Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts: the case of the Mosul stone bridge

Abstract

Historic bridges are crucial city landmarks, requiring expert input to preserve them in accordance with international policies and approaches. This ensures the protection of their historical and architectural value and their preservation for as long as possible. During conflict and war, bridges often suffer significant damage, leading to extensive destruction or complete demolition. The historic stone bridge over the Al-Khosar River in Mosul, constructed during the Ottoman era in 1856, sustained direct damage during the military operations in 2017, resulting in the substantial destruction of parts of the bridge. The objective of this study is to examine the challenges and constraints encountered during the reconstruction of this significant urban landmark. To this end, the architectural and engineering aspects of the project will be analysed, while also highlighting the difficulties in adhering to the standards and requirements set forth in international conventions and legislation pertaining to the preservation of historical urban landmarks and the protection of these structures from extinction. Subsequently, a series of conclusions and recommendations will be presented, offering insights to inform future endeavours involving the restoration of similarly invaluable edifices.

Full text

Budownictwo i Architektura 23(4) 2024, 25-40
DOI: 10.35784/bud-arch.6495
Received: 17.08.2024; Revised: 30.09.2024;
Accepted: 03.10.2024; Available online: 16.12.2024
© 2024 Budownictwo i Architektura
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0
Original Article
Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts:
the case of the Mosul stone bridge
Emad Hani Ismaeel1*, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi2
1* Department of Architecture; College of Engineering; University of Mosul; 41002 Mosul, Iraq;
emad.hani.ismaeel@uomosul.edu.iq; ORCID: 0000-0002-6266-7674
2 The Nineveh Roads; Bridges and Municipalities; 41002 Mosul, Iraq;
amkhalid846@gmail.com; ORCID: 0009-0004-0765-4012
Abstract: Historic bridges are crucial city landmarks, requiring expert input to preserve
them in accordance with international policies and approaches. This ensures the protection
of their historical and architectural value and their preservation for as long as possible. During
conflict and war, bridges often suffer significant damage, leading to extensive destruction or
complete demolition. The historic stone bridge over the Al-Khosar River in Mosul,
constructed during the Ottoman era in 1856, sustained direct damage during the military
operations in 2017, resulting in the substantial destruction of parts of the bridge. The
objective of this study is to examine the challenges and constraints encountered during the
reconstruction of this significant urban landmark. To this end, the architectural and
engineering aspects of the project will be analysed, while also highlighting the difficulties in
adhering to the standards and requirements set forth in international conventions and
legislation pertaining to the preservation of historical urban landmarks and the protection of
these structures from extinction. Subsequently, a series of conclusions and recommendations
will be presented, offering insights to inform future endeavours involving the restoration of
similarly invaluable edifices.
Keywords: historic bridges, built heritage, urban conservation, sustainability, post-war
reconstruction
1. Introduction
The redevelopment of infrastructure and transportation facilities in historic cities
presents numerous challenges and considerations that must be addressed to ensure the success
of such projects (Al-A’abachi and AlAlaf, 2023). Post-conflict cities often face difficulties
that require extraordinary efforts to revive communities. Bridges are among the structures
most severely damaged or destroyed during armed conflicts due to their critical logistical
importance in connecting parts of settlements and cities (Abdulrahman and Al-Allaf, 2023).
The reconstruction of damaged historic structures presents a significant challenge, and there

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
26
has been a recent resurgence of interest in these valuable monuments, which have often been
replaced with newer structures or neglected until they have deteriorated to the point of
collapse (Ramos et al., 2008; Karasin and Isik, 2016). Many engineering efforts have
successfully reconstructed famous historic bridges using modern methods while adhering to
international resolutions and documents related to the preservation and protection of historic
and cultural heritage (Azar and Sari, 2023). These include the reconstruction of the Mostar
Bridge, a 16th-century Ottoman bridge in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Zilha, 2022), the
historic Old Tweed Bridge in Scotland (Grubb et al., 2019), and the historic River Witham
Bridge in Lincoln, UK (De'Ath and Heap, 2019). Mosul has several significant architectural
structures that require effective safeguarding and conservation measures, both curative and
preventive (Ismaeel, 2023). One such structure is the Old Stone Bridge, constructed in 1854
during the Ottoman period to connect the city centre with neighbouring towns and districts.
The reconstruction process faced numerous architectural and engineering challenges,
requiring critical decisions to ensure the preservation of this vital structure near Mosul's
historic core. This paper aims to elucidate the primary challenges encountered and propose
solutions to overcome them, establishing a set of guiding principles for future engineering
projects of a similar nature.
2. Related literature
Bezgin (2024) studied the locations of historic stone bridges in Turkey and their
performance in relation to seismic faults. He assessed the Mimar Sinan Bridge, which
remained fully functional for over four centuries despite severe earthquakes. The bridge's
structural consistency and homogeneous behaviour contributed to its success. In the late
1980s, it was decommissioned and repurposed as a public park and cultural centre. Vičan et
al. (2023) studied a unique method for rehabilitating a road bridge over the Hrun River in
Slovakia, using a composite superstructure made of steel and concrete. Gheitasi et al. (2022)
examined the rehabilitation and retrofit design of the John G. Lewis Memorial Bridge in
Virginia, focusing on a balanced design that blended old and new elements. The project
involved collaboration with stakeholders and incorporated innovative materials and
techniques to meet historic preservation standards. The historic nature of the bridge and high
stakeholder involvement made the project distinctive and of considerable public interest. The
Min-Zhe Bridge, a historic structure, has been built and maintained by highly trained
craftsmen in the region for generations without academic analysis or field tests.
Reconstruction is a traditional practice in some communities, often undertaken periodically
or after damage. Contemporary conservation techniques are often used to preserve the
bridge's physical authenticity. The project is currently being carried out using traditional
craftsmanship techniques and modern restoration methods to enhance its durability (Chen et
al., 2021). The Cigacice Bridge, built around a century ago, showcases the quality of interwar
engineering. It was first opened to the public in 1925 and is currently undergoing renovations
to conserve the site. Collaboration with preservation services is crucial for significant
regional buildings, as it requires heightened attention, increased costs, and alternative
technologies. The bridge must also meet contemporary vehicular and pedestrian traffic
standards (Mielczarek and Nowogońska, 2021). The River Witham Bridge in Lincoln, UK,
is a listed railway bridge with two tracks crossing the River Witham. It was designated a
listed structure in 1999 for its historical significance and was successfully reconstructed in
2017 to preserve its original structure (De'Ath et al., 2019). The Murray Morgan Lift Bridge
in Tacoma, built in 1913, was closed to vehicular and pedestrian traffic in 2007 due to
deteriorating systems. However, in 2010, funding was secured for its restoration, which

