and low positive haihao among Chinese participants, though it was less effective for ambiguous expressions. These findings highlight how cultural differences and language saliency impact the interpretation of stance markers, offering insights for improving CSL teaching strategies.
Content may be subject to copyright.
Citation:    
     
    
Haihao   
 Languages  


   
   
   
  
   
Copyright:    
   
      
    
    
    


Article
Positivity Bias and Cultural Dierences in Acquiring Haihao in
Chinese as a Second Language
Chun‑Yin Doris Chen * and Pin‑Yu Ruby Lu
          
* 
Abstract:             
   haihao             
             
          haihao  
           
             
            haihao
      haihao        
           
            

Keywords:          
1. Introduction
           
          
            
           
          
             
                
           
             
          
         haihao    
           haihao  
             
              
 
        
      

      
        
    
  
         
  haihao          
            
           
Languages 20249   
Languages 20249   
 haihao           
      
   haihao         
           
             
             
 haihao           
             
            
  
           
           
           haihao    
              
            
            
            
           
      
         
           
            
             
           
              
     
            haihao 
            
          
          
             
 haihao   
            
  haihao
2. Previous Studies of Haihao in Mandarin Chinese
        haihao 
            
         hai  hao
         hai   
            
   hai          
            
           
            
      hai  hai  hai 
hai  hai   hai     
           haihao     
      hai    
          hao 
          hao   
             
    
Languages 20249   
        hai  hao    
        haihao     
             
    hai  hao       
           
        
       
           
    haihao       
           
           

        
       
      
             
  haihao         
      hai   hao      hen
  hai  hao         haihao 
      haihao     
            
        
   haihao           
           
           
       haihao      
           
        haihao     
            haihao  
             
           
          
     haihao      
        hai  hao    
            
         haihao
   
     haihao        
          haihao 
          
            
         
   
3. Empirical Studies of Chinese Polysemous Words Acquisition
          
           
            
           
         
3.1. Prototypicality
           
           
Languages 20249   
          
           
            

         shang    
           
          
             
  da         
          
     
            
           
         
         
         
           
          
         
         
           
   
3.2. L1 Semantics Transfer
            
           
            
           
           
              
          
           
   daodiwh       
           
            

           
        haihao    
  
3.3. Contextual Hints
          
        
            
             
          
            
            
            
             
      
            
          
            
Languages 20249   
         
           
            
            
           
          
           
    
           
     haihao      
           haihao  
       
           
           
         
             
            
           
          
     
4. Research Design
4.1. Participants
            
             
            
            
              
           
            
             
           
       
4.2. Tasks and Materials
            
            
 haihao            
             
          
            
  haihao           
              
            
          
           haihao
   
          
              
      haihao         
          haihao 
             
        haihao   
Languages 20249   
  Haihao 
     haihao       
          hai  hao  
        Haihao     
              
            
          
       
      

         
       
   
    
         
            
      qingchu jide      
             haihao
           
  Haihao
  haihao       
          
  
    zhongji lanjiezhan  
   


 
    Ultimate Interception Station  
    
  
         
     haihao      
         puputongtong  
    
          
   haihao         
            
              
            
           
              
haihao
  Haihao 
Haihao           
             
     hao   haihao      
  Haihao       
            
          
           
             
   set in         
 rotdecaymalaise  despair      haihao    
         
Languages 20249   
       
        
         
    
  
   
             
     
         
             
  
            
      taida      
         
   haihao            luandiao
     luandiao      haihao  
    
  Haihao
    haihao      
            
haihao            
               
      dou bu tai shou        
   haihao
       
   
   
 
 
       
          
   
      
              
   
  haihao        
           
           
           
              
            
   
   
           
          
         
           
           
            
            
           haihao   
          
           haihao  
             
           
               
Languages 20249   
           
  
           
            
           
              
         
Table 1.     
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:

Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Jennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
     

Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Mickey shuo“Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
         


Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
       
Table 2.     
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:

Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Jennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
     

Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Mickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao
yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
       
        


Languages 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
4.2.2. The Evaluation Task
This study employed an evaluation judgement task designed with two distinct
versions: Evaluation Judgment Task-I (EJT-I) and Evaluation Judgment Task-II (EJT-II).
EJT-I included weak hints, promoting a more unbiased interpretation, while EJT-II
featured strong contextual hints to guide participants more directly. The dual-version task
was specically crafted to ensure comprehensive and unbiased data collection. Each
version of the task revolved around narratives involving the main characters Rosie and
Jennie, which were created by the researchers. Both versions unfolded through eight
scenarios per task, with each scenario corresponding to one of four types of evaluative
haihao identied in the study: low positive, average, low negative, or negative. Participants
answered questions related to each scenario. In EJT-I, participants were asked to interpret
haihao using only weak saliency hints, while in EJT-II, scenarios provided strong saliency
hints to assist with evaluations. Overall, the evaluation task consisted of twenty questions:
eight with weak saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-I, and eight with strong
saliency hints and two ller questions in EJT-II. To enhance clarity and reduce ambiguity,
images accompanied each test item.
In the experiment, each participant saw animations created by Microsoft Oce
PowerPoint 2021 on a computer screen while listening to a recorded story containing the
test items. After presenting the story, the experimenter asked the participants a question
and required them to select an answer. An example question from EJT-I is given in Table 1,
while an example question from EJT-II is presented in Table 2.
Table 1. An Example Question of EJT-I.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
icke
y
shuo:Qishi haihao yeh, qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
Mickey said: “Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting.
Scene 3
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Would Mickey want to watch the movie again?”
Table 2. An Example Question of EJT-II.
The Participants Saw: The Participants Heard:
Scene 1
J
ennie wen: “Nabu dianying shibushi hen haokan ya?”
“Jennie asked, “Is that movie good?”
Scene 2
M
ickey kandao yiban jiu shuizhaole, ta shuo: “Qishi haihao yeh,
qingjie hen bu jingcai”.
“Mickey fell asleep halfway through watching it, he said:
Actually, it’s not good. The plot is very unexciting”.”
Scene 3 Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
Qingwen Mickey hui xiang zai kanyici nabu dianying ma?
       
