Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Research in Educational Policy and Management
https://repamjournal.org
E-ISSN: 2691-0667
Volume: 6 Issue: 2 2024
pp. 363-392
Swimming Against the Tide: Resource Mobilization and its Implications
for Rural Schools of South Africa
Themba Ralph Mkhize*a & Ntokozo Dennis Ndwandwea
* Corresponding author
E-mail: mkhiztr@unisa.ac.za
a. Department of Educational Foundations
University of South Africa.
Article Info
Received: June 15, 2024
Accepted: October 28, 2024
Published: December 12, 2024
How to cite
Mkhize, T. R., & Ndwandwe, N.D (2024).
Swimming Against the Tide: Resource
Mobilization and its Implications for Rural
Schools of South Africa. Research in
Educational Policy and Management, 6(2),
363-392.
https://doi.org/10.46303/repam.2024.40
Copyright license
This is an Open Access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY
4.0).
ABSTRACT
In a developing country like South Africa, the quality of
education has a pivotal role in eliminating poverty and bringing
about economic transformation. This constitutes the central
goal of the National Development Plan. However, research has
consistently demonstrated that providing quality education is
linked to the availability or the absence of resources in South
Africa. Therefore, in rural communities where resource scarcity
is prevalent, the goal of quality inclusive education for all
remains elusive and impossible to achieve. Driven by this
challenge, in this study, we elicited insights from various
stakeholders in a rural community about how they mobilize
resources or can enhance resource mobilization in their
context. We adopted a qualitative research approach,
employing participatory methodologies such as transect walks,
SWOT analysis and photovoice to engage the participants on
what they described as resources in their rural context and how
these resources could be mobilized. The findings presented
three sets of capital under which resources that may drive the
provision of quality education can be housed. These are human
capital, cultural capital, and social-organizational capital. Based
on the findings, we argue that the dominant discourse that
rural communities lack capital is a “half reality” and that the
challenge is the lack of awareness of what is available and how
it can be harnessed to enhance the provision of quality
education. We therefore recommend focused approaches to
resource identification and mobilization.
KEYWORDS
Participatory methods; quality education; rurality; rural
schools; resource mobilization.
10.46303/repam.2024.40
364
INTRODUCTION
Research has consistently demonstrated that providing quality education is linked to the
available resources (Blank et al., 2012; Masinire, 2020; West & Meier, 2020). Therefore,
resource availability is central to achieving quality education (Mestry & Bodalina, 2015; Mkhize
& Davids, 2021). However, research also indicates that rural communities in South Africa (SA)
and other developing countries face difficulties obtaining the requisite resources to achieve
quality education (Nelson Mandela Foundation [NMF], 2005; Mkhize & Bhengu, 2018; Chikoko
& Mthembu, 2020). In a developing country like SA, the quality of education provided has a
pivotal role to play in eliminating poverty, bringing about economic transformation, and
redressing the imbalances and inequalities brought by the apartheid past (Myende & Chikoko,
2014; Ngubane & Nzima, 2023). These are the central goals of the National Development Plan
(NDP) (National Planning Commission, 2012). As a sign of its commitment to achieving quality
education, SA subscribes to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which mandate
signatories to provide quality education for all (United Nations, 2015). In addition to the SDGs,
Africa and South Africa’s commitment to people-derived development, as articulated in the
Agenda 2063 of the African Union, demands that education is well-resourced, considering that
the development of human capital requires the expansion of universal access to basic education
(African Union, 2015).
Unfortunately, while SA subscribes to these global and African treaties, her rural
communities continue to suffer from various socio-economic challenges, such as poor
development outcomes, which render these communities more unequal and among the
poorest (Moletsane, 2012; Ndofirepi & Masinire, 2021; Maja, 2023). As authors of this paper,
we have been directly affected by the existing conditions in rural communities, having grown
up and worked in similar contexts. Our belief in human capital development also played a role
in adopting participatory and empowering methodologies. As highlighted above, quality
education remains a crucial element of life (Spaull, 2013). Regrettably, though, the quality of
education in South African rural communities has remained substandard for a long time
(Myende & Hlalele, 2018). There is a shared concern that these communities lack the essential
resources for the provision of quality education and that this has exacerbated the challenge of
providing quality education to these communities (Balfour et al., 2008; Hlalele, 2012; Hlalele,
2014; Mncube & Ngema, 2023).
The National Education Infrastructure Management System (NEIMS) Report in 2019
revealed that rural schools are still facing challenges of using pit latrine toilets with limited water
and a lack of libraries and laboratories (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2019). This
resource scarcity threatens the provision of quality education in rural communities and requires
coordinated attention if the SGDs, especially Goal #4, are to be achieved in SA. Emphasizing the
importance of addressing the concerns above, Moletsane (2012, p. 6) states:
365
If we are to make a difference in the lives of those who live, work and learn in rural contexts,
we urgently need studies with a focus on identifying existing resources and assets in
communities and schools, and among individuals and groups, as well as on how we might
harness them to effect the desired social change.
Hlalele (2012) makes an important observation, which underlines the critical need to
pursue the call that Moletsane (2012) has made, namely that the dominant negative discourse
about rural communities and schools has resulted in the positive aspects that make rural
communities places of choice to live in and raise families being ignored and overlooked.
Drawing on the call by Moletsane (2012) and the observation by Hlalele (2012), given
their importance for quality education and possible effects on rural schools, we explore how
resources can be identified and mobilized in this paper. We first look into the nature of
resources within the context of rurality, and then at strategies that schools can employ to
harness these resources to advance educational goals. Thus, this paper responds to two key
research questions. First, we ask, what is the nature of resources within the context of rurality?
Secondly, we ask, what strategies can be employed to harness educational resources to advance
educational goals within rurality? In our response to these questions, we present the findings
of our study, which have both theoretical and practical implications and relevance, especially
about how we see the context of rurality. Firstly, we put under scrutiny the work of resource
mobilization advocates such as Edwards and Kane (2014), Zald (2017) and Manky (2018), to
mention a few. These scholars claim that all communities (including rural communities) have a
plethora of resources that, if identified and harnessed, can address community concerns,
including the poor quality of education. The paper examines this claim about rurality in SA by
exploring what is defined as resources in the context of rurality. The second contribution is to
share practical approaches or strategies that can be employed to identify and mobilize resources
in rural schools. The findings on strategies for resource mobilization are essential, given that the
prospect of government funding provided for education provision may dwindle due to the
looming budget deficits SA faces. A study like this creates awareness among school leaders
about resources within and beyond their vicinity and how these resources can be identified and
harnessed.
Rurality and Rural Schools
While this study focuses on resource mobilization, the concept of rurality is essential to unpack
for two main reasons. The first is that the meaning of this concept remains elusive, and multiple
meanings are attached to it (Hlalele, 2012; Stoop, 2018) despite the growing research on rural
education locally and internationally. The second reason relates to the connection between
what is understood to be resources in communities and whether these resources are available
in rural communities. Defining rurality in this case may provide deeper insights about whether
or not it is even possible to talk about resources in the context of rurality in SA.
We have highlighted above that rurality has elusive and multiple meanings. For example,
some scholars (Hlalele, 2012; Mkhize, 2018; Myende, 2015) argue that way this concept is
366
understood in SA differs from how it is understood in first-world countries like Canada and the
United States of America (USA). In other contexts, rurality refers to communities that house
smaller population sizes and are far from big cities (Lamb et al., 2014; Redding & Walberg, 2012).
Within this conception of smaller population size, White (2020) explains that in Canada ‘rural’
typically refers to a population outside dense population centers of approximately 1,000
persons. per square kilometer. In Canada’s neighbor, the USA, the understanding is that rural
areas are outside big cities and primarily constituted of agricultural communities.
It is important to note that definitions of rurality used in other countries, although they
may be helpful, may not be relevant to South Africa’s colonial and apartheid history, which led
to “skewed demography, vulnerable political economy, and inequitable educational provision
characterizing rural areas” (Moletsane et al., 2017, p. 76). Dominantly, in SA, rurality is
understood within the confines of demographics such as income per capita, population growth
rate and size, location or proximity between the area and the city, and the type of governance
that exists in the area. Starting with the latter, we referred to Myende and Hlalele (2018), who
view a rural area as a place where traditional leaders govern. SA also experiences rural-urban
migration, which has led to a “brain-drain” which strips rural areas of their few emancipated
community members who leave to pursue a better life in the cities (Nwaka, 2021; Venturini &
Goldstein, 2021). Contrary to the self-sufficient, agriculturally rich areas described in other
contexts (as outlined earlier), most rural areas in SA are far from self-sufficient. However, most
agricultural contribution to the country’s gross domestic product is attributed to rural areas;
the vast majority of most inhabitants are not farmers. Instead, many are farm workers, often
earning below the minimum wage (Hlalele, 2012). The schools used in this paper fall within the
Quintile 1 category of schools in terms of the National Norms and Standards for School Funding
defined in the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 (Republic of South Africa [RSA], 1996).