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
27
included repairs, structural reinforcement, resurfacing, and seismic-resistant modifications.
The bridge was completed in 2012, restoring traffic (Marzella, 2019). The Broadway Bridge,
built in 1912 in Portland, is a National Register of Historic Places landmark due to its
exceptional structural system, which required innovative solutions and complex maintenance
in 2018 (Marzella, 2019). The study by Kazaryan and Sakharova (2019) discusses the
reconstruction of an arch bridge over the Kineshemka River in Russia using prestressed
elements. The main metal beams were replaced with new reinforced concrete beams,
regulated by high-strength ropes. The reconstruction was completed efficiently, and traffic
was rerouted for vehicles and pedestrians. The historic Tweed Stone Bridge is temporarily
closed due to structural concerns. The renovation involved temporary support, backfill
excavation, wall demolition, concrete saddle pouring, waterproofing, and resurfacing.
Innovative works included filling gaps in the arch and stone repair. Environmental challenges
included pollution from the city's largest salmon river and the impact on bird and bat habitats.
The study by Grubb et al. (2019) highlights these issues. Colak (2016) highlights the
historical significance of the Old Bridge in Mostar and the reconstruction project undertaken
in 1997 after its destruction during war. The project, under UNESCO's auspices, was one of
the largest and most valuable historical projects in recent decades. Built in 1566 by Mimar
Hayrudin, the reconstruction faced numerous challenges, including detailed architectural
documentation, original building materials, construction procedures, and foundation
strengthening methods. The implementation process also involved selecting appropriate
scaffolding and an effective mortar for securing the stones. The 16th-century bridge in
Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, was destroyed during the 1992-1995 war, disrupting the
city's urban fabric. The bridge, a renowned landmark connecting the Neretva River banks,
has undergone significant transformation due to violence and armed conflicts. Despite
constructing a new bridge, social relations within the local community remain unresolved
(Mandić, 2023). The Danube Bridge in Bratislava, built between 1889 and 1890, was
destroyed during WWII. In 1945, a new road section was built. In 2010, a collapsed section
caused traffic closure. A proposal for the railway portion's reconstruction was made,
considering the reuse of original key structural elements (Agócs and Vanko, 2016). Fábry et
al. (2016) discussed the reconstruction of the 'Old Bridge to the Island' in Trenčín, spanning
the Vah River and the Kukovský Canal. The bridge was extended and renovated to
accommodate a neighbouring recreational area, with proposed solutions aiming to maintain
traffic throughout the reconstruction period. Eitelberger et al. (2015) discussed the
rehabilitation of the Emirate Bridge in Ghana, emphasising the importance of a
comprehensive understanding of the existing structure. The bridge's deterioration was due to
various factors, requiring extensive repairs. Engineering assessments showed the bridge's
primary structure was satisfactory, allowing it to be rehabilitated and continue in use. The
rehabilitation required significant technical expertise. Paeglītis et al. (2013) studied the
historic Vinta River Bridge in Koldega, Latvia, aiming to assess its physical characteristics
and determine its suitability as a brick arch bridge for reconstruction and renovation. The
study stressed the need for thorough investigation of materials and deterioration causes, and
the use of appropriate materials that do not hinder water movement. Laser scanning was used
for engineering data collection.
3. Stone arch bridges
The earliest known stone bridges date back to the Roman era in Europe. The Romans
utilised stone construction and the technique of roofing with vaults due to the durability of
this method, which enabled them to create larger spaces that were previously unfeasible

