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Millet: Food of the Himalayas for combating malnutrition in the face
of nutritional insecurity
Introduction
The eleven years of the Green Revolution led to a
stabilization of food insecurity being experienced by
the developing world, but it also led to the develop-
ment of micronutrient malnutrition owing to the use
of crop varieties focused on higher yields (Gómez et
al., 2013; Soria‐Lopez et al., 2023). In order to at-
tain self-sufficiency and boost their income, farmers
in rural areas replaced the large-scale cultivation of
ancient cereal grains such as millet and sorghum
with high-yielding varieties of wheat, rice, and
maize (Tiwari et al., 2023). Coupled with the lack of
appropriate processing technologies for millet, the
cultivation of millets has seen a steady decline over
the past three decades, culminating in severe micro-
nutrient malnutrition in rural areas that do not have
alternative sources of nutrition such as meat and
fresh vegetables. Millets are an excellent resource to
combat micronutrient malnutrition and can be effec-
tively used for diet diversification, especially in rural
areas containing their unexplored natural biodiversi-
ty (Pandey and Bolia, 2023).
Journal homepage:https://www.environcj.in/
Environment Conservation Journal
ISSN 0972-3099 (Print) 2278-5124 (Online)
Madhulika Esther Prasad
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Sheerat Thapa
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Vijay Jagdish Upadhye
Centre of Research for Development, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences (PIAS), Parul University, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Pallavi Singh
Department of Biotechnology, Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Received : 18 May 2024
Revised : 21 September 2024
Accepted : 11 October 2024
Available online: 05 November 2024
Key Words:
Green revolution
Biofortification
Rural
Natural biodiversity
Sustainable development
Millet is one of the oldest cereal grains, used for several centuries in Asia and Africa. Its
ease of growth in adverse environmental conditions and with minimum agricultural inputs
made it a popular choice before the advent of the green revolution. However, the green
revolution's recent focus on nutritional insecurity has led to a renewed interest in calorie-
rich cereal grains like millet. Millet is not only a nutritious grain providing macronutrients
and micronutrients, but it also contains health-promoting components such as phenolic
compounds, dietary fiber, and resistant starch, benefiting patients with type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular ailments, and celiac disease. In recent years, the approach of biofortifica-
tion has further guaranteed nutritional enhancement in food crops, including millets, by
increasing the concentration of nutrients or reducing the level of anti-nutrients to improve
bioavailability. Added to its short life cycle are other advantages, such as drought re-
sistance, durability, insect resistance, and pest resistance. The cultivation of millet offers
several environmental benefits, including efficient utilization of water reserves, reduced
emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), CO2 reduction from the atmosphere, and mainte-
nance of soil health and fertility. The Himalayan range in northern India, spanning from
west to east across the states of Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh, is known for its
traditional millet-based foods, utilizing pearl millet, foxtail millet, finger millet, sorghum,
etc., for their food and beverage requirements. In fact, the influence of the Green Revolu-
tion in these areas has been minimal due to environmental restrictions on large-scale pro-
duction of wheat and rice. These Himalayan communities continue to widely use the millet
crop, well-adapted to these cold, semi-arid regions, as food, fodder, and beverage for their
domestic, cultural, and religious practices. We present a comprehensive understanding of
the effectiveness of millet as a nutritious resource in the rural communities of the Himala-
yan ranges in this review. This paper details the different types of millet-based foods and
beverages and the traditional practices used for their production in these rural areas. Pro-
motion of the cultivation and consumption of millet grains can help achieve sustainable
development of these rural areas, eliminating hidden hunger, malnutrition, and poverty,
and thus attaining Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as established by the United
Nations (UN). These high-altitude millet populations are part of natural biodiversity which
have been subjected to environmental interaction over hundreds of years, and thus, hold
potential for revealing new germplasm if explored. Overall, the rural communities of the
Himalayan regions hold a traditional treasure in their millet-based foods, which also alle-
viates the present-day problem of nutritional insecurity.
Environment Conservation Journal 25 (4): 1224-1237, 2024
Prasad et al.
Millet
Millet is a small seed produced by a group of mono-
cotyledonous grasses belonging to the family Poace-
ae and utilized as cereal grains for food or fodder
worldwide (Taylor and Kruger, 2016). Being the
sixth most quantitatively important cereal grain in
the world, following maize, rice, wheat, barley, and
sorghum, millet is rich in various types of micronu-
trients, along with health-beneficial bioactive com-
pounds such as polyphenols, which together make
them a functional food or nutraceutical (Dekka et al.,
2023).
The grain is mainly used for food and forage purpos-
es in Africa, India, China, and Russia. The two ma-
jor millets being utilized as food in the world are
pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and finger millet
(Eleusine coracana), which originated from sub-
Saharan Africa and sub-upland areas of East Africa
(Gari, 2002), respectively. They have been in use for
centuries and hold the potential for creating a sus-
tainable future of cereal grains to alleviate the nutri-
tional insecurity created by the Green Revolution.
Therefore, they are a healthy source of energy for
underprivileged populations of the world and pro-
vide about 52-57% of their daily energy require-
ments (Taylor and Kruger, 2016). In underdeveloped
and developing regions of the world where nutri-
tious food sources such as fresh fruits, vegetables,
and meat are unavailable, the consumption of cereal
grains containing high nutritional content is almost
essential. In these countries challenged by resources
but rich in biodiversity, lesser-known grains such as
millets are potential grains for diet diversification
(Cheng, 2018).