4.3. Procedure
           
           
           
            
          
  haihao             
              
          
         haihao   
Languages 20249   
   chi        
        
   
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Type Eect
           
 haihao 
Table 3.          
Type
Group
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
f%f%f%f%
        
        
            
haihao         haihao 
    haihao      
           haihao
        haihao     
     haihao       
      haihao       
     haihao        
      haihao   p  
             
     haihao
           
            
           
       haihao     
              
       chi      
       haihao   p 
             
chi          
            p  
            
        
      P    
         haihao       
     
             
         haihao    
 p           
      haihao     
Languages 20249    
Table 4.          Haihao 
Group Type Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

   
    ×
   
    ×

    
    
    
    
Notes p          p    
     p           p  
       
         p  
  p     p      p  
            
           haihao 
          p    
 p         
        haihao   
          
           
          
p     p     p    
 p           
             
 haihao          
p      p      
         haihao   
            
  
         
            
       haihao   
           
           
      haihao     
            
    haihao     
            
            
            
          
           
           
             
           
             
          
        
Languages 20249    
Table 5.        
Type Group Option A Option B Option C Option D
f%f%f%f%
    
   
     
   
     
     
      
   
            
haihao          
        
        haihao   
          
          
          
   haihao       
           
          
  haihao          
           
           haihao  
          
          
         

       haihao    
           
  haihao        
           
        
          haihao 
           
           
         
          
            
           
            
    haihao       
          
           
            
          
            
           
        
Languages 20249    
           
          
           
    haihao          
             
            
             
   
     haihao   haihao     
            
           
  
          
         haihao  
  haihao         
          
           
          
  
5.2. Saliency Eect
             
 
Table 6.          
Hints Type
Group
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
f%f%f%f%
         
        
         
        
          
 haihao        haihao   
          
          
            
   
             
   haihao          
           
     haihao     
            
           
           
    p   
         haihao      
   
Languages 20249    
Table 7.   p      
Type
Group Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
     ×
    
Notes p          p     
    
         
  p      
         
 p            
           
     
          
      p   ×  
           
  haihao     
p               
   
         
p          
             
  p      
      haihao 
           
    p      
   haihao    p    
  p          
              
            
             
            
            
            
            
            
            
              
              
          
haihao        haihao     
           
            
     haihao       
       haihao     
           hen  hen
shihhe   hen youchengjiougan       
         hen     
             haihao  
             hen    
       hen hao   hen
gao               
           hen   
Languages 20249    
   haihao         
     hen       
 
           
             
   hen            
           
              
                
           
       
 haihao          
     bu  bu taishou      
            
        haihao   
            
  bu         
            
      bu         
             
 bu            
              
 bu            
          bu jingcai    
  bu       jingcai    
             
        bu taishou       tai 
       bu      
           
             
              
  
            
   haihao       
             
          
            
 haihao          
         
             
          
   haihao
          
    haihao        
          
             
            
     
6. Conclusions
          haihao 
             
            
 haihao           
Languages 20249    
            
           
          
          
           
 haihao            
 
           
            
 haihao           
           
      haihao     
           
           
    haihao     
         
haihao          
         
   haihao        
          
            
          
           
         
            
         
          
         
            
   
         
           
           
          
          
       
            
            
           
           
           
             
            
            
             
haihao           
             
            
        haihao   
     
Languages 20249    
Author Contributions:      
          
        
        
             
Funding:            
            
                
        
Institutional Review Board Statement:          
              
          
Informed Consent Statement:          

Data Availability Statement:            
 
Conicts of Interest:       
Notes
   haihao haihao           
    Haihao           
                    
            Haihao    
                
  
   Haihao            
             qixian haihao    
        luandiao Haihao        
                 
       qishi haihao         
   Haihao            
   Haihao              

                  
   haihao              
           haihao    haihao
                  
                  
                 
               
          
References
           Annual Review of Psychology   

                 Cognition  
 
                  
Text‑Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse   
           hao    
 Journal of Chinese Language and Computing  
                    
   Australian Review of Applied Linguistics   
                 
    Frontiers in Psychology  