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
28
from a structural perspective (Floroni and Juravle, 2019). Stone arch bridges, originating
in the Roman era, have a long and successful history of serving local communities'
transportation needs. They have become an integral part of international history and local
heritage. However, many existing bridges have exceeded their intended service life and are
now experiencing functional or structural issues (Chróścielewski, et al., 2013). To ensure
the preservation and rehabilitation of stone arch bridges, it is essential to understand
appropriate evaluation methods, analysis techniques, and repair and strengthening options
(Citto and Woodham, 2015). Stone arch bridges exhibit a high degree of diversity, with
various shapes, cultural influences, and stylistic variations, and are found in many
geographical locations (Karaś and Jankowska, 2018; Arslan, 2020). They bear witness to
historical events and are a prominent feature of the built environment, imbued with
economic and cultural significance (Antoniszyn, 2016). Their continued existence
represents an important work of art in itself (Ding, 2022). A comprehensive historical and
archaeological survey, coupled with a detailed structural assessment, is crucial for the
success of protection and maintenance work. These processes involve determining the date
and chronology of the structure's construction, identifying potential disruptions in the
construction process, devising a plan for addressing damages, and analysing previous
interventions and treatments. The intervention method is then determined, and various
proposals are considered, including dismantling and reshaping the structure, strengthening
and supporting it, fully reinforcing the upper structure, reducing loads, balancing mass and
rigidity distribution, enhancing structural cooperation between arches and supports, and
improving the bridge's fundamental system (Yanik et al., 2019). In some cases, the
reconstructed bridge may be relocated to a nearby site to facilitate economic reconstruction
or enhance safety. Historical records of bridges provide evidence of the construction and
reconstruction processes, offering a valuable means of ensuring the continuity of the
cultural and heritage values associated with the structure (Chen et al., 2021).
3.1. Conservation of historic bridges as a sustainable initiative
Bridges are crucial components of urban infrastructure, facilitating connectivity and
regulating vehicular traffic within specific sectors or regions. They often respond to natural
obstacles, such as rivers and valleys, necessitating the creation of a physical link between
isolated locations (Alabaachi and Alalaf, 2023). Historic bridges, such as Tower Bridge in
London, Rialto Bridge in Venice, the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, and the
Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul, embody the identity and symbolism of the cities in which
they are situated. The preservation and protection of monuments and heritage buildings
represent a vital source of urban sustainability, providing benefits across all three pillars:
economic, social, and environmental (Klimek, 2016). Safeguarding these structures confers
advantages in each of these areas (Elbelkasy and Hegazy, 2024; Pal, 2023; Hamad and
Ismaeel, 2023a). The conservation of such constructions necessitates compliance with
international and national resolutions and legislation, including design principles,
construction specifications, and methods of operation and maintenance. For example, the
Venice Charter stipulates the use of suitable materials and techniques that are consistent
with the original materials and design. The objective is to restore the structure to its original
function or to reuse it with a comparable or appropriate function (Jasim and Ismaeel, 2023).
Additionally, the charter emphasises the preservation of the structure in its original context
and the maintenance of neighbouring structures to the greatest extent possible. To preserve
a historic bridge, it is essential to use methods that facilitate the assessment of its condition
while minimising the potential for damage through a reduced number of inspections. Any

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
29
incorporation of additional materials should ensure that they blend seamlessly with the
monument, considering factors such as construction method, materials, colour, and texture
(Hamad and Ismaeel, 2023b). The Burra Charter (Australia, 1981) delineates the types of
significance inherent in a structure and methods of dealing with them, while the Nara
Document on Authenticity (Japan, 1994) specifies indicators to measure them, including
rarity and authenticity (Ismaeel, 2023). It is imperative that the type of damage, its cause,
and the structural behaviour of the bridge be studied prior to reconstruction. This ensures
that the appropriate intervention is selected and the reconstruction is completed effectively
and safely (Ramos et al., 2008). The continued viability of rebuilt bridges depends on
adherence to criteria pertaining to their living heritage status. These include the continuity
of use and function, the maintenance of community connections, the preservation of
cultural expressions, and compliance with living heritage standards. The preservation and
maintenance of historic buildings require genuine participation from multiple disciplines
and individuals, along with access to appropriate decision-making processes (Chen et al.,
2021).
4. Challenges and difficulties of reconstructing historic bridges
In light of the aforementioned considerations, and by analysing previous studies, the
most significant requirements and constraints associated with the reconstruction of historic
bridges, particularly in post-conflict scenarios, can be distilled into four key domains:
architectural and engineering specifications, human constraints, technological requirements,
and natural factors. The most significant of these determinants are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Determinants and difficulties of the reconstruction of historic bridges. Source: [Researchers]
Key domains
Most significant determinants
Architectural and
Engineering
Specifications
Availability of architectural documentation, archives, engineering plans,
documentary photographs, and representational elements
Architectural style of detailing and similar designs
Structural, durability, and safety issues: foundation corrosion, foundation
failure, cracks in bridge components, soil movement, failure to bear weight,
corrosion and loss of structural and bonding materials, damage to walls,
footing displacements
Availability of traditional construction, finishing, and bonding materials
Limitations of engineering standards and specifications
Criteria and legislation for the preservation and protection of built heritage
Preparation requirements for reconstruction and debris removal
Human Restrictions
Availability of skilled artisanal construction personnel and traditional
technical labourers
Inadequate, inefficient, or inappropriate interventions
Remnants of war and military operations: mines and unexploded bombs
Obstacles to vehicular and pedestrian movement and overload
Control of negligence, intentional damage, and misuse
Financial requirements and project budget
Social and cultural issues: social participation and community awareness