Highly variable in properties, they are indigenous to
various parts of the world but generally suited for
cultivation in dry or semi-arid temperate and sub-
tropical regions. Being economically suited for culti-
vation in marginal lands of semi-arid regions, they
are mainly chosen for their short growing period,
minimal agricultural requirements, high productivi-
ty, and heat and drought resistance (Dube et al.,
2018). Since they are one of the oldest known culti-
vated crops of the world, they are well-adapted for
growth in low-fertility soils, minimal precipitation,
and extremes of temperature (Hassan et al., 2021).
They are also low-input agricultural crops, with a
short life cycle and resistance to pests. The presence
of ferulic acid, prolamins, and tannins in them con-
tributes to resistance towards infection and infesta-
tion by insect pests, which is a highly desirable
property in agriculture. Due to these properties, they
serve as sustenance crops in the face of other crop
failures occurring due to unpredictable rainfall,
harsh terrain with low-nutrient soil, and damage by
heat or drought (McDonough et al., 2000).
Composition
The millet grain essentially contains macronutrients,
such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, as well
as micronutrients such as calcium, zinc, iron, magne-
sium, and B vitamins. An average value of 7-12%
protein, 15-20% dietary fiber, 65-75% carbohy-
drates, and 2-5% fat makes them nutraceuticals that
provide a balanced source of energy and nutrition,
especially in populations with special dietary re-
quirements, such as for celiac and diabetic patients
(Rao et al., 2011). The nutrients in different types of
millet are very different. For example, pearl millet
has more protein (12–15%) than finger millet, which
has more calcium (376–515 mg/100 g) and less fat
(1.5–2%) (Barbeau and Hilu, 1993; Dayakar Rao et
al., 2017).
The proteins of millet grains provide an excellent
amino acid profile as well, as compared to other ma-
jor cereal grains such as maize. Pearl millet is rich in
niacin, and finger millet is rich in sulfur-containing
amino acids (Dayakar Rao et al., 2017). However,
the low amount of lysine provided by major and mi-
nor millets is only 9–18% of the 1.93 g lysine re-
quired in adults (Taylor and Kruger, 2016). In their
whole grain form of consumption, the dietary fiber,
phenolic compounds, and micronutrients present in
the seed coat contribute to their superior nutritional
value. Starch is the predominant macronutrient pre-
sent in cereal grains, and its composition determines
its potential health benefits.
Millet starch
Starch granules with a higher than normal amount of
amylose are harder to digest because they can't be
absorbed in the small intestine. Instead, they are
slowly fermented in the large intestine, releasing
glucose slowly into the bloodstream. This results in a
low glycemic index (Chibbar et al., 2007; Ohkuma
et al., 1990; Jenkins et al., 1977). Such cereal grains
with high amylose concentration (non-waxy starch)
are in high demand for populations suffering from
obesity and related diseases of diabetes mellitus and
cardiovascular disorders (Siddique and Prakash,
2014). Genetic variations in the GBSS1 gene se-
quence cause changes in the amount of amylose in a
starch granule. These variations affect the number
and structure of active GBSS1 alleles, which in turn
affect the amount of amylose in the grain (Asare et
al., 2012; Fukunaga et al., 2002). GBSS1, designat-
ed as the waxy protein, is the major enzyme for the
biosynthesis of amylose in grain endosperm (Sano,
1984).
How much of its gene, GBSS1, is expressed is
linked to how much amylose is in starch granules
(Wessler and Varagona, 1985). A typical starch
granule contains one-quarter amylose and three-
quarters amylopectin (Takeda et al., 1986). Based on
the amylose content, starch phenotypes can be clas-
sified as non-waxy (25-30% amylose), low amylose
(0-25% amylose), and waxy (<1% amylose)
(Nakamura et al., 1995 and Demeke et al., 1999). As
Akerberg et al. (1998) say, the amylose-to-
amylopectin ratio of a starch granule determines
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Environment Conservation Journal
Millet: Food of the Himalayas for combating malnutrition
what the cereal grain can be used for. In the adhe-
sive, textile, and corrugating industries, starches with
low amounts of the amylose polymer are used. On
the other hand, high-amylose starches (>40%) are
preferred for use in the paper and pulp manufactur-
ing industry (Chibbar et al., 2007).
Millet as a nutraceutical
Their health benefits are varied, ranging from being
gluten-free and recommended for coeliac patients to
having anti-cancer and anti-hypertensive properties,
owing to the presence of phenolic compounds and
tannins (Saleh et al., 2013). Phytochemicals like pol-
yphenols, phytocyanins, and phytosterols are found
in them and help with their health benefits. These
chemicals work as antioxidants and immune regula-
tors to stop age-related diseases. This means that
they could be used as functional foods or as
nutraceuticals. Kodo millet and little millet, with
their highest percentage of dietary fiber (37%-38%)
among cereals, have already been termed as a
nutraceutical commodity (Dayakar Rao et al., 2017).
They are fast gaining popularity for their high fiber
content and resistant starch that contribute to a lower
glycemic index (GI) in whole grains, associating it
with a reduced risk of obesity and associated diseas-
es such as cardiovascular ailments, diabetes mellitus,
and certain types of cancers (Ugare et al., 2014;
Dayakar Rao et al., 2017). Unfortunately, the con-
sumption of millets has seen a decline in the past
three decades, primarily due to the lack of awareness
of its nutritional benefits and unsophisticated pro-
cessing technologies.