Quintile 1 schools comprise primarily poor, rural schools, while Quintile 5 includes well-
resourced, predominantly urban schools. Schools in Quintile 1 to Quintile 3, because of the
poverty associated with rurality in South Africa (Moletsane, 2012), are exempt from paying
school fees. Therefore, they have no additional revenue beyond their budget allocation from
the government. This makes such schools solely dependent on government funding.
It is apparent that, in our discussion, we have not focused on the negative aspects that
are usually associated with rurality, such as underdevelopment, lack of infrastructure, poor
telecommunication services and so forth (Mngoma & Ayonrinde, 2023; Plagerson, 2023). While
we note these negative aspects of rurality, our positioning is that rural areas have, for a very
long time, remained a place of choice to live and raise a family for many of its dwellers (Hlalele,
2012). However, cities continue to benefit from the brain drain in rural areas because of the lack
of economic opportunities primarily found in the cities. Still, we argue that rural communities
have resources that, if identified and mobilized, can play a pivotal role in improving the quality
of education. With this argument, our next section looks into the types of resources that are
present in different communities.
367
Resources in the context of rurality
We believe that, despite the negative conceptions usually associated with rurality in SA, rural
areas have resources that can contribute to improving the quality of the education provided.
According to Green and Haines (2015), community resources may be defined as gifts, skills and
capacities of individual associations and institutions within the community. These may be of the
utmost importance to the community, as they can be used to reduce or prevent injustices. This
conception extends the scope of what we can view as the resources within communities and
schools.
We acknowledge the work of Chikoko and Khanare (2012), who view rural school
stakeholders as contributing both non-material and material resources. In their categorization
of resources, these scholars use Mourad and Ways’ (1998) classification of a primary, secondary,
and outside tier. These tiers are essential because they may guide school stakeholders in how
and where to mobilize resources – in other words, as resource mobilization strategies in rural
contexts. The primary tier consists mainly of resources that school stakeholders may mobilize
within the school and over which the school has complete control. Chikoko and Khanare (2012)
explain that the secondary tier comprises resources within the school’s immediate community.
The last or outside tier encompasses resources beyond the school and its immediate
community (Chikoko & Khanare, 2012). While the nature of resources in the context of rurality
may not differ entirely from the nature of resources in other contexts, it is important to highlight
in this paper that traditional leadership remains one unique and often untapped resource in the
rural settings of SA (Mbokazi, 2015; Mkhize, 2018). The importance of traditional leadership can
be explained as follows. Traditional leadership in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, where this
study was conducted, is hierarchical, consisting of the King at the top, followed by the Amakhosi
(chiefs) and Izinduna as provided for in the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and
Governance Act, No. 5 of 2005. Traditional leaders are known for their firm, solid possession of
political capital and ability to command respect from their local people and others accessing
their territory (Myende & Nhlumayo, 2020; Balasuriya, 2023). Traditional leaders were found to
be instrumental in establishing key partnerships and encouraging parental involvement
(Mbokazi, 2015; Myende & Nhlumayo, 2020).
Emerging from the above is that, despite their location, schools are likely to be located
in areas with different resources. This paper ventures into this gap, and through participatory
research, this research not only exposes the resources but also stirs and enhances awareness
and agency among the participants. In the next section, we explore the theoretical framework
utilized for this research.
Resource Mobilization Theory
We adopted the Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) as a theoretical framework. This was one
of the major sociological theories to emerge in the 1970s (Kendal, 2006). It stresses the ability
of a movement’s members to acquire resources and to mobilize people towards accomplishing
the movement’s goals. Early adherents of RMT (White, 2015; McCarthy & Zald, 1977; Tilly, 1978;
368
Zald & McCarthy, 1987) sought to understand how rational and often the most marginalized
social actors are effectively mobilized to pursue desired social change goals. RMT acknowledges
the role that can be played by the study of social movements (SMOs) in advocating, expressing
and addressing the challenges of resource scarcity. For instance, Kendal (2006) argues that social
movements succeed by effectively mobilizing material and non-material resources and
developing political opportunities for their members. Material resources include money,
organizations, the workforce, technology, means of communication and mass media. In
contrast, non-material resources include legitimacy, loyalty, social relationships, networks,
personal connections, public attention, authority, moral commitment, and solidarity (Kendal,
2006).
Edwards and Kane (2014) and Hamilton (2023) indicate that early formulations of the
resource mobilization perspective fell into two groups: an organizational, social entrepreneurial
perspective, which is linked to McCarthy and Zald (2001), and the political perspective, which is
linked with Tilly (1978). The entrepreneurial model analyzes social action as determined by the
economic factors affecting a social movement. It argues that grievances may not be the only
reason for establishing social movements. However, accessibility and monopoly over resources
are crucial determinants in forming social movements. The political model strongly emphasises
the political struggle instead of economic factors. We posit that both approaches are geared
towards bringing about desired social and organizational change, emphasizing their importance
in understanding the nature of resources and their potential benefits (Maggott, 2023; Manky,
2018; Zald, 2017).
METHODOLOGY
In this study, we adopted a qualitative participatory approach underpinned by critical
emancipatory research (CER). Critical emancipatory research has its foundations in the critical
theory paradigm (Banakuka, 2023; Guba & Lincoln, 1994). It concerns itself with research
processes aimed at creating awareness among people regarding challenges they face.
Simultaneously, CER tries to create a space where the researcher and the participants empower
one another to utilize their capital in resolving societal challenges (Mahlomaholo, 2010; Schmid,
2023). CER is part of a broader qualitative inquiry; thus, it also takes place in the natural world
of the participants. Qualitative inquiry occurs in the natural settings of participants (Creswell &
Clark, 2019), where researchers are instruments through the notion of the ‘I was there’
phenomenon (Wolcott, 1995). In this study, the natural setting refers to schools within a rural
context. We used three schools within one community, namely the uMzimkhulu Local
Municipality. These three schools are situated within a rural context where the marginalization
of communities in various forms still exists. For example, the communities in this study still
experience limited access to water while simultaneously facing several social constraints that
limit their agency in addressing their issues.
369
We chose CER because it emphasizes connectivity between the investigator and the
investigated (Ivey, 1986). This enables participants not to be treated like objects in a scientific
experiment (Mahlomaholo, 2010) but as equal partners. The CER principles of equality,
participation, social justice and human emancipation ensure that the marginalized voices of
schools’ stakeholders are acknowledged and that the effects of power relations are minimized
(Dube & Hlalele, 2018; Mahlomaholo, 2010). Mahlomaholo and Nkoane (2002) advise that the
investigator and the participants are interested in social transformation that will enable
emancipation, democracy and equity. Therefore, critical theory epistemology, as
conceptualized in this study, presumes that the participants and the researcher are connected
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The methodology adopted is sensitive to and embraces the plight of
schools within rural contexts. This is rooted in emancipatory epistemology, which prioritizes the
interests of those situated at the margins of society, burdened and enslaved (Mahlomaholo &
Nkoane, 2002; Dahal, 2023). CER resonates with RMT, which is driven to enact change by
creating a community that can address its challenges. Likewise, CER is change and
empowerment-driven (Myende, 2014).
The goals of participatory methodology and CER are grounded in the critical paradigm.
The methodology involves working collaboratively with stakeholders to find solutions applicable
to the prevailing context (McKenzie & Skrla, 2023). Additionally, it advocates hope and advances
the active participation of stakeholders in producing research knowledge (Cumbo & Selwyn,
2021). Participatory research strives to empower communities to address their challenges,
which resonates with our beliefs and research intentions.
Table 1.
Profile of participants
Stakeholder
Number
1.
School Principal: A (Male), B (Female), C (Male)
3
2.
Teacher: SGB A (Female), B (Female), C (Male)
3
3
Parent: SGB A (Female), B (Male), C (Female)
3
4.
Trade union (2 Males & 1 Female)
3
5.
Non-profit organizations (NPOs) 2 Females & 1 Male
3
6.
Corporate social investment (CSI) manager: A ( Female), B (Male), C (Female)
3
7.