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
30
Political and legal issues: administrative corruption, competition among
implementers
Confronting trends of renewal, modernisation, and rejection of the old and
traditional
Technological
Requirements
Limitations of traditional building techniques
Availability of technology and equipment for pre-construction surveys and
inspections
Provision of technologies and devices required for implementation and
construction
Natural Factors
Environmental and climatic factors: sunlight, heat, cold, moisture, and wind
River water movement, flooding, rain, snow, and water infiltration
Earthquakes, volcanoes, tornadoes, and storms
Animal and bird habitats
Plants, trees, climbers, fungi, and herbs
Biological pollution
5. The case of the Mosul Stone Bridge
5.1. Description of the original bridge
The Mosul Stone Bridge, located at the Khosar Basin, connects Faisaliyah and eastern
Mosul with the western bank via an old iron bridge (see Fig. 1). Constructed during the
Ottoman era in 1856, the bridge features seven pillars, each 2.6 meters wide, and eight arches,
facilitating connectivity between the city and other settlements in eastern Mosul.
Fig. 1. Mosul Stone Bridge is located on the Al-Khosar River, with the Tigris River nearby and the old
iron bridge connecting to Mosul's old city, which lies adjacent to it on the left. Source: [Google
map]

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
31
The bridge in Mosul, located on a hill, was built in 1854 by the Ottoman government
to protect the city from floodwaters. The bridge, 90 meters long and 10 meters wide, extended
to a high point on the left bank (Al-Mallah, 1992). Initially, a wooden pontoon bridge was
erected to connect the two sides, but a fixed iron bridge was later constructed in 1934. The
wooden bridge was dismantled, leaving the stone bridge spanning the Tigris intact. However,
engineers determined that the walkway in the middle of the river would impede water flow,
leading to the bridge’s demolition. In 1935, a flood inundated the left bank, disrupting
transport routes. The government responded by expanding the stone arches on the Khosar
River and constructing a dam to prevent water flow. The bridge's history underscores the
importance of maintaining natural flood barriers in Mosul (Al-Nish, 2007), see Fig. 2.
In 2017, a bridge in Mosul was targeted by direct bombing during military operations,
resulting in the destruction of Pillar 2 and its supporting arches. In 2018, the Nineveh Roads
and Bridges Directorate conducted a survey to assess the feasibility of reconstructing the
bridge. The Ministry of Construction, Housing, and Municipalities aims to restore the bridge
to its original form, preserving an important element of urban heritage. The Nineveh Roads,
Bridges, and Municipalities Directorate served as the financing and supervisory body, while
Saad General Company was responsible for the implementation. Both entities are part of the
Ministry of Construction and Housing.
Fig. 2. Archived photos of the Mosul Stone Bridge Source: [Civilization Mosul Encyclopaedia, 1992]
5.2. Reconstruction phases of Mosul stone bridge
To identify the most crucial aspects of the Mosul Stone Bridge reconstruction process,
the committee responsible for overseeing the project was interviewed. The following
individuals were consulted: Dr. Engineer Abdul Rahman Abdullah Saeed, Engineers Yassin
Ibrahim and Mahmoud Khaled, and the implementing engineers Ammar Ahmed and Al-
Waleed Khaled. A series of open-ended questions were posed, and their responses were
analysed to ascertain the stages of work and the most significant challenges currently facing
the project.
The reconstruction of the bridge was undertaken according to the following stages:
5.2.1. The bridge was reconstructed using a reverse engineering methodology,
involving a thorough analysis of its architectural and structural elements. This process
included meticulous documentation of the existing structure, precise site elevation using total
station surveying instruments, detailed examination of stone samples in specialised
laboratories, and the formulation of necessary plans for the bridge's reconstruction, in
alignment with its original architectural form and engineering specifications. All architectural

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
32
and structural engineering plans and drawings were created using the AutoCAD engineering
program.
5.2.2. The selection of materials for the reconstruction of the central pillar and
associated arches was based on various criteria. Stone samples were obtained from the site
and analysed in a laboratory. The stone had a density of 0.00227 g/mL, an absorption rate of
4.8%, and compressive strength of 250 N/mm² in the dry state and 195 N/mm² in the wet
state, classifying it as type B according to Iraqi standards. Samples from various stone
quarries were also tested for potential use in the reconstruction. The stone from the Salamiya
quarry had a density of 0.0019 g/mL, compressive strength of 250 N/mm² in the dry state and
75 N/mm² in the wet state, and an absorption rate of 9%, classifying it as class A. The stone
from the Al-Kasr quarry had a density of 0.00222 g/mL, compressive strength of 234 N/mm²
in the dry state and 191.7 N/mm² in the wet state, with an absorption rate of 5.1%. The stone
from the Al-Kasr quarry was selected due to its physical characteristics, which closely
resembled those of the original stone used in the construction of the bridge. Additionally, the
stone from the Salamiya quarry was found to contain gaps and organic matter, leading to a
significant loss of compressive strength when submerged in water. This made it unsuitable
for the reconstruction, as the stone would be submerged year-round due to the continuous
flow of river water.
5.2.3. The epoxy materials used for implanting iron skewers to connect the stone
components of the side walls were examined. The objective was to ensure the walls function
as a single unit, resisting the lateral forces generated by the vertical loads applied to the bridge
structure. This approach mirrors the methodology employed in the original construction,
where stainless steel and hammering were used to connect the stone masonry units. The
materials used in the rehabilitation process, including aggregate materials (gravel and sand)
and salt-resistant cement, underwent standard testing procedures to verify that the structure
is watertight and compliant with the specified requirements.
5.2.4. Once the debris was cleared from the site, the remains of the destroyed pillar
were revealed (see Fig. 3). The outer shell was constructed using stones with regular
geometric shapes, while the core was filled with stones, cement mortar, and additives (see
Fig. 4). The bridge abutments were reinforced and protected from collapse due to erosion
caused by water runoff near the abutments through the construction of a gravel foundation.
Additionally, capillary baskets (BRC baskets filled with coarse gravel) were installed at both
the upstream and downstream locations of the bridge, before and after the installation of the
gravel foundation. Grouting operations were also conducted near the abutments after the
completion of the gravel foundation to fill voids beneath the stone abutments and prevent
potential future collapse.
Fig. 3. The bridge before reconstruction and the beginning of rubble removal.Source: [researchers]