A rural delicacy
Millet grains are used for the preparation of various
local food products, such as fermented breads, gruel,
poha, porridge, non-alcoholic drinks, flatbreads, por-
ridge, flakes, khichdi, sweets, and beverages (Bisht,
2022b). Some food preparations, mainly in Africa
and India, have been internationally reported for
pearl millet (Dias-Martins et al., 2018). The most
common are fermented or non-fermented porridges,
prepared using pearl millet flour (Adebiyi et al.,
2016). These differ in flavor and acidity due to the
addition of various ingredients such as tamarind,
lemon, etc. (Kajuna and Mejia 2001; Taylor and
Kruger, 2016).
Another millet food product includes Fura, a ball-
shaped cooked dough, composed mainly of partly
fermented and non-fermented pearl millet, along
with spices, consumed in Nigeria (Adebiyi et al.,
2016). Pearl millet flour is also used to make flat-
breads, which are gluten-free food products. In In-
dia, typically unfermented pearl millet flour is used
to make chapati or roti, whereas in Saudi Arabia,
fermented pearl millet flour is used to make lohoh
(Osman, 2011). Moreover, in West Africa, couscous
made from decorticated millet grains is popular and
readily digested in humans (Hayes et al., 2020; Tay-
lor and Duodu, 2010). Pearl millet flour is also in-
corporated in preparing various snack foods
(Balasubramanian et al., 2012) and baby weaning
products (Balasubramanian et al., 2014). It is also
used as an alternative to wheat in making pastas,
breads, biscuits, etc. (Adebiyi et al., 2016; Awolu,
2017; Brasil et al., 2015).
In addition to savory food items, sweets such as la-
doo and Dakuwa are also prepared using pearl mil-
let grains. Researchers who looked at the nutritional
value of ladoos, halwa, and biryani made from fox-
tail millet and barnyard millet discovered that these
foods had more protein, fewer carbohydrates, and
more fiber than rice (Verma et al., 2015). Adding
popped millet grains and malted flour to these
sweets further increases their nutritional value
(Singh and Sehgal, 2008).
Distribution of Millet crops across the Indian
Himalayan range
The Himalayan region in India, widely covering ten
states, is endowed with natural resources, fertile soil,
unique climatic conditions, and beautiful landscapes.
The Himalaya, being the world’s highest mountain
range, is also known for its rich biological diversity
and varying soil conditions, providing a unique eco-
system to plants and animals. The millet distribution
profiles of the Himalayan provinces in India are as
follows and depicted in Fig. 1.
Jammu & Kashmir: The Doda and Kishtwar re-
gions in Jammu & Kashmir consist of a variety of
regional high-value crops, such as millet and saffron
(Bhat et al., 2019). The major millet species current-
ly cultivated is pearl millet, with low productivity
due to regional seeds and local cultivation practices.
These crops are typically cultivated in areas receiv-
ing low rainfall (<350 mm). Foxtail millet, locally
named as Shol or Kangni, and proso millet, as Ping
or China, once extensively grown in this region, are
now produced in small numbers. Foxtail millet was
cultivated as an alternative to paddy due to insuffi-
cient water availability.
Uttarakhand: The state of Uttar akhand has uti-
lized more area for finger millet in past years. In
recent times, the cultivation of both barnyard and
finger millet has shown significantly high productiv-
ity (Bhat et al., 2019). This is mainly due to the pres-
ence of fertile soil and a moderate climate. The
crops are usually cultivated during the kharif season,
where mixed cropping is practiced with local culti-
vars of barnyard, foxtail, and finger millet.
Nagaland: Millets ar e utilized as food in the Naga
districts of Phek, Kohima, Tuensang, and Kiphire.
Pearl millet, sorghum, and minor millets, for exam-
ple, finger millet, are cultivated in these regions, but
on a small scale, with low productivity (Bhat et al.,
2019). Millets serve as a prime food during natural
adversities and also as a survival crop for the people
of Nagaland. Typically, millets are used for brew
production and mounts as a chief food crop for the
community. But when water supply is low and peo-
1226
Environment Conservation Journal
Prasad et al.
Figure 1. The production and distribution of different millet species in the Himalayan states of north-India
(Image adapted from Dwivedi et al., 2024; https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42779-024-00236-4
ple rely on the erratic rains, millets serve as a surviv-
al crop. They are not grown as sole crops but rather
intermingled with suitable vegetable crops in the
field.
Himachal Pradesh: Cr ops of finger , proso, fox-
tail, and kodo millet species were known to be culti-
vated in this region during ancient times. These crop
plants were usually selected for growth in poor soil
and also served as feed for livestock. Presently, fox-
tail millet crops are widely cultivated in the Kangra
region of Himachal Pradesh. Proso millet is also
grown and harvested in the month of June. Little
millet, or “swank, is considered a holy grain and is
used as a religious offering (Bhat et al., 2019).