Local municipality ( 1 Male)
1
Total
19
In this study, we worked with 19 school stakeholders (research participants) attached to
three schools in the uMzimkhulu Circuit in the uMzimkhulu Municipality. These are described in
Table 1.
The participants were purposively selected based on their roles in the schools and the
community. This is in keeping with the tenets of purposive selection, which foregrounds the
370
notion of handpicking participants (Cohen et al., 2018) based on their possession of rich
information that will provide insights about the phenomenon - resources mobilization in the
case of this study (Patton, 2002).
Methods
To generate rich qualitative data, we used four methods or techniques consistent with
participatory research. These were free attitude interviews (FAIs), SWOT analysis, transect walks
and photovoice. According to Meulenberg-Buskens (1993), a Free Attitude Interview
encourages a data-generation process that is as humane as possible. This ensures that
participants are respected and not undermined (Mahlomaholo & Netshandama (2010); Maboya
et al. (2022). The second method was a SWOT analysis (the acronym for strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats) conducted with all participants from all three sites during the
mapping phase of the study. We used the SWOT analysis during the community mapping
exercise because it assisted in conscientizing the participants in identifying strengths and
utilizing them while also exploring opportunities and mitigating the threats. It further exposed
the weaknesses to counteract and minimize them (Puyt et al., 2023). The school principals, the
School Governing Board (SGB) members, union representatives, and representatives from non-
profit organizations (NPOs) worked together to identify internal and external forces that
impacted the identification and mobilization of resources.
A transect walk was the third technique we used. Ingold and Lee (2008) propose that
taking a walk with participants stimulates a sense of togetherness with the environment, which
enables researchers and co-researchers to understand how, for example, places are developed
by the routes people take in relation to resource mobilization. The transect walk allowed
participants to identify resources and opportunities in different areas within the community
(Okoko & Prempeh, 2023). This study identified these during the walk with school principals and
other school-based stakeholders (Almario–Desoloc, 2023 ).
The fourth technique was photovoice, and through it, we sought to achieve three
objectives as recommended by Wang and Pies (2004). Firstly, it facilitated the capturing of
(through photographs taken by the local stakeholders themselves) and discussion about the
nature of resources within the rural context of the locality (Bandauko & Arku, 2023). Secondly,
it facilitated practical group discussions about what the photographs captured and what they
signified. At the same time, special attention was paid to issues that are challenges and those
who addressed such challenges in identifying and mobilising resources in schools (Muller, 2023).
Thirdly, the ideas, challenges and solutions shared in the discussion with the stakeholders were
linked to strategies for identifying and mobilizing school resources (Gabrielsson et al., 2022).
Our analysis had both deductive and inductive dimensions to it. It was deductive because some
themes were derived from the questions we posed to the participants, and others emerged
from our analysis (the inductive dimension). We used thematic analysis to analyze transcribed
data from the Free Attitude Interviews, transect walks and photovoices (Braun & Clarke, 2023).
Hesse-Bieber and Leavy (2011) maintain that the central issue in thematic analysis is that the
371
research participants’ subjective meanings and social realities are conveyed in the research
report. As a first step to get to the participants’ perspectives, we read the interview transcripts
repeatedly. As we continued reading, we identified codes of meaning, which we later grouped
to develop themes. Similarly, in conversations with the participants about the photos they had
taken as part of the photovoice technique adopted in the study, we scrutinized their
explanations about the contents of the photographs. This kind of analysis constituted the
inductive aspect of our research, while the other themes were generated from the literature
about the nature of rural communities. In other words, deductive and inductive analyses were
used in an integrated and complementary manner, as indicated in the following results section.
We used the theory and literature to discuss the themes that emerged during our data analysis,
interpretation and discussion of the findings. Resource Mobilization Theory was implemented
as a framework for the analysis.
To ensure rigor, we used a variety of techniques that are appropriate to participatory
research and critical emancipatory research methodologies, such as the use of reflective
journals and member-checking to ensure that what emerged from our continuous interactions
with participants was not influenced in any way by our interpretations and biases. Field notes
captured in our reflective journal entries were augmented by confirmability sessions we held
with participants during the Free Attitude Interviews. In such sessions, we shared our
interpretations of what was emerging from our analysis with them, and they were requested to
confirm or refute these. In some instances, they further clarified what they had told us.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
The findings are presented and discussed under two broad themes that emerged during the
inductive and deductive data analyses. In other words, the themes draw on the theories,
literature, predetermined research questions and the issues emerging from the field. These
themes are (a) the nature of resources in the context of rurality and (b) the strategies and
approaches for resource identification and mobilization. These two broad themes were crafted
from the research questions of this study, and under each theme, we used subthemes that
emerged from the data.
The nature of resources in the context of rurality
To understand the nature of resources in the context of rurality, we used multiple data-
generation strategies, as described in the methodology section. Drawing from the literature
reviewed, we analyzed what the participants identified as resources within their vicinity. The
study's results clearly showed that, firstly, the participants were acutely aware of their
environment, and could identify resources both in the primary and secondary tier. For example,
a parent participant had this to say:
Partnerships with NPOs, parents, community and the corporate sector presents
opportunities for mobilizing resources for the school (Parent: SGB C).
372
Secondly, the results revealed that the resources took the form of human and social
capital in the community. The next section elaborates on these resources: local public and
private institutions, traditional leadership and parents, all of which are significant resources in
their context.
Local private and public institutions as resources
Participants at all three sites identified several local private institutions (businesses) as possible
supporters of what schools do. These businesses either worked with the schools or were
identified by participants as possible partners. The photos that the participants took during the
transect walks (shown below) depict some of these local institutions.
Figure 1:
Pictures of businesses identified by participants during transect walks
The three pictures above were taken by participants during the transect walks. Photo 1
and Photo 2, shown in Figure 1, illustrate school signboards erected by two companies that the
participants identified as great resources for their schools. For the participants, the erected
signboards indicated that the concerned companies approached the schools. What we noted
with some degree of surprise is that although relationships existed between the schools and
companies, the participants in all three schools were not able to sustain the relations so that
they could benefit the school effectively. This was even though they unanimously acknowledged
these companies as great resources into which schools needed to tap. What was more surprising
was that the two principals whose schools had signboards reflecting these companies’ logos
were not using the companies in any tangible way. The third principal was new to the school
and had not established any contact with the private sector at the time of the study. Photo 3 in
Figure 1 shows a hardware store that has been supportive to the school.
The discussions that followed the transect walks and the SWOT analysis suggested similar
views to those presented in the photographs. In response to the issue of local private
institutions constituting key assets, the interview with Corporate Social Investment (CSI)
Manager A, from one local company, said:
Let me state that education is one of our focus areas. I also concur with you that the
biggest CSI slice goes to education. We support schools situated within our footprint.
1. Signboard sponsored by
Clover
2. Signboard
sponsored by Sanlam
3. Harware
373
Showing his awareness of the importance of business, Principal A stated: “We need to
identify companies that will be able to assist us.” Awareness of businesses as important
resources was also reflected by the School Governing Body (SGB) teacher representative who
stated that “(t)he school must learn to work with business”. Implicit in these remarks is the
awareness of opportunities proffered through the availability of these companies and their
potential usefulness for resource mobilization.
Figure 2:
Pictures of churches identified by participants during transect walks
An important issue that surfaced from the data is the value that participants attached to
the church as an institution in their communities, as depicted in Pictures 1 and 2 in Figure 2.
Participants from all three sites had taken pictures of different churches, even though only two
are displayed here. The church as a crucial resource was also discussed during the Free Attitude
Interviews. During the discussions, Principal A highlighted the existence of a fruitful relationship
with the church and stated:
Our school has a good relationship with the nearby church and the church supports the
school with donations and volunteers.
The SGB teacher representative from School C added to this conversation by emphasizing
the need for close collaboration between schools and the church. He said:
I believe as a school we need to continue to work with our local community, churches
and NPOs.
On the role of the church, SGB Parent member A from Site A. brought a slightly different
dimension to the discussion by highlighting an existing relationship with the church when he
said, “Our fence is old, and the church is assisting with repairing the school fence”.
Besides the business sector and churches, the importance of local government
institutions was evident, as reflected in Figure 3.
During the Free Attitude Interviews, the participants stressed the importance of the
public sector as a resource within rural contexts. In this regard, a parent member of the School
Governing Body (SGB) from Site 2 highlighted the potential benefits of working with various
departments when she said:
School stakeholders need to identify government departments that can bring resources
to the school.
Site 1 church
Site 2 Church
374
Figure 3.