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
33
Fig. 4. Locating the destroyed pillar and rebuilding it.Source: [researchers]
5.2.5. In the subsequent phase, an iron mould was constructed to replicate the original
arch of the stone vault. The initial row of keystone stones was installed without the use of a
binder, with the keystones securing the arch. To prevent the formation of longitudinal joints
between the rows, stones of varying sizes were used for the remaining components.
Additionally, cement mortar was applied between the stone units, with additives incorporated
to improve the mortar’s properties and enhance adhesion between the stones (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Installing iron molds and constructing arches for destroyed vaults. Source: [researchers]
5.2.6. The subsequent phase involved the construction of retaining walls between the
arches, using the same stone material. The stone pieces in the old walls featured grooves from
the hammering of iron rods that connected each stone to its neighbours, ensuring the wall
functioned as a single unit to resist the horizontal lateral thrust forces generated by vertical
loads (both live and dead) on the bridge structure. This detail was replicated in the new
section. A clay-free, non-volumetric, moisture-resistant soil mix with a relatively low density
(1.6 g/cm³) was then used to minimise the impact of dead load and horizontal lateral thrust
forces.
5.2.7. In the final stage, finishes were completed on the bridge. All of the bridge's stones
were polished, the street was paved, and the sidewalks, lighting installations, and painting
works were carried out (see Fig. 6).

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
34
Fig. 6. Mosul Stone Bridge during the final stage of reconstruction. Source: [researchers]
5.3. The difficulties of reconstructing the Mosul stone bridge
The application of the determinants set out in Table1 to the reconstruction of the Mosul
Stone Bridge has allowed for the identification of key factors that significantly influenced
the process. Additionally, other factors were deemed insignificant or were not required as
part of the bridge rehabilitation procedures. The most important of these influential factors
include the following:
5.3.1. Architectural and engineering specifications
The process of rebuilding damaged bridges is subject to a series of complex and strict
engineering standards that impose various restrictions and limitations on construction. The
Stone Bridge, an ancient historical structure, is not governed by modern engineering
standards due to its original construction techniques, which were passed down through
generations of skilled craftsmen and technicians. This presents a significant challenge
regarding the architectural and structural techniques and specifications required for
reconstruction. Complete architectural and engineering documentation of the bridge’s details,
whether in two or three dimensions, was not available, except for a small collection of
documentary and photographic images from different periods. To address this, efforts were
made to provide the necessary engineering requirements related to safety and construction,
while collating as many documents and photographs of the structure as possible. This was
done as part of a descriptive and spatial information management approach to ensure high-
quality implementation while preserving the bridge’s identity as much as possible. Another
significant challenge in the rebuilding process was the lack of identical materials used in the
original construction. Red plaster, which served as a bonding agent for the stone units in the
original bridge, is no longer available in the local market.
5.3.2. Human restrictions
The construction of historic bridges required the involvement of skilled workers and
craftsmen with expertise in stone construction and techniques for building arches and vaults.
However, the number of such craftsmen is now limited, as many have passed away and their
expertise has not been passed on to younger generations, largely due to the rarity or absence
of construction projects using these traditional techniques. This presented a significant
challenge in assembling a workforce with the necessary skills to rebuild the bridge in its
original form. To address this issue, current craftsmen were employed to work on the stone
material under the direct supervision of architects and civil engineers, who provided guidance
on execution details and methods for laying the stone. Additionally, the removal of rubble