Arunachal Pradesh: Ar unachal Pr adesh culti-
vates finger and foxtail millet species on a small
scale. The ancient Jhum agriculture system is more
prevalent in this state, which involves the prior burn-
ing of land for cultivation purposes (Bhat et al.,
2019). Although millets like proso, foxtail, and fin-
ger provide are able to provide for local delicacies
all around the year, the hilly terrain, low rainfall, and
poor water facilities have prevented the establish-
ment of a fixed type of cultivation technique in these
regions.
Assam: Minor millet species of foxtail as well as
barnyard are commonly cultivated in the hilly re-
gions of Assam but provide a low yield. Pearl millet
and sorghum are generally not grown in this region
(Bhat et al., 2019).
Mizoram: Millet, also called satoin Mizoram, is
the chief food crop for the Mara tribe, who employ
the jhum system of cultivation described above. Mil-
lets such as sorghum or faisa, pearl millet or bhutun,
and some minor millets are also included in their
Jhum agriculture practices (Bhat et al., 2019).
Sikkim: Sikkim is r egar ded as an organic agr icul-
ture state, with no artificial inputs during cultivation.
Millets are the chief food crops here, which adapt to
the outline of the state and offer high nutrition. Due
to the selection of only minor millets like finger mil-
let for growth in this region, production is easier,
requiring minimum efforts (Bhat et al., 2019).
Millet-based food in the Himalayan regions
The indigenous populations and tribes residing in the
rural areas of the developing world hold millets in
high regard for their sustenance and social traditions
(Singh et al., 2019; Sood et al., 2015). In the hills of
the Indian and Nepalese Himalayas, millets are im-
portant components of cultural practices and food
traditions (Pant and Ramisch, 2010). The utilization
of locally available resources for the production of
fermented foods and beverages has been a strategic
approach practiced by the natives of Indian Himala-
yas, mainly in the regions of Ladakh, Himachal Pra-
desh, Uttarakhand, Nepal and Sikkim. These regions
covering the western, central, and eastern Himalayas
have been depicted in Fig. 1. For example, in the
Uttarakhand region of central Himalayas, barnyard
millet is used as a traditional substitute for rice
(Sood et al., 2015).
In rural areas of India and Africa, millet malt is used
to produce traditional fermented beverages, such as
ragi malt in India and uji gruel in Africa (Mbugua,
1982). The fermented food products developed us-
ing various raw millet grains are known by different
local names. Chang, a local beverage consumed in
Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti, is brewed by fermenting
barley (Hussain et al., 2022). Chyang prepared from
finger millet is commonly consumed in the high-
altitude regions of Sikkim and Darjeeling (Tamang
et al., 1996). Moreover, the Chakti beverage from
villages of the Dharchula, Munsyari, and Chamoli
regions is brewed from different millet resources and
1227
Environment Conservation Journal
Millet: Food of the Himalayas for combating malnutrition
traditionally consumed by the rural populations in
the states of Uttarakhand, Ladakh, and Himachal
Pradesh in India (Farooquee and Nautiyal 1999; Roy
and Majila, 2004).
Similarly, millet-based traditional recipes have also
been found in tribal communities of eastern India,
such as in the Santali community inhabiting the
Kokrajhar region of Assam (Sarmah and Roy, 2022).
They prepare a wide range of food items such as
Kode Dumbu, Pitha, Kodu Bhat, Kodu Kichri, and
Ghula, which are variations of millet balls, sweet
rotis, steamed grains, and thick beverages.
The tribal culture of the ethnic communities in Aru-
nachal Pradesh also incorporates millet-based food
items in their cooking, such as steamed millet pan-
cakes, millet ball curries, Mirii or millet slurry,
popped millet, and Mirung Gakir or millet powder
mixed in milk (Bhardwaj et al., 2023). Some of the
popular traditional millet-based food dishes are
shown in Fig. 2. These practices in rural areas of the
developing world indicate a well-established diet
system that incorporates millet for calorie intake as
well as nutritional requirements. Table 1. lists tradi-
tional millet-based foods consumed by the rural pop-
ulation in the Himalayan region.
These evidences necessitate an in-depth understand-
ing of the traditional knowledge system practiced by
the native populations of these regions, who have
established a long history of “living in harmony with
nature.” While many aspects of these fermented
foods, prevalent in the Darjeeling and Sikkim Hima-
layas, have been studied in somewhat detail, similar
practices in other Himalayan states, such as Uttarak-
hand, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir,
await due attention.
Several of these practices carried out by communi-
ties residing in the high-altitude regions of the Hima-
layas need to be documented before they fade away.
Figure 2. Millet-based traditional foods consumed in the rural areas of the Himalayan region in India
(Image Sources: Downs et al., 2022; https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/23/3774
Dwivedi et al., 2024; https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42779-024-00236-4
Tamang, 2022; https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s42779-022-00146-3)
For instance, the Bhotiyas, the nomadic community
of Uttarakhand, who were once referred to as trans-
human pastoralists, have now adapted to a
“permanent” lifestyle, therefore losing their conven-
tional practices (Farooquee and Nautiyal, 1999).
This community had mastered cultivation and food
preservation while living in the highest altitudes of
the snow-covered mountains. They used special con-
ditions for the slow fermentation of millet malt, re-
sulting in high-quality beverage production (Fig. 3).
Traditional methods for processing millet grains in
rural areas Food practices in these Himalayan rural
communities involve the addition of millet malt to
porridges made from other cereals in order to reduce
their viscosity for the convenient feeding of infants.