Pictures of the public sector identified by participants during transect walks
During the same conversation, similar sentiments were expressed by the SGB Parent
member from Site A. This is what this parent said:
Different government institutions should be able to assist schools in mobilizing
resources.
Adding another layer of understanding of the public sector as a resource, Principal B from
Site 2 expressed a slightly different view by highlighting the existing relationship with the
provincial Department of Basic Education. She said:
There are a lot of resources that we receive from the Department of Basic Education in
the form of stationery , books and money.
While it can be argued that it is the mandate of the Department of Basic Education to
provide resources, photographs reveal further engagement by the Department of Rural
Development, the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA), the Department of Public
Works (DPW) and the Department of Higher Education.
In addition to the photos from the transect walks and the Free Attitude Interviews (FAIs),
the participants were asked to compile their schools’ and communities’ SWOT analyses. It
became clear that organizations (private and public) were among the opportunities identified
by participants. This finding is consistent with the interviews and photo evidence, as discussed
earlier. In Figure 4 below, we share some findings from the SWOT analyses of the different sites.
The evidence above provides a picture that reflects an awareness of the institutions and
organizations that rural schools could bring on board to harness resources. However, what
surfaced from the FAIs is that the capital held by these institutions was seldom used by schools,
despite their awareness of its existence and availability. It was indirectly indicated at one site
that a leadership change had adversely affected the sustainability of a relationship that had
been established. One participant indicated during the discussion of business relationships that
their school no longer had the principal who was there at the time that Clover (Figure 1) started
working with the school; the current principal seemed unaware of the agreements between the
school and the company. Nevertheless, the participants were aware that the schools could
benefit from the companies that erected signboards at their main gates.
Department of Public
Works
South African
Social Security
Agency
Department of
Rural
Development
375
Figure 4.
Extracts from SWOT Analyses
Identification of businesses next to us presents an opportunity for attracting resources.
(SWOT Analysis: Site A)
The school need to identify businesses that can adopt the school. (SWOT Analysis: Site B)
There is an opportunity to form partnerships with NPOs, parents, community and the
corporate sector as a way of mobilizing resources for the school. (SWOT Analysis: Site C)
Another asset that South African schools can tap into is the structure of traditional leadership.
We turn to this item in the next section.
Traditional leadership as a resource
The term ‘traditional leadership’ is used in this paper to refer to the indigenous leadership
structure that predates colonial and apartheid South Africa. In the democratic era in SA, this
term refers to those leaders who operate within traditional leadership structures as defined in
the KwaZulu-Natal Traditional Leadership and Governance Act No. 5 of 2005. The participants
regarded traditional leaders as important in connecting the school with other parts of the
community. From the discussions with participants from all the sites, it appeared that traditional
leadership as a structure, and traditional leaders as people who operate in that structure, were
critical in linking the school with resources in the private sector, public sector, non-profit
organizations and the community. The Corporate Social Investment (CSI) Manager B from Site 2
stated:
First, I think the traditional leadership council can play a critical role in mobilizing
resources for schools in their areas. Even today at the office, I was attending to requests from
NPOs and schools and asked my area managers if the applying NPOs or schools did go to Inkosi
for endorsement and support.
Adding to the importance of traditional leadership, CSI Manager A stated:
I also believe that schools should always have an open relationship with traditional
leaders in municipal areas as they connect schools with resources.
Both participants emphasized the critical role played by Amakhosi (chiefs) in supporting
the mobilization of resources in their context. Corporate Social Investment (CSI) Manager B
indicated that the Traditional Leadership Council played a critical role in endorsing and
supporting schools’ appeals for support from local business and NPOs. CSI Manager A
emphasized the importance of schools having open relationships with the Amakhosi in their
municipal areas, as they were key in serving as a connection between schools and resources. In
other instances, it surfaced that traditional leaders played an extended role of being
gatekeepers for local organizations’ access to resources. The utterances by CSI Manager B
regarding different resources found in the area that can be utilized by schools, emphasized this
crucial role. He indicated that before NPOs could be supported by the municipality, they first
376
had to show that they had the blessing of the Inkosi (Chief) governing the area in which they
were operating. He said (as cited above):
… Even today at the office, I was attending to requests from NPOs and schools and asked
my area managers if the applying NPOs or schools did go to the traditional leader (Inkosi)
for endorsement and support.
The excerpts above show the importance of traditional leadership in rural communities
– not only for individuals, but also for institutions in and around the community.
Parents as an important resource
It became clear during the study that the participants acknowledged parents as another
important source of capital or resources. It is noteworthy that parents acted both as a resource
in enhancing the learning and teaching culture in the schools and facilitating the identification
and mobilization of resources. Photograph 1 in Figure 5 was provided by teachers who were
part of the study after their school had organized a ‘Meet the Teacher Day’. In this setup, parents
are invited into the school together with their children, and they meet all the teachers who
teach their children. Photograph 2 was taken during the transect walks at Site 2 and shows an
Early Chilhood Development center which, according to the teachers, was sponsored and built
by parents from scratch.
Figure 5.
Parents at Site A & ECD center at Site B
Beside the two photos above, parents were featured in the SWOT analysis (opportunities
section) at all the research sites (Sites A, B and C). Below. in Figure 6, are some points that were
taken from the SWOT analyses of the research sites.
Figure 6.
Extracts from SWOT analyses
In addition to the transect walks and the SWOT analyses, the interviews also revealed
the importance of parents as a resource. For example, Principal C at Site C had this to say:
When there is a need to discuss with parents and the community, they all attend and are
always committed to assist.
NPOs, parents to support RM efforts Swot analysis Site A
Strong parental involvement Swot analysis Site B
Involved parents Swot analysis Site C
1. Parents meeting with
teacher
2. ECD center built by parents
377
Emphasizing the value of parents as one of the school’s assets, one parent who is an SGB
member (SGB Parent from Site B) stated that several classrooms in the schools were built by
parents. The parent stated:
Let me tell you that parents built this school. We have classrooms that were built by
parents.
Emerging from the foregoing discussion is the primacy of agency, local human capital and
the high value that parents attach to education, contrary to stereotypes that portray rural
parents as both uneducated and lacking interest in the education of their children. Clearly, this
study’s findings challenge such generalized notions and stereotypes. The SWOT analyses at all
three sites depicted the parents as being involved in the education of their children, and as
supporting resource mobilization efforts.
Rich school history as a resource
During the transect walks, participants from two sites (Site 1 and Site 2) indicated that the
schools’ history formed one of the greatest resources or forms of capital. One of the two
photographs shown in Figure 7 reveals a school wall with an Anglican Church plaque dated 1924.
The participants indicated that the school was initially built by the Anglican Church and they
viewed this history as crucial for resource mobilization endeavors. They argued that such a
heritage could be used to reconnect with the church to seek support in the form of donations.
The second picture in Figure 7 shows a school building. When participants were asked about the
significance of this building, they pointed out that it was donated and opened by the late Dr
Nelson Mandela in 1996. In the participants’ views, this showed the school’s rich history and
they believed that this alone could be used as an opportunity for the school in terms of tapping
into more resources.
Figure 7.
Anglican Church plaque and school building opened by Nelson Mandela
In relation to the photos above, the participants from Site 2 also pointed to the spade
that the late President Nelson Mandela used for sod turning in 1996, which is displayed in a
glass cabinet at the entrance of the reception area of the school. The participants indicated that
their rich history was used to attract corporate, business and individual support for the school.
1. Historic Anglican
Church plaque at the
school
2. School built by the late
President Nelson Mandela
378
While the Anglican Church had initially built the school, the participants from Site 1
indicated that, although they had always viewed this history as important, they had not thought
about its potential for attracting resources. They expressed a strong need to create awareness
about this issue. The need for this awareness was also aired by SGB Teacher A from Site A when
discussing the SWOT analysis. The teacher said:
The Anglican Church missionaries built the school in 1924. This provides a rich missionary
history that may market the school and attract missionary tourism to new partnerships.
Furthermore, during the FAI, the principal from Site B showed awareness of the
importance of the school’s history, stating:
The fact that the school was built through the efforts of the late President Nelson
Mandela after being approached by the previous principal gives us a rich culture and history
that generate interest from people to want to know more about us.