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
35
raised concerns about the potential presence of unexploded ordnance, posing a significant
risk to the safety of project personnel. In response, vehicular traffic was completely
prohibited in the devastated area, with access limited to pedestrian and vehicular traffic for
essential purposes related to the site, its commercial zones, and the city centre.
One of the potential drawbacks of the reconstruction process is the possibility of ill-
considered and inaccurate interventions, which may arise due to the lack of expert consultants
and the fact that the design and implementation were carried out by non-specialist
engineering staff. However, the project budget was not an issue, as sufficient funds were
allocated through the post-military reconstruction campaign. A key challenge remains the
weak level of community participation in heritage reconstruction projects, which is limited
to a small group of participants with vested interests. This is largely due to low community
awareness of the cultural, social, economic, and environmental benefits of such monuments.
There was no local or regional opposition to the reconstruction of the stone bridge, as the
city's need for it was clear. This contrasts with other historical buildings and monuments,
where opposition to reconstruction in their original form may exist due to a movement
advocating for the removal of old structures in favour of modern, contemporary buildings.
The political context did not negatively impact the process, as the project was managed by a
government body using a direct implementation method, without the presence of competitors.
This ensured that the quality of the work was maintained.
5.3.3. Technological requirements
A notable absence of traditional construction techniques was observed, including stone
cutting, stone engraving, lifting, and the use of traditional construction tools. This was due
to the disappearance of these techniques in the present era and their absence in the region. As
a result, modern technologies were employed throughout the reconstruction process in an
engineering manner, covering inspection, documentation, and implementation. A total station
was used for recording levels and producing architectural and engineering documentation.
Additionally, laboratory tests were conducted to ensure the safety of the remaining sections
of the bridge near the damaged area, using various soil types and structural assessments.
Modern machinery and equipment were employed for excavation, preparation, construction,
support, and consolidation work.
5.3.4. Natural factors
Floods are one of the most significant risks to stone bridges, particularly due to the role
of wide abutments in managing the flow of running water. In the event of flooding, these
abutments may become obstructed, potentially causing severe damage. However, the Mosul
Dam, located to the north of the city, regulates the water level for most of the year, except
for a brief period in the spring when snow melts in the mountains, leading to a notable rise
in the water level. As a result, flooding has not posed a significant threat during the
reconstruction process and is not expected to do so in the future. Other natural factors have a
negligible impact on the stone bridge, as Mosul is located far from major seismic zones, and
there are no nearby volcanoes or hurricanes. Periodic maintenance is essential to remove
vegetation that could affect the structure. Additionally, the bridge does not contain structural
elements susceptible to damage from extreme temperatures – whether from summer heat or
winter cold – or from rain or wind.

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
36
6. Discussion
The shortage of proficient artisans and labourers skilled in traditional construction
techniques has made the establishment of educational institutions and training facilities
essential for cultivating expertise in methods such as stone construction, marble
encapsulation, engraving, weldless blacksmithing, and woodworking. To preserve these
skills as a form of intangible heritage protection in the city, it is crucial to maintain this type
of work. This initiative not only helps safeguard the heritage identity of the local community
but also creates job opportunities for unemployed youth.
One shortcoming of the process was the lack of input from experts in urban
conservation, architectural history, and other relevant fields. The implementing entity relied
too heavily on its engineering teams and failed to seek advice from specialised experts. This
was due to the assumption that the structure did not contain many significant heritage
elements. Such a failure to engage relevant expertise is a common issue in many large-scale
engineering projects related to the reconstruction of heritage sites and facilities across the
country. This highlights the urgent need for societal and governmental awareness of the
importance of consulting specialists and giving them a leading role in such projects, allowing
them to contribute their knowledge and experience to improve project outcomes.
A checklist of all the factors and determinants mentioned in Table 1 can be used to
represent the levels of influence these determinants had on the reconstruction of the Mosul
Stone Bridge. The levels of influence can be quantified using values ranging from 2
(indicating a good or significant positive impact) to -2 (indicating a bad or significant
negative impact). These results can then be used to assess the extent to which the objectives
of the reconstruction process have been achieved, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Result of the reconstruction of the Mosul historic bridge. Source: [researchers]
Key domains
Most significant determinants
Architectural and
Engineering
Specifications
Availability of architectural documentation, archives, engineering
plans, documentary photographs, and representational elements
0
Architectural style of detailing and similar designs
0
Structural, durability, and safety issues: foundation corrosion,
foundation failure, cracks in bridge components, soil movement, failure
to bear weight, corrosion and loss of structural and bonding materials,
damage to walls, footing displacements
2
Availability of traditional construction, finishing, and bonding materials
0
Limitations of engineering standards and specifications
1
Criteria and legislation for the preservation and protection of built
heritage
-1
Preparation requirements for reconstruction and debris removal
1
Human Restrictions
Availability of skilled artisanal construction personnel and traditional
technical labourers
-1
Inadequate, inefficient, and inappropriate interventions
-1
Remnants of war and military operations: mines and unexploded bombs
-2
Obstacles to vehicular and pedestrian movement and overload
1
Control of negligence, intentional damage, and misuse
0
Financial requirements and project budget
2

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
37
Social and cultural issues: social participation and community
awareness
-1
Political and legal issues: administrative corruption, competition
between implementers
1
Confronting the current of renewal, modernisation, and rejecting the old
and traditional
1
Technological
Requirements
Limitations of traditional building techniques
0
Available technology and equipment required for pre-construction
surveys and inspections
2
Provision of technologies and devices required for implementation and
construction
2
Natural Factors
Environmental and climatic factors: sunlight, heat, cold, moisture, and
wind
1
River water movement, flooding, rain, snow, and water infiltration
1
Earthquake, volcano, tornado, and storm
0
Animal and bird habitats
0
Plants, trees, climbers, fungi, and herbs
0
Biological pollution
0
7. Conclusions
Historic buildings represent the most valuable evidence of cultural heritage, playing a
crucial role in establishing a sustainable link between the past and the present. This
connection is achieved by understanding, interpreting, and tracing a civilizational era. In light
of technological advancements and infrastructure modernisation, the primary objective of
protecting historical monuments is to ensure the preservation of cultural heritage in its most
optimal form and condition for future generations. When constructed with the necessary care
and attention, historic bridges can function for an extended period and continue serving their
intended purposes for many generations. The aim of this paper is to provide general guidance
and guidelines for diagnosing the characteristics of historical stone bridges damaged in
conflicts, as well as the factors affecting their preservation, maintenance, and rehabilitation.
The use of new technologies has a positive impact on the reconstruction process, offering a
suitable alternative to traditional inspections, which are often labour-intensive, costly, and
unsafe. The most significant factors influencing the reconstruction of historic bridges,
particularly those damaged in post-conflict scenarios, can be broadly categorised into four
key domains: architectural and engineering specifications, human constraints, technological
requirements, and natural factors.
Funding
This academic work has not received funding from any source.
References
[1] Abdulrahman R. A., Al-Allaf E. H., “Interactive reconstruction of damaged historic landmarks –
Al-Qattanin Mosque in Mosul Old City as a case study”, Al-Rafidain Engineering Journal, vol.
28(1), (2023), 24-35. https://doi.org/10.33899/rengj.2022.134720.1186