Malted millet contains mobilized amylases, which
accelerates the hydrolysis of starch in the porridge to
sugars. The importance of millets in Himalayan rural
living is undoubtedly acknowledged; however, these
products have remained restricted to rural areas
themselves. This has been due to the lack of sophisti-
cated processing technologies for millet, which has
prevented its use in developing value-added food
products to be marketed in urban areas (Malleshi,
2014).
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Environment Conservation Journal
Prasad et al.
Table 1: Millet-based traditional foods produced and consumed by the rural populations inhabiting
the Himalayan region
Millet-based
Local Food
Name
Use Type of Millet Region Reference
Kodo ko jaanr/
Chyang
Mild-alcoholic fer-
mented beverage
Finger millet
(Eleusine coracana)
North-eastern Himala-
yas (Darjeeling, Sik-
kim, Nepal)
Tamang et al.,
1996
Jaan
Beer with low alco-
hol content
Foxtail millet
(Setaria italica)
North Himalayas
(Uttarakhand)
Roy et al.,
2004
Daru
(High ethyl al-
cohol content)
Alcoholic beverage
with high ethyl al-
cohol content
Foxtail millet
(Setaria italica)
North Himalayas
(Uttarakhand)
Roy et al.,
2004
Dheroh Millet porridge Millet Nepal Tamang and
Thapa, 2014
Kodo ko roti Baked flour Finger millet
(Eleusine coracana)
North-eastern Himala-
yas (Darjeeling, Sik-
kim, Nepal)
Tamang,
2001
Khuri Bread wrap with
meat or vegetables
Millet North-eastern Himala-
yas (Sikkimese bhutia)
Tamang,
2001
Khir Milk porridge Foxtail millet
(Setaria italica)
North Himalayas
(Uttarakhand)
Joshi et al.,
2020
Alum Boiled rolls Finger millet
(Eleusine coracana)
Nepal Tamang and
Thapa, 2014
Khoreng Baked bread Millet North-eastern Himala-
yas, western Bhutan &
West Bengal
Tamang and
Thapa, 2014
Khuzom Hot stone baked
bread
Millet North-eastern Himala-
yas & western Bhutan
Thapa, 2022
Figure 3: The indigenous vessel used for distillation of fermented beverages from millets
(Image source: Rana et al., 2004; https://nopr.niscpr.res.in/handle/123456789/9331)
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Environment Conservation Journal
Millet: Food of the Himalayas for combating malnutrition
The lack of convenient processing and cleaning tech-
niques, specifically designed for various sizes of
millet grains, is one of the major reasons for its
steady decline over the last three decades (Dayakar
Rao et al., 2017). For example, sophisticated equip-
ment for decortication of millet grains is expensive
and not easily available to the village population.
Manual decoration of the small-sized millet grain,
which includes wet and dry milling and sieving, in-
volves extensive drudgery and has made it unpopular
(Bisht, 2022a). In contrast, processing technologies
for wheat and rice are well-developed, efficient, and
easily available. It is necessary to rescue the declin-
ing interest in this calorie-rich, nutritious grain by
carrying out extensive research to improve its pro-
cessing technologies and spreading awareness re-
garding its nutritional and health benefits. This could
prove beneficial in increasing the income of the local
population in rural areas as well as improving the
health of consumers of value-added millet products
in urban areas.
The negative impact of the green revolution in
rural areas
In the twentieth century, the Green Revolution pro-
vided an immediate solution to the problem of food
security, but alongside it, it introduced the world to
the problem of nutritional insecurity. Grains such as
wheat, rice, and maize took precedence over other
nutritionally superior grains such as barley, sor-
ghum, oats, millets, and rye, which were extensively
consumed in the pre-Green Revolution era (Eliazer
Nelson et al., 2019).
Modern breeding methods, which were brought in
by the Green Revolution in the 1970s, have slowly
destroyed the genetic diversity of traditional and
wild crops by using too many high-yielding varieties
(HYV) (Somvanshi et al., 2020; Harlan, 1972).
Farmers in rural areas of developing countries such
as India had been cultivating crops such as millets
and sorghum for hundreds of years. But after the
Green Revolution, farmers in rural areas started fo-
cusing on growing and selling high-yielding cultivat-
ed varieties of wheat, rice, and maize in order to
make more money. As a result, natural crop diversity
became less important as the world became more
dependent on high-calorie crops that didn't provide
many micronutrients.
One of the major reasons for the neglect of the culti-
vation of crops such as millets has been a lack of
initiative in developing processing technologies,
breeding programs, new varieties, and exploring nat-
ural biodiversity (Bisht, 2022a; Dayakar Rao et al.,
2017). This has led to severe micronutrient malnu-
trition among the world population, especially in
rural areas of high-altitude regions, where alternative
sources of nutrition from meat and fresh vegetables
are not available or are expensive to procure (Sood
et al., 2015). There is a need to return to the natural
biodiversity of food crops, which holds the key for
unraveling new sources of grains that would provide
a balance of food and nutritional security (Hummer,
2015).
Millet for combating malnutrition in rural areas
In urban areas of the developing world, the food
crops of the Green Revolution have extensive usage;
however, in rural areas, conservation of traditional
agricultural practices has led to the preservation of
the natural biodiversity of crops until today, when
ancient grains such as millet and sorghum are still
being consumed (Sood et al., 2015). In remote rural
areas with semi-arid climatic conditions, where cul-
tivated varieties of wheat, rice, or maize do not grow
without additional supplements and sophisticated
irrigation practices, millet thrives and is the major
source of nutritional security in extreme climatic
conditions (Pradhan et al., 2010).