The voices of the participants above emphasize the importance of school history as a
resource in schools in rural contexts. For instance, SGB Teacher A at Site A indicated during the
FAI that the school’s history (having been founded by Anglican missionaries) may serve as an
asset linking the school to its roots and attracting missionary tourism for the school that may
lead to the mobilization of resources. Discussions with Principal B from Site B further
emphasized the importance of school history in attracting resources when the principal
highlighted the fact that Shell South Africa built the school after the late President Nelson
Mandela was approached by the previous school principal. The principal further indicated that
their rich school history generates interest from different people who want to know about the
school, which might enable the school to attract resources.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The discussion is organized into four themes that we have developed from our analysis. The
themes relate to the identification and mobilization of resources. The four themes are (a)
Traditional leadership and parents as human capital; (b) Cultural capital; (c) History as a strategy
for attracting resources; (d) Public, private and faith-based organizations as social-
organizational capital. Each of these themes is presented below.
(a) Traditional leadership and parents as human capital for resource mobilization
This study found that traditional leadership and parents constituted important human capital.
As conceptualized by Emery and Flora (2006, p. 21), human capital “refers to the skills and
abilities of people to develop and enhance their resources and to access outside resources and
bodies of knowledge in order to increase their understanding, identify promising practices, and
to access data for community-building”. According to Edwards and Kane (2014), human
resources, like material resources, are more solid and easier to verify than the three resource
such as experience, skills and knowledge.
According to Mbokazi (2015) and Mawere et al. (2022), traditional leaders have a history
of working with the structures that govern schools which can be traced from the Bantu
379
Education era to post-1994. Amakhosi (chiefs) are important agents when it comes to mobilizing
rural communities because they are respected within the community (Huizenga, 2022; Koenane,
2017). Our findings reinforce the view that traditional leaders are important in the provision of
education in rural schools in SA.
Two dimensions emerged from the findings. The first is that traditional leadership is
viewed as a form of human capital which is already being utilized, while the second suggests
that although it remains a source of human capital, it assumes a further potential. In terms of
the first dimension, participants such as the CSI Manager B have indicated that before NPOs are
supported by the Municipality, they first have to show that they have the blessing of the Inkosi
governing the area where these organizations are operating. The findings have also shown that
the endorsement of the Amakhosi is important for any potential investment by the business
sector in the community and schools.
The second-dimension positions traditional leadership as human capital that has the
potential to enhance efforts to mobilize resources. Utterances such as “I think the traditional
leadership council can play a critical role in mobilizing resources for schools in their areas” by CSI
Manager B, and “I also believe that schools should always have an open relationship with
traditional leaders” by CSI Manager A serve as illustrations of the second dimension. Arguing
from within the asset-based approach, Hlalele (2014) opines that rurality is always perceived
from what it does not have or cannot achieve. Therefore, when employing RMT in this case, the
findings call for the acknowledgement of traditional leadership as a resource that is already
available within rural contexts, before looking elsewhere. Similarly, our discussions with
participants from all the sites identified traditional leadership as critical in linking schools with
resources in the private and public sector, and with non-profit organizations on the one hand
and the community on the other. This study has challenged the view that underestimates
traditional leadership as human capital and commends the efforts by the South African
government to reinstate the powers and dignity taken away from traditional leaders by
colonialism and apartheid. We argue here that this process has to be accompanied by deliberate
education efforts aimed at conscientizing people to be proud of their indigenous institutions
and preserve them as a national asset that can be leveraged for mobilizing resources in their
context.
The findings also regard parents as important resources that school stakeholders identify
as human capital in their context. There are multiple gains that parents bring to the mobilization
of resources within rural contexts. In the section ‘Parents as important resources’ we elaborate
on this point, giving the example of a ‘Meet the Teacher Day’. From the SWOT analyses and FAIs,
it was clear that the participants identified parents as the main resource in assisting the school
to mobilize resources. The transect walks also affirmed the importance of parents as a resource
for resource mobilization.
Viewing parents as a resource finds resonance with various scholars such as Chikoko and
Khanare (2012), Edwards and Kane (2014), Khong (2016), and Myende and Nhlumayo (2020).
380
For example, Khong (2016) argues that parents possess a huge potential to create favorable
learning conditions by mobilizing financial and physical resources required by the school. On the
same issue, Myende and Nhlumayo (2020) contend that parents are an important resource in
improving academic performance in schools within rural contexts. Similarly, Witte and Sheridan
(2011) argue that rural schools are uniquely placed to nurture parental involvement and benefit
from it. Witte and Sheridan (2011) further maintain that owing to their centrality within
communities, rural schools constantly interact with parents and families at different levels.
Resource Mobilization Theory (Edwards & Kane, 2014; Manky, 2018) identifies parents as a
resource located within human resources.
(b) Cultural capital as a factor in resource mobilization
Cultural capital was identified as another critical resource. Cultural capital refers to how people
interact with and understand their world in relation to education. It affects what voices are
heard and which voices are silenced (Emery & Flora, 2006). Therefore, we suggest that cultural
capital may enable school stakeholders to strengthen school-community partnerships in all
three community tiers (Mourad & Ways, 1998). Edwards and Kane (2014) suggest that culture
may include acknowledged and ignored symbols, beliefs, values, identities, and the behavioral
norms of a group of people that anchor their behaviors and how they interact both socially and
with the environment. Therefore, culture is a reserve supply of resources ready for use by school
stakeholders within rural contexts in much the same way as structural resources are (Saha,
2021). Edwards and Kane (2014) advise that cultural resources are neither equally distributed
socially within a given space nor universally accessible to potential movements, actors and
organizations. We argue that schools should be aware of the cultural resources within their
context and utilize them to advance the mobilization of resources. Music, literature, web pages,
or films and videos as cultural products assist in the socialization and encourage the capacity of
social movements and organizations to engage in collective action that will leverage the
required resources (Edwards & Kane, 2014). It is against this background that schools need to
be aware of the cultural resources at their disposal and utilize them to enhance resource
mobilization efforts.
(c) History as a strategy for attracting resources
We argue that despite the importance of history in our current and future lives, organizations
such as schools have not paid enough attention to preserving and narrating their history as a
strategy for attracting resources. All data sources indicate that schools within rural contexts
have rich histories but also that they have not viewed those histories as important assets. We
considered the examples of a school established by Anglican Church missionaries and another
built and opened by the late President Nelson Mandela, using funding from Shell South Africa
(Figure 7). Evidently, such history can be used as an asset for resource mobilization, but the
participants had not consciously realized this potential prior to the study. The free attitude
interviews (FAIs) and SWOT analyses we conducted indicated the importance of schools’ history
as a cultural resource and potential resource mobilization strategy in the rural context, as seen
381
from the participants’ perspectives. For instance, the Anglican Church history of the one school
might have tourism potential. Kipping, Wadhwani and Bucheli (2014) also emphasize the
importance of history. We therefore argue that schools should tap into their rich history as a
cultural resource and strategy to identify and mobilize resources.
(d) Private and public organizations and churches as social-organizational capital
Our analysis and the work of McCarthy (1996) further strengthen our argument that certain
resources can be described as social-organizational capital. These resources include
infrastructure, coalitions, partnerships and pressure groups. Edwards and Kane (2014) point to
the fact that such resources may be manipulated and controlled by those who are in power. In
essence, issues of access to these resources can be used as a tool to marginalize and exclude
some, as in the case of the rural communities and schools in this study.
Private and public organizations and churches were identified as residing under the
classification social-organizational capital in this study. We argue that in SA, exclusionary
practices embedded in the apartheid past denied some communities access to resources and
created marginalized rural communities and schools in the process (Gardiner, 2008; Nelson
Mandala Foundation [NMF], 2005). Tilly (1998) stresses this point and states that resources
identified as social organizational resources can be withheld by those in power and denied to
those perceived as outsiders or different from those in power. We contend here that similar
patterns of exclusionary practices have resulted in an unequal society in SA, especially in rural
communities and schools. Social-organizational capital refers to the connections between
people and organizations that enable positive and negative things to happen (Emery & Flora,
2006, p. 21). The literature (Gardiner, 2008; NMF, 2005) depicts rural communities as
marginalized, with resources far away from them. However, on the marginalization issue, Emery
and Flora (2006) believe that rural communities are rich in terms of social-organizational capital.
Owing to the resources housed in these sectors, the participants identified private and public
organizations as crucial school resources. There are multifaceted gains to be reaped for schools
from the two sectors. For example, it was clear that the schools received significant support
from different government services. SGB Parent member B from Site 2 recognized the need for
“identifying government departments that can contribute resources to the school is important”.
Similarly, during the transect walk discussions, it was revealed that the private sector could help
with the funding of education, the provision of mentorship and the exposure of learners to
practical business experience through educational visits.