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
38
[2] Al-A’abachi M. K., AlAlaf, E. H., “A comparison of assessment systems for sustainable transport
in the urban fabric: standards and requirements”, Al-Rafidain Engineering Journal, vol. 28(1),
(2023), 64-73. https://doi.org/10.33899/rengj.2022.134761.1190
[3] Alabaachi M. K. M., Alalaf, E. H., “Impacts of sustainable transportation on the development of
historic cities: A case study of the historic city of Mosul”, International Journal of Sustainable
Development and Planning, vol. 18(10), (2023), 3085-3095. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.181011
[4] Al-Mallah H. Y., Mosul civilization encyclopedia, part three, Dar Al-Kutub for Printing and
Publishing. University of Mosul, 1992.
[5] Grubb A., O'Connor K., McDonald H., “Refurbishing the historic Old Tweed Bridge, Scotland
– the challenges and innovations”. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Bridge
Engineering, vol. 172(4), (2019), 314-323. https://doi.org/10.1680/jbren.18.00065
[6] Antoniszyn G., “Reconstruction of the road bridge in Żórawina as the example of ecological,
aesthetic and economic values of soil-steel structures”, Budownictwo i Architektura, 15(1),
(2016), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.24358/Bud-Arch_16_151_16
[7] Armaly M., Blasi C., Hannah L., “Stari Most: rebuilding more than a historic bridge in Mostar”,
Museum International, vol. 56(4), (2004), 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-
0033.2004.00044.x
[8] Arslan A., “Bridges as city landmarks: a critical review on iconic structures”, Journal of Design
Studio, vol. 2(2), (2020), 85-99. https://doi.org/10.46474/jds.798072
[9] Azar A. B., Sari A., “Historical arch bridges-deterioration and restoration techniques”, Civil
Engineering Journal, vol. 9(7), (2023), 1680-1696. https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-07-010
[10] Bezgin N. Ö., “Introduction of active seismic faults in Turkiye and characteristic analysis of
historic masonry bridges through an example located in Istanbul: the Mimar Sinan Bridge”, in
Conference: 103rd Transportation Research Board MeetingAt: Washington DC, USA, 2024.
[11] Chróścielewski J., Miśkiewicz M., Pyrzowski Ł., “Historical crane on the redesigned original
trestle bridge as a memorial of Gdansk Shipyard”, Budownictwo i Architektura, vol. 12(3),
(2013), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.35784/bud-arch.2039
[12] Citto C., Woodham A. B., “Evaluting existing and historic stone arch bridges”, Structure
Magazine, May, (2015), 14-18. https://www.structuremag.org/?p=8500. Accessed in 22/7/2024.
[13] Colak I., “The reconstruction of the Old Bridge in Mostar”, Chapter 14 in DAAAM International
Scientific Book, B. Katalinic (Ed.), 2016, 151-162, Vienna, Austria.
https://doi.org/10.2507/daaam.scibook.2016.14
[14] De'Ath P. S., Heap Ch. B., “The historic River Witham Bridge”, Lincoln, UK Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers - Bridge Engineering, vol. 172(4), (2019), 324-334.
https://doi.org/10.1680/jbren.18.00057
[15] Ding H., “Historical overview of stone arch bridge”, Linkedin.com.
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/historical-overview-stone-arch-bridge-he-ding-marbles-and-
stones. Accessed in 22/7/2024.
[16] Eitelberger J. H. P., Widmann M., “Rehabilitation of the Adomi Bridge in Ghana”, in
Conference: Steel Bridges: Innovation & New Challenges 2015, Istanbul, Turkey.
[17] Elbelkasy M., Hegazy I., “Predicted metaverse impacts on architectural heritage conservation &
building reuse sustainability”, Journal of Urban Culture Research, vol. 28, (2024), 75-91.
https://doi.org/10.14456/jucr.2024.2
[18] Floroni I. J., Andreia I., “Roman bridges on the lower part of the Danube”, in 7th International
Conference Contemporary Achievements in Civil Engineering, 23-24 April 2019. Subotica,
Serbia.
[19] Gheitasi A., Michels J., Luo S., “Rehabilitation and retrofit design of a historic steel truss bridge
in Virginia”, in Conference: International Bridge Conference (IBC), Pittsburgh, PA.