Millets are the third highest source of calories (75%)
after wheat and rice, but unlike them, are also
packed with an abundance of micronutrients (Belton
and Taylor, 2004; O’Kennedy et al., 2006). Belton
and Taylor in 2004 suggested that in the developing
world of Asia and Africa, although rice and wheat
are staple cereal grains, millets are of a higher nutri-
tional standard owing to the presence of significant
amounts of proteins, dietary fibers, minerals, antiox-
idants, and essential amino acids. Whole grain diets,
like millet, can help fight oxidative stress caused by
high blood sugar and alloxan because they contain
antioxidants that lessen the bad effects of diabetes
mellitus (Arora and Srivastava, 2002; Hegde et al.,
2005; and Ugare et al., 2014).
Millets can grow in mineral-depleted soils due to
their nitrogen efficiency and high water-use capacity
(Kanemasu et al., 1982) and are therefore popularly
grown in hilly terrains. They are drought-tolerant,
robust crops that can withstand invasion by disease-
causing pests and thus ensure sustenance in the face
of crop failure (Tsehaye et al., 2006). In addition to
their excellent blend of nutritional and medicinal
benefits, millets are also one of the fastest-growing
food crops and thrive well under low-input, rain-fed
conditions (Taylor, 2017).
Certain species of barnyard millet (Echinochloa fru-
mentacea) can be harvested in 45 days (Hulse et al.,
1980) and are capable of growth at altitudes as high
as 2000 meters above sea level (MASL.) (Gupta et
al., 2009). They can withstand adverse climatic con-
ditions such as very low temperatures and are able to
sustain populations living in dry and semi-arid cli-
mates, particularly those in the hilly terrains of the
Himalayas (Sood et al., 2015 and Venkatesan,
2018).
Increased nutrients in the natural biodiversity of
millets
Millets have diverse origins and the integration of
polymorphisms in them (Kawase et al., 2005). The
natural biodiversity of millets in rural areas of India
and Africa remains unexplored for their nutritional
1230
Environment Conservation Journal
Prasad et al.
content (Gupta et al., 2012). Natural genetic diversi-
ty holds the key for unraveling new resources that
would provide a balance of food and nutritional se-
curity (Hummer, 2015).
Exploring natural biodiversity using molecular tools
such as genetic markers can help identify germplasm
that combats environmental stresses and disease
challenges. This approach promises a revival of the
wild genetic diversity lost by replacement with high-
yielding varieties (Harlan, 1972, and Hawkes;
Hawkes et al., 2012). This indicates the rising inse-
curities associated with food and nutrition, which
have emerged in recent times. The world’s greatest
plant explorer, Vavilov’s observation of the world
population depending on a meager percentage (1%)
of the total number of plant species (250,000) known
to be edible still stands true in today’s times
(Hummer, 2015). Vavilov et al., in 1992, in his theo-
ry on the centers of origin of cultivated crop varie-
ties and the concept of genetic erosion, stated that
there exist certain geographically isolated regions in
the world where a high diversity of wild relatives of
a domesticated variety of crop can be found. He rec-
ognized wild genetic diversity as the base for crop
improvement and observed that genetic erosion
would lead to a loss of local landraces, eventually
causing food insecurity.
Environmental benefits of millets
Millets are food crops that have been used since an-
cient times owing to their high nutritional and ener-
gy content. With adverse climate changes, rising
global temperatures, and declining water availability
threatening the yield, productivity, and sustainability
of food crops, millets provide a promising solution
for combating food and nutritional insecurity in re-
cent times (Sharma and Sandal, 2024; Tiwari et al.,
2022). Being energy-efficient and low maintenance
crops, they require low water-input, less fertilizers
and pesticides compared to wheat, rice and maize,
which unlike millets are susceptible to drought stress
and pest invasion, causing crop failure (Dayakar Rao
et al., 2017). Since there is the release of fewer pol-
lutants in the environment with less fertilizer use,
millets are potential crops for sustaining the environ-
ment (Pathak, 2023).
Millet cultivation is water-efficient, requiring a min-
imum of 300 mm of water as compared to rice,
which cannot be cultivated without a minimum wa-
ter input of 1400 mm (Debnath et al., 2023; Ullah et
al., 2017). Millet cultivation helps contribute to soil
health and fertility by minimizing irrigation require-
ments due to its deep root system's higher water ab-
sorption. Their short life cycle enables a quick har-
vest and prevention of topsoil erosion (Pathak,
2023). Perhaps their most beneficial feature is their
resilience to changes in climatic conditions, being
capable of growth in arid and semi-arid regions ex-
hibiting extreme temperatures of heat and cold
(Bandyopadhyay, 2017; Pathak, 2023).
Millets are also responsible for converting atmos-
pheric nitrogen into a usable form for plant growth
and in reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Maitra,
2022). Being C4 plants, they have the ability to take
in more carbon from the atmosphere, thereby in-
creasing the amount of soil carbon and reducing car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere (Pathak, 2023). Their
equivalent absorption and emission of carbon makes
them carbon-neutral plants beneficial for the envi-
ronment (Debnath et al., 2023). Compared to millets,
other food crops, including the C3 plant rice, are a
major challenge for the environment due to their
poor CO2-assimilation efficiency (Ji et al., 2024).