The findings discussed above align with the literature discussed in this study. For
example, according to Myende (2014), rural schools can tap into public and private sector
resources. On the other hand, Mahlomaholo (2012) opines that rural areas, unlike urban areas,
are not close to government power as they lie on the margins of social, educational, political
and economic resources. The Nelson Mandela Foundation (2005) study describes rural schools
as located emaphandleni, which means where there is dust, isolation, deprivation and distance
from resources. Implied here is the notion of the marginalization of such places, largely due to
382
spatial issues. Similarly, Bourdieu et al. (1994) and Westaway (2012) emphasize the wide
distance between rural schools and private and public resources. Contrary to this literature, the
findings of this study show that many companies have identified rural areas as places for
business. During the transect walks, as displayed in Figure 1, it was evident that there are many
companies that were not far from the rural schools. This then shows that rural schools can tap
into what these sectors can provide.
Similarly, government departments such as the Department of Rural Development and
Land Reform (DRDLR), Department of Higher Education (DHET), Department of Social
Development (DSW), Department of Health (DOH), Department of Basic Education (DBE), South
African Social Security Agency (SASSA) and Department of Public Works (DPW), were identified
as public organization from which schools could seek resources as shown in Figure 3 in our
analysis. Various participants, including SGB Parent B and Principal B, acknowledged the role
that various government departments can play in resource mobilization.
In linking the three tiers of assets to RM efforts, Chikoko and Khanare (2012), suggest
that public and private organizations house possible resources for schools, although they further
posit that these are at the third tier of assets. This means that, although schools cannot directly
control them, through coordinated resource mobilization strategies, these resources can be
mobilized by the schools. Contrary to the argument that these two sectors are at the third tier,
in the rural context of the studied schools we found these public and private organizations very
close to the schools, and thus easily accessible to them. RMT (Edwards & Kane, 2014; Manky,
2018) identifies the private sector as being in possession of material resources – physical and
financial capital, and the public sector as being in possession of social-organizational resources
– public goods like services and civil infrastructure. We argue that these can be harnessed for
the identification and mobilization of resources to ensure the sustainability of the schools. Our
analysis revealed the value that participants attach to the church as social-organizational capital.
This was depicted in Photographs 1 and 2 of Figure 2. All participants from all three sites took
pictures of different churches. The church as a crucial resource was confirmed in our discussions
with the participants.
Historically, the church has played a critical role in the political changes in SA in the 20th
and 21st centuries, focusing on dismantling apartheid, and promoting reconciliation and nation-
building (Turek, 2020 ; Carmichael , 2023). Beukes and Beukes (2023) and Resane (2020) argue
that even in formal education, the church has played a significant role. Jansen, Pretorius and
Van Niekerk (2009) in turn posit that schools do not operate in isolation from other societal
formations such as the government, community, business and the church. Arguing along similar
lines, Myende and Nhlumayo (2020) has shown that the church has a critical role to play in
assisting rural schools to mobilize resources. For example, his study found that the local religious
community donated R1,6 million towards building 10 of the 18 classrooms. Other authors
(Ditlhake & Maphosa, 2021; Knoetze & Black , 2023; Reddie, 2023) also highlight the role the
church plays in community development and education, but lament the limited attention given
383
to the historical, current and future role of faith-based organizations. Our discussion which
identified churches as a crucial resource was in line with the moral resources identified by
Resource Mobilization Theory (Edwards & Kane, 2014). By moral resources, Edwards and Kane
(2014) mean resources such as solidarity support, legitimacy and sympathetic support.
Limitations
Our research was a qualitative study conducted in three schools within a rural context.
Therefore, our findings cannot be extended to other schools. However, we argue that the
intention of this study was not to generalize the findings but, rather, to understand a practical
case that can be used to unravel the discourse about resource mobilization and its implications
for rural schools in South Africa. Additionally, to provide deeper insights about the phenomenon
of resource mobilization, we have provided a detailed discussion of all the steps and processes
used in conducting the study.
Conclusion
It is evident from the findings that the participants in this study were able to identify resources
in the community that could be used to mobilize resources. It was also clear that hitherto,
participants had not realized the importance of the resources in their communities. We can
argue that the methodology we used in this study enabled them to develop new insights about
the strengths and opportunities in their communities. The dominant discourse on resources in
the community and their implications for resource mobilization was largely based on potential
contributions towards strengthening schools’ partnerships with various organizations (Bhengu
& Svosve, 2019; Mkhize & Hungwe, 2022). The relationships with the Anglican and traditional
leadership were the two main assets that the participants spoke about as being current working
relationships that could be strengthened for further resource mobilization. The findings present
three sets of capital under which resources that can drive the provision of quality education are
housed. These are human, cultural and social-organizational capital. Based on the findings, we
conclude that the dominant discourse that has suggested that rural areas lack capital is a “half
reality”. Nevertheless, we recognize the challenge of the lack of awareness of how what is
available can be identified as a resource to enhance the provision of quality education. We
therefore recommend focused approaches to resource identification and mobilization that
recognize the value and importance of each resource and how it may be used for educational
enhancement purposes. Based on this, we challenge those who lead schools to continuously
engage in an exercise of scanning their environment to identify what works within the primary
and secondary tier of resources, before resources are sought beyond the school vicinity.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declared that no conflicts of interest existed with respect to the research,
authorship and publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for this article's research, authorship and/or
publication.
384
Data availability statement
The data supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon
request.
NOTE: The article draws from the thesis conducted by the first author, Dr Themba Ralph Mkhize,
titled: Resource Mobilisation for the Sustainability of Schools within Rural Context: Voices of
School Stakeholders at UMzimkhulu Circuit in Harry Gwala District Municipality. http://ukzn-
dspace.ukzn.ac.za/handle/10413/17706
Ethical clearance number: HSS/0340/016D
REFERENCES
African Union. (2015). Agenda 2063: The Africa we want in 2063.
http://maktaba.aapam.org:8180/bitstream/elibrary/87/1/Agenda%202063%20Technic
al%20Document.pdf
Almario–Desoloc, M. S. (2023). Assessing Community Needs, Resources And Organizing: Basis
For Sustainable Community Extension Projects By The College Of Social Sciences,
University Of Rizal System Pililla, Rizal. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 7(7), 162-
176. https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/17183/10855
Balfour, R. J., Mitchell, C., & Moletsane, R. (2008). Troubling contexts: Toward a generative
theory of rurality as education research. Journal of Rural and Community Development,
3(3), 95-107.
Balasuriya, K. (2023). Engaging Traditional Leaders in Local Governance: Devising a
Generalisable Framework for Sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Development
Studies, 59(5), 637-652. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2023.2172332
Bananuka, T. H. (2023). The Pursuit of Critical-Emancipatory Pedagogy in Higher Education.
In Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 21st Century: Pedagogy, Research and
Community-Engagement (pp. 69-86). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3212-2_5
Bandauko, E., & Arku, G. (2023). The power of a camera: fieldwork experiences from using
participatory photovoice. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22,
16094069231154437. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231154437
Beukes, J. W., & Beukes, L. E. (2023). Proposing a Social Justice Approach to Diaconia for a
South African Context. Religions, 14(5), 668. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050668
Bhebhe, S., & Ngoepe, M. (2021). Elitism in critical emancipatory paradigm: National archival
oral history collection in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Archival Science, 21(2), 155-172.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10502-020-09351-y
Bhengu, T. T., & Svosve, E. (2019). Transforming education through school-community
partnerships: Lessons from four rural early childhood development schools in
385
Zimbabwe. Africa Education Review, 16(2), 16-35.
https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2016.1257918
Blank, M., Jacobson, R., & Melaville, A. (2012). How district and community leaders are
building effective, sustainable leadership. Washington, DC: Coalition for Community.
Bourdieu, P., Wacquant, L. J. D., & Farage, S. (1994). Rethinking the State: Genesis and
Structure of the Bureaucratic Field. Sociological Theory, 12(1), 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.2307/202032
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2023). Toward good practice in thematic analysis: Avoiding common
problems and be (com) ing a knowing researcher. International Journal of Transgender
Health, 24(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2022.2129597
Carmichael, L. (2023). Peacemaking and Peacebuilding in a Divided Society: South Africa’s
National Peace Accord in the Transition from Apartheid to Democracy. New England
Journal of Public Policy, 35(1), 3.
Chikoko, V., & Khanare, F. (2012). School management teams’ conceptualisation of school
assets in addressing the needs of children orphaned and made vulnerable by HIV and
AIDS: Evidence from South Africa. Journal of Social Sciences, 32(1), 23-36.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2012.11893049
Chikoko, V., & Mthembu, P. (2020). Financing primary and secondary education in sub-
Saharan Africa: A systematic review of literature. South African Journal of
Education, 40(4). https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v40n4a2046
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K (Eds.). (2018). Research methods in education (8th
ed.). Abingdon, Oxon.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2019). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
In Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science (385),
012039.