Difficulties in rebuilding historic bridges after conflicts …
39
[20] Hamad A. A., Ismaeel E. H., “Integrative conservation for the reconstruction of the historic urban
fabric: the riverfront of Mosul Old City as a case study”, Al-Rafidain Engineering Journal, vol.
28(1), (2023a), 36-48. https://doi.org/10.33899/rengj.2022.134593.1183
[21] Hamad A.A., Ismaeel E.H., “Integrative conservation for recovering the riverfront of Mosul
town”, International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, vol. 18(1), (2023b), 41-
51. https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.180104
[22] Al-Nish F. H. H., “A new glimpse into the origin of Mosul’s bridges in light of remote sensitivity
data”, Al-Rafidain Arts Journal, special issue, Fourth College of Arts Scientific Conference, vol.
2, (2007), 47.
[23] Ismaeel E. H., “D&C technique as an MCDM tool for managing the heritage value assessment
of historic buildings in post-war cities: Mosul Old City as a case study”, Journal of Cultural
Heritage Management and Sustainable Development, vol. ahead-of-print, no. ahead-of-print,
(2023). https://doi.org/10.1108/JCHMSD-03-2022-0042
[24] Jasim S. A., Ismaeel E. H., “The most appropriate reuse of historic buildings”, International
Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, vol. 18(6), (2023), 1865-1875.
https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.180622
[25] Karaś S., Jankowska K., “Synergy of structure and aesthetics of small bridges in Parczew”,
Budownictwo i Architektura, 17(2), (2018), 159-170. https://doi.org/10.24358/Bud-
Arch_18_172_13
[26] Karasin I., Isik E., “Protection of Ten-Eyed Bridge in Diyarbakır”, Budownictwo i Architektura,
15(1), (2016), 87-94. https://doi.org/10.24358/Bud-Arch_16_151_09
[27] Kazaryan V. Yu., Sakharova I. D., ‘Reconstruction of an arched metal bridge over the
Kineshemka River in the city of Kineshma, Ivanovo Region”, Russian Journal of Transport
Engineering, vol. 3(6), (2019). https://doi.org/10.15862/20SATS319
[28] Klimek B., “Environmental impacts on historical buildings – an example of the bridge over the
former ‘Głęboka Droga’ in Puławy”, Budownictwo i Architektura, 15(1), (2016), 213–221.
https://doi.org/10.24358/Bud-Arch_16_151_22
[29] Mandić A., “The destruction of the Old Bridge in Mostar: A rupture in collective urban space
and life”, International Journal of Islamic Architecture, vol. 12, (2023), 363-390.
https://doi.org/10.1386/ijia_00117_1
[30] Marzella F., “Restoration of two historic movable bridges”, in IABSE Congress: The Evolving
Metropolis, New York, NY, USA, 4-6 September 2019, published in The Evolving Metropolis,
pp. 2263-2272. https://doi.org/10.2749/newyork.2019.2263
[31] Fábry M., Živner T., Ároch R., “Reconstruction of the “Old Bridge to the Island” Across the Váh
River in Trenčín”, Procedia Engineering, vol. 156, (2016), 97-102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.273
[32] Mielczarek M., Nowogońska B., “Technical problems in the renovation of historic bridges. case
study – road bridge in Cigacice”, Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports, vol. 31(1),
(2021), 70-78. https://doi.org/10.2478/ceer-2021-0005
[33] Paeglītis A., Paeglītis A., Vītiņa I., Igaune S., “Study and renovation of historical masonry arch
bridge”, The Baltic Journal Of Road And Bridge Engineering, vol. 8(1), (2013), 32–39.
https://doi.org/10.3846/bjrbe.2013.05
[34] Pal N. C., “Sustainability of heritage structures: conservation issues & challenges”, in IABSE
Congress: Engineering for Sustainable Development, New Delhi, India, 20-22 September 2023,
950-952. https://doi.org/10.2749/newdelhi.2023.0950
[35] Ramos A. P., Rodrigues N., Branco A., “Rehabilitation of historical masonry bridges”, in
Conference: the 1st International Conference Construction Heritage in Coastal and Marine
Environments – Damage, Diagnostic, Maintenance and Rehabilitation, 2008.
https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.3993.6007

Emad Hani Ismaeel, Mahmood Khalid M. Alabaachi
40
[36] Chen S., Yang Y., Shen Z., Javanmardi A., “Reconstruction of Min-Zhe wooden arch bridges
and its legitimation as tangible and intangible heritage”, International Journal of Architectural
Heritage, vol. 16(12), (2021), 1779-1796. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2021.1908444
[37] Vičan J., Gocál J., Odrobiňák J., “Reconstruction of the bridge over the Hron River In Village
Hronovce”, Civil and Environmental Engineering, vol. 19(2), (2023), 730-737.
https://doi.org/10.2478/cee-2023-0066
[38] Yanik Y., Türker T., Çoruhlu B., Yilmaz G. K., “Historical stone arch bridges’ damage causes
and repair techniques”, Journal of Investigations on Engineering & Technology, vol. 2(2),
(2019), 26.12. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/jiet/issue/51030/613110
[39] Zilha M. K., “Mostarski Mostovi U Ratu S Akcentom Na Rušenje Starog Mosta”, Slovo o 5,
(2022), 315-339. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1093540
[40] Agócs Z., Vanko M., “Preparation of the reconstruction of the Old Bridge over the Danube in
Bratislava”, Procedia Engineering, 156, (2016), 8-15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.08.261