Moreover, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
from paddy fields alone make up for ~26% and
~11% of global emissions of CH4 and
N2O, respectively (IPCC, 2014).
Due to the rise in temperatures resulting from global
warming, the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) predicts a 13–20%
drop in grain production for wheat, rice, and maize
in the coming decades. In order to combat this de-
cline and ensure food security for the estimated pop-
ulation of 9 billion until 2050, CGIAR recommends
the cultivation of climate-resilient crops like millets
(Tiwari et al., 2022). Moreover, in the wake of post-
pandemic crop production deficiencies causing hid-
den hunger, nutritional deficiencies, obesity, and
other related health conditions, the use of millet as a
staple crop is highly suitable (Muthamilarasan and
Prasad, 2021).
Enhancing the nutritional quality of millets
through biofortification
Millets are crops known for their healthy carbohy-
drates, high protein, and high micronutrient content.
In fact, the energy level, protein content, and micro-
nutrient level of millets are considered higher than
those of other cereal grains (Hassan et al., 2021). For
example, pearl millet contains higher concentrations
of zinc, calcium, phosphorus, iron, and magnesium
compared to corn (Adeola and Orban, 1995). It can
provide adequate quantities of vitamin E (2 mg/100
g) and vitamin A (Hassan et al., 2021; Taylor, 2004).
The higher level of phosphorus in pearl millet con-
tributes to the formation of ATP for energy in the
body. Finger millet is rich in calcium (162-487
mg/100 g), while kodo millet contains high magnesi-
um content (Hariprasanna, 2023; Sankara Vadivoo et
al., 1998). The post-Green Revolution food culture
in the Himalayan states, which utilizes millets as
food, has changed over time. With the consumption
of wheat flour, rice grains and maize flour as the
major food commodities of the world, the challenges
of nutritional deficiencies and related ailments have
set in. To address this issue, in recent years, a new
approach of biofortification is being utilized to in-
crease the concentration of essential micronutrients
or to mitigate the presence of anti-nutrients in cereal
grains (Vinoth and Ravindhran, 2017). Biofortifica-
1231
Environment Conservation Journal
Millet: Food of the Himalayas for combating malnutrition
tion is a way to intensify the nutritional content of
food crops using improved plant-breeding methods.
It involves the genetic modification of plant traits to
increase the density of nutrients within the grain en-
dosperm (Bouis et al., 2011). It is usually carried out
to combat nutritional deficiencies and malnutrition
for the poverty-stricken populations entirely depend-
ent on cereal grains for food and nutrition. Biofortifi-
cation can be done by either increasing the amount
of nutrients in processed grains or lowering the
amount of anti-nutrients so that essential minerals
are absorbed better (Vinoth and Ravindhran, 2017).
Under the Biofortification Challenge Program (BCP)
being operated by CGIAR, pearl millet has been in-
cluded among the other seven major calorie-rich
food crops for the biofortification of iron (Fe), vita-
min A, and zinc (Zn) (Welch & Graham,
2004). Millets hold great potential for alleviating
nutritional insecurity in the developing world, as
they are found growing in unfavorable semi-arid or
arid conditions, where major staple crops like wheat,
rice, or maize are unable to survive (Manwaring et
al., 2016). The economically weak populations in
such regions can potentially benefit from an in-
creased density of micronutrients such as Fe and Zn,
which is otherwise provided by a meat-rich diet in
developed countries (Singhal et al., 2022).
Pearl millet, included in the international BCP, holds
great potential for alleviating malnutrition in coun-
tries like India (Govindaraj et al., 2020). Due to its
superiority over other food crops in growing on low-
water-retaining soils, pearl millet can be biofortified
to reduce its anti-nutrient components, like polyphe-
nols, to achieve a well-rounded, nutritionally superi-
or grain for populations in these areas (Singhal,
2022). Moreover, research on millet species has
shown the presence of genetic differences for iron
and zinc densities in pearl millet and Fe- and Zn-
regulated transporters in foxtail millet, indicating
high potential for the successful biofortification of
these millet crops (Pucher, 2014; Ingle, 2022).
The "International Crop Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics" (ICRISAT) has a biofortifica-
tion program that has created a pearl millet variety
with high iron and zinc levels for people who eat
millets every day (O'Kennedy et al., 2009). This bio-
fortified pearl millet provides a twofold increase in
iron content than that provided by wheat varieties
and has proved to be a cheap alternative for popula-
tions in rural areas that are chronically malnour-
ished.
Since millets are considered the main supply of car-
bohydrates in the steppe areas of India and sub-
Saharan Africa (Kawase et al., 2005; Shivran, 2016),
it is important to enhance the quality of this grain to
attain a well-rounded nutritional food source for the
population in these countries. However, in spite of
the vast diversity of millet varieties in India, only
pearl millet has been categorized for iron biofortifi-
cation (O’Kennedy et al., 2009), indicating a need to
explore and utilize the vast potential that exists in
other major and minor varieties of millets (Vinoth
and Ravindhran, 2017). In spite of India being the
world leader in producing millets (Kumar et al.,
2021), there is a lack of sufficient research on the
vast biodiversity of millets present in the geograph-
ically and environmentally isolated regions of rural
areas (Gupta et al., 2012; Vinoth and Ravindhran,
2017).