Cumbo, B., & Selwyn, N. (2021). Using participatory design approaches in educational
research. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 1–
13.https://doi.org/10.1080/1743727x.2021.1902981
Dahal, N. (2023). Is doing research for people or on people? A book review of Emancipatory
and Participatory Research for Emerging Educational Researchers: Theory and Case
Studies of Research in Disabled Communities. The Qualitative Report, 28(1), 69–74.
https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2023.6136
Department of Basic Education. (2019). National Education Infrastructure Management
System (NEIMS). National Assessment Report (Public Ordinary Schools). Pretoria:
Department of Education.
Ditlhake, K. J., & Maphosa, N. (2021). Fostering healthy human relationships at community
level in post-apartheid South Africa. In N. Noyoo (Ed.), Promoting healthy human
relationships in post-apartheid South Africa (pp. 143–156). Springer, Cham.
386
Dube, B., & Hlalele, D. (2018). Engaging critical emancipatory research as an alternative to
mitigate school violence in South Africa. Educational Research for Social Change, 7(2),
74-86. https://doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2018/v7i2a5
Edwards, B., & Kane, D. M. (2014). Resource mobilization and social and political movements.
In H. A. van der Heijden (Ed.), Handbook of political citizenship and social movements
(pp. 205–232). Camberley, UK: Edward Elgar Publishers.
Emery, M., & Flora, C. (2006). Spiraling-up: Mapping community transformation with
community capitals framework. Community Development, 37(1), 19-35.
Gallo-Cruz, S. (2021). Marginalization and mobilizing power in nonviolent social movements.
In L. Leitz (Ed.), Power and Protest. Emerald Publishing Limited.
Gardiner, M. (2008). Education in rural areas: Issues in Education Policy 4. Johannesburg:
Centre for Education Policy Development.
Gabrielsson, H., Cronqvist, A., & Asaba, E. (2022). Photovoice Revisited: Dialogue and Action as
Pivotal. Qualitative Health Research, 10497323221077300.
https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323221077300
Green, G. P., & Haines, A. (2015). Asset building & community development. SAGE publications.
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K.
Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publishers.
Hamilton, S. M. (2023). Dropping off the bandwagon: a puzzle for the resource mobilisation
perspective on civil society contestation networks. Journal of European Public Policy,
pp. 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2023.2232825
Hesse-Bieber, S. N., & Leavy, P. L. (2011). The practice of qualitative research (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Hlalele, D. (2012). Social justice and rural education in South Africa. Perspectives in Education,
30(1), 111–118.
Hlalele, D. (2014). Rural education in South Africa: Concepts and practices. Mediterranean
Journal of Social Sciences, 5(4), 462–469.https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n4p462
Howley, A., Rhodes, M., & Beall, J. (2009). Challenges Facing Rural Schools: Implications for
Gifted Students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32(4), 515–536.
https://doi.org/10.1177/016235320903200404
Huizenga, D. (2022). Land, Law and Chiefs in Rural South Africa: Contested Histories and
Current Struggles: Edited by WILLIAM BEINART, ROSALIE KINGWILL, AND GAVIN CAPPS.
Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2021. 344 pp. ISBN 978 1 77614 679 6.
Ingold, T., & Lee, J. (2008). Ways of walking: Ethnography and practice on foot. London:
Ashgate.
Ivey, G. (1986). Elements of a critical psychology. Psychology in society, 5, 4-27.
387
Jansen, C. A., Pretorius, F. J., & Van Niekerk, E. J. (2009). Education and the role of the church
in Africa: Three relevant aspects. Koers, 74(1-2), 67-85.
https://doi.org/10.4102/koers.v74i1/2.117
Kendal, D. E. (2006). Sociology in our times: The essentials. Toronto: ITP Nelson.
Khong, L. Y. L. (2016). Schools engaging parents in partnership: Supporting lower- achieving
students.
Kipping, M., Wadhwani, R.D., & Bucheli, M. (2014). Analyzing and interpreting historical
sources: A basic methodology. In M. Bucheli, & R. D. Wadhwani (Eds.), Organizations in
time. History, theory, methods (pp. 305-329). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Knoetze, J. J., & Black, T. J. (2023). 'Sinawe'[we are with you]: Local churches as change agents
in the lives of traumatised youth. Verbum et Ecclesia, 44(1), 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.4102/ve.v44i1.2694
Koch, R. E. (2010). Mobilisation and the power of rural movements: A comparison of the South
African National Land Committee with the Brazilian Movimento dos Trabalhadores
Rurais Sem-Terra. Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch, South
Africa.
Koenane, M. L. J. (2017). The role and significance of traditional leadership in the governance
of modern democratic South Africa. Africa Review, 10(1), 58–71.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09744053.2017.1399563
KwaZulu-Natal Legislature (2005). Traditional Leadership and Governance Act No. 5 of 2005.
Pietermaritzburg: Government Printers.
Lamb, S., Glover, S., & Walstab, A. (2014). Educational disadvantage in regional and rural
schools. Session K, Research Conference 2014: Quality and equality: What does
research tell us? Australian Council for Educational Research.
https://research.acer.edu.au/research_conference/RC2014/4august/14/
Maboya, M. J., Jita, L. C., & Chimbi, G. T. (2022). Reaping the Rewards of Professional
Development: Evidence from Mathematics Teachers’ Pedagogical
Practices. International Journal of Instruction, 15(1), 873–890.
https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2022.15150a
Mahlomaholo, M. G., & Netshandama, V. (2010). Sustainable empowering environments:
Conversation with Gramsci’s Organic Intellectual. In N. Basov, C. Simet, J. van Andel, S
Mahlomaholo, & V. Netshandama, The intellectual: A phenomenon in multidimensional
perspectives. Brill.
Mahlomaholo, M. G., & Nkoane, M. M. (2002). The case for an emancipatory qualitative
research: Reflection on assessment of quality. Education as Change, 6(1), 89-105.
Mahlomaholo, S. M. (2012). Early school leavers and sustainable learning environments in
rural contexts. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 101–110.
388
Mahlomaholo, S. M. G. (2010). Towards sustainable empowering learning environments:
Unmasking apartheid legacies through scholarship of engagement. South African
Journal of Higher Education, 24(3), 287–301.
Maja, M. M. (2023). Teachers’ Perceptions of Integrating Technology in Rural Primary Schools
to Enhance the Teaching of English First Additional Language. Journal of Curriculum
Studies Research, 5(1), 95–112.
Manky, O. (2018). Resource Mobilisation and Precarious Workers’ Organisations: An Analysis
of the Chilean Subcontracted Mineworkers’ Unions. Work, Employment and
Society, 32(3), 581–598. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017017751820
Maggott, T. (2023). Trapped in the Ivory Tower: Using Social Movement Theory to Analyse a
“Movement in Distress.” 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-29635-2_6
Masinire, A. (2020). The historical burden of rural education: Reflections of colonial legacy on
current rural education in South Africa. In A. Masinire, & A. P. Ndofirepe (Eds.), Rurality,
Social Justice and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Volume I, Theory and practice in
schools (pp. 27–38). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-57277-8_2
Mawere, J., Matshidze, P. E., Kugara, S. L., & Madzivhandila, T. (2022). The Role and
Significance of Traditional Leadership in South African Local Governance. In Handbook
of Research on Protecting and Managing Global Indigenous Knowledge Systems (pp.
249-273). IGI Global.
Mbokazi, S. S. (2015). The role of traditional leaders in school governance: Learning from two
communities in KwaZulu-Natal. Doctoral dissertation, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa.
McCarthy, J. D. (1996). Mobilising structures: Constraints and opportunities in adopting,
adapting and inventing. In D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, & M. N. Zald (Eds.), Comparative
perspectives on social movements (pp. 141–151). New York: Cambridge University
Press.
McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (1977). Resource mobilization and social movements: A partial
theory. American Journal of Sociology, 82(6), 1212–41.
McCarthy, J. D., & Zald, M. N. (2001). The enduring vitality of the resource mobilization theory
of social movements. In J. H. Turner (Ed.), Handbook of sociological theory (pp. 553–
565). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
McKenzie, K. B., & Skrla, L. (2023). Doing Critical Research in Education: From Theory to
Practice. Teachers College Press.