There is a need to genetically modify other minor
millet species to develop more of such biofortified
varieties that address several mineral deficiencies,
such as that of provitamin A. Another approach to
improving micronutrient malnutrition in rural areas
using millets is to reduce the concentration of anti-
nutrients like phytic acid and tannins in order to en-
hance the bioavailability of micronutrients already
present in the cultivated varieties of millets. The de-
velopment of hybrid lines of millets will also in-
crease their yield, such as in the case of foxtail mil-
let. (Vinoth and Ravindhran, 2017). Other probable
candidates can be the crop wild relatives (CWRs) of
minor millets grown in adverse climatic conditions
on marginal lands, which exhibit variable molecular
mechanisms and may reveal new germplasm
(Sharma et al., 2021).
Millet consumption as a sustainable development
goal (SDG)
The rural communities of the Himalayan range are
known for their use of the long-forgotten ancient
cereal grain, millet, for food, beverage, and feed ma-
terial. They have evolved traditional practices for
their production and consumption, ensuring sustaina-
bility in the face of minimal resources and adverse
conditions for the growth of other food crops.
Sustainable development in a region heavily depends
upon sustainable consumption patterns. The need for
sustainable consumption and sustainable production
has already been well emphasized by the United Na-
tions, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
in its “goal no. 12” of the “Agenda for Sustainable
Development,” the foundation for this objective be-
ing laid at the “World Summit on Sustainable Devel-
opment (WSSD)” in 2022 (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/
goal12). Adopting sustainable ways of product con-
sumption has been identified as the chief require-
ment for conserving natural resources and utilizing
them to eradicate poverty and foster socioeconomic
development. Chapter three of this Agenda empha-
sizes the “Changing of unsustainable patterns of
consumption and production”, indicating the need
for a shift from consumption of unsustainable re-
sources, and a promotion of the consumption of sus-
tainable resources such as millets, produced in their
natural ecosystems.
The consumption of millets in the Himalayan range
falls under the carrying capacity of this ecosystem
and is needed to be promoted by regional initiatives
1232
Environment Conservation Journal
Prasad et al.
and national development programs. Research and
awareness in this field will help promote and imple-
ment such programs for the sustainable advancement
of a region.
Conclusion
The rural communities of the Himalayan range are
known for using the long-forgotten ancient cereal
grain millet for culinary practices. Millets are com-
monly used in their daily dietary intake as food dish-
es and beverages. They have evolved traditional
practices for their production and consumption. Sev-
eral of the millet-based foods come from major re-
gions in the north-east and north-west Himalayas,
including Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sik-
kim. Although these millet-based foods have been in
use for several centuries, they have not gained popu-
larity on a global scale.
With the introduction of nutritional insecurity as an
after-effect of the green revolution, these grains have
gained worldwide attention. However, a number of
factors associated with the smooth preparation and
consumption of millet grains have hampered their
utilization. Some of the food-related inconveniences
include inefficient processing techniques, lack of
readily available decortication equipment, cumber-
some pre-cooking preparation of grain, unpolished
food recipes, etc. Moreover, an ignorance regarding
the nutritional benefits of millets has prevented
small-scale farmers from promoting millet grain for
food, while monetary profits gained from marketing
large produce of wheat and rice have kept the millet
farmers from exploiting its true potential. A lack of
government initiatives to promote millets in the past
years has also contributed to its decline. There is a
need for a streamlined system to promote and com-
mercialize millets and their food products. Govern-
ment policies, awareness programs, sophisticated
processing technologies, and value-added millet
products together have the potential to popularize
the utilization of millet as a nutritious staple food.
Studies on exploring and evolving the production
and value addition of millet-based dishes will go a
long way in alleviating malnutrition caused by the
overconsumption of the three main cereal grains of
the world: wheat, rice, and maize.
The natural biodiversity of millet in geographically
distinct regions, such as the higher altitudes of the
Himalayan range, needs to be analyzed for its grain
composition, presence of genetic diversity, and envi-
ronmental adaptability. Different millet cultivars
from various rural areas of the Himalayan regions
can be harvested and compared at the biochemical
and molecular level with their counterparts from low
-altitude regions. Macronutrients such as starch,
which is the major component in millet grains, as
well as other micronutrients, need to be analyzed for
any alterations in their concentrations in the mature
grain. Future studies on millet biodiversity that focus
on this aspect may be beneficial in establishing a
clear correlation between nutrient accumulation and
environmental conditions. The relationship between
plant hormones and nutrient accumulation in millet
varieties and the differences with their counterparts
from other geographical locations can also be stud-
ied. By looking at millet biodiversity in this way,
scientists will be able to find populations that have
higher levels of amylose, dietary fiber, minerals, and
bioactive compounds, as well as their ecological
niche. In the long term, such millet varieties can be
used for diet diversification to alleviate malnutrition
and achieve nutritional security.
Acknowledgement
The work was supported by grants from the Depart-
ment of Science & Technology (DST), Government
of India. (No. SR/WOS-A/LS-425/2017; http://
dst.gov.in/sites/default/files/WOS-A%20Projects%
202016-17.pdf). The authors would like to thank Dr.
L.M.S. Palni for his expert advice on the subject.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of
interest.
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