Mestry, R., & Bodalina, K. (2015). The Perceptions and Experiences of School Management
Teams and Teachers of the Management of Physical Resources in Public
Schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 43(3), 433–451.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143214549972
389
Meulenberg-Buskens, I. (1993). Free Attitude Interview technique. Unpublished notes.
Research for the future.
Mkhize, B. N., & Bhengu, T. T. (2018). Leading teaching and learning: Secondary school
principals’ perspectives. In V. Chikoko (Ed.). Leadership that works in deprived school
contexts of South Africa (pp. 77–99). New York: NOVA Science Publishers.
Mkhize, T. R. (2018). Resource mobilisation for the sustainability of schools within rural
context: Voices of school stakeholders at uMzimkhulu circuit in Harry Gwala District
Municipality. Doctoral dissertation, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
http://ukzn-dspace.ukzn.ac.za/handle/10413/17706
Mkhize, T. R., & Davids, M. N. (2021). Towards a digital resource mobilisation approach for
digital inclusion during COVID-19 and beyond A case of a township school in South
Africa. Educational Research for Social Change, 10(2), 18–32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2021/v10i2a2
Mkhize, T. R., & Hungwe, J. P. (2022). All Hands on Deck! School-Community Partnerships as a
Nexus for Resource Mobilisation in South African Rural Schools. Education Research
International, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5286467
Mncube, D. W., & Ngema, T. (2023). Enhancing School Management Teams in Promoting
Sustainable, Equitable Resource Allocation in Rural Schools: Linking Resources and
Learning. In Contextualising Rural Education in South African Schools (pp. 148–163).
Brill.
Mngoma, N. F., & Ayonrinde, O. A. (2023). Mental distress and substance use among rural
Black South African youth who are not in employment, education or training
(NEET). International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 69(3), 532-542.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640221114252
Mokoena, M., & Hlalele, D. (2021). Thriving school enrichment programs for rural South
African schools. In S. White, & J. Downey, Rural Education Across the World (pp. 129-
146). Singapore: Springer.
Moletsane, R. (2012). Repositioning educational research on rurality and rural education in
South Africa: Beyond deficit paradigms. Perspectives in Education, 30(1), 1-8.
Moletsane, R., Chikoko, V., & Myende, P. E. (2017). ‘Rural education. Unpublished report
prepared for round table dialogue on rural education’. Pretoria: National Education
Collaboration Trust and Department of Basic Education.
Mourad, M., & Ways, H. (1998). Comprehensive community revitalization: Strategies for asset
building. Proceedings of the 1998 National Planning Conference. AICP Press.
Muller, I. (2023). Photovoice methodology to promote education for sustainable
development. South African Journal of Higher Education, 37(2), 167–184.
https://dx.doi.org/10.20853/37-2-5284
390
Myende, P. E. (2014). Improving academic performance in a rural school through the use of an
asset-based approach as a management strategy. Doctoral dissertation, University of
the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
Myende, P. E. (2015). Tapping into the Asset-based Approach to Improve Academic
Performance in Rural Schools. Journal of Human Ecology, 50(1), 31–42.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2015.11906857
Myende, P., & Chikoko, V. (2014). School-University Partnership in a South African Rural
Context: Possibilities for an Asset-based Approach. Journal of Human Ecology, 46(3),
249–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2014.11906724
Myende, P. E., & Hlalele, D. (2018). Framing Sustainable Rural Learning Ecologies: A Case for
Strength-based Approaches. Africa Education Review, 15(3), 21–37.
https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2016.1224598
Myende, P. E., & Nhlumayo, B. S. (2020). Enhancing parent–teacher collaboration in rural
schools: parents’ voices and implications for schools. International Journal of
Leadership in Education, 25(3), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2020.1731764
National Planning Commission. (2012). National Development Plan 2030: Our future – Make it
work. Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training.
Ndofirepi, A. P., & Masinire, A. (2021). Rurality, social justice and education in Sub-Saharan
Africa, Volume II. Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Nelson Mandela Foundation. (2005). Emerging voices: A report of education in South African
rural communities. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
Ngubane, S., & Nzima, D. (2023). Rethinking Rural Education in South African Schools: Towards
Inclusion for Success. In Contextualising Rural Education in South African Schools (pp.
113-131). Brill.
Nwaka, S. (2021). Brain drain, the African diaspora and innovation in Africa. In Social and
Technological Innovation in Africa (pp. 129–135). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
Okoko, J. M., & Prempeh, N. (2023). Transect Walk Research Method. In Varieties of
Qualitative Research Methods: Selected Contextual Perspectives (pp. 469-475). Cham:
Springer International Publishing.
Oliveira, E., & Vearey, J. (2020). The Seductive Nature of Participatory Research: Reflecting on
More than a Decade of Work with Marginalized Migrants in South Africa. Migration
Letters, 17(2), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.33182/ml.v17i2.785
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE Publications.
Plagerson, S. (2023). Mainstreaming poverty, inequality and social exclusion: A systematic
assessment of public policy in South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 40(1), 191-
207. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2021.1993793
Puyt, R. W., Lie, F. B., & Wilderom, C. P. (2023). The origins of SWOT analysis. Long Range
Planning, 56(3), 102304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2023.102304
391
Redding S., & Walberg, H. J. (2012). Promoting learning in rural schools. Lincoln, Illinois: Center
for Innovation and Improvement.
Reddie, A. G. (2023). Transformative Education, Participative Black Theology and the Challenge
of Making a Difference. Religions, 14(7), 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070890
Republic of South Africa. (1996). South African Schools Act No. 84 of 1996. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Republic of South Africa (2003). Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework
Amendment Act no. 41 of 2003. Pretoria: Government Printers.
Resane, K. T. (2020). Servant leadership and shepherd leadership: The missing dynamic in
pastoral integrity in South Africa today. HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological
Studies, 76(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v76i1.5608
Saha, L. J. (2021). Cultural and social capital in global perspective. In J. Zajda (Ed.), Third
International Handbook of Globalisation, Education and Policy Research (pp. 777–788).
Springer, Cham.
Schmid, D. (2023). The Habermasian Paradigm. In The Poverty of Critical Theory in
International Relations (pp. 75–100). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Seitz, C. M., & Orsini, M. M. (2022). Thirty Years of Implementing the Photovoice Method:
Insights From a Review of Reviews. Health Promotion Practice, 23(2), 281-288.
Spaull, N. (2013). South Africa’s education crisis: The quality of education in South Africa 1994-
2011. Johannesburg: Centre for Development and Enterprise, pp. 1-65.
http://www.section27.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Spaull-2013-CDE-report-
South-Africas-Education-Crisis.pdf
Stoop, N. (2018). Understanding Rural: A comparison of academic, political and lay discourses
of rural. Master’s dissertation, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Tilly, C. (1998). Work under capitalism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Turek, L. F. (2020). The Challenge of South African Apartheid. In L. F. Turek, To bring the good
news to all nations (pp. 151–180). Cornell University Press.
United Nations General Assembly. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?
symbol¼A /RES/70/1&Lang¼E (accessed on 11 April 2016).
Venturini, A., & Goldstein, A. (2021). Drivers of migration from Africa. In V. Fargion, & M.
Gazibou, Revisiting EU-Africa Relations in a Changing World. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Wang, C. C., & Pies, C. A. (2004). Family, Maternal, and Child Health Through
Photovoice. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 8(2), 95–102.
https://doi.org/10.1023/b:maci.0000025732.32293.4f
West, J., & Meier, C. (2020). Overcrowded Classrooms – the Achilles Heel of South African
education? South African Journal of Childhood Education, 10(1).
https://doi.org/10.4102/sajce.v10i1.617
392
Westaway, A. (2012). Rural poverty in the Eastern Cape Province: Legacy of apartheid or
consequence of contemporary segregationism? Development Southern Africa, 29(1),
115–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835x.2012.645646
White, G. (2015). Social Movements and Social Policies. Contention, 3(2).
https://doi.org/10.3167/cont.2015.030203
White, D. (2020). Factors that facilitate and impede the implementation of evidence-informed
chronic disease prevention programs and policies in rural Ontario public health units.
Thesis, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
Witte, A. L., & Sheridan, S. M. (2011). Family engagement in rural schools. R2Ed Working Paper
No. 2011-2. Retrieved from the National Centre for Research on Rural Education,
http://r2ed.unl.edu, on 22 February 2016.
Wolcott, H.F. (1995). The art of fieldwork. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Zald, M. N. (2017). Social movements in an organizational society: Collected essays. New York:
Routledge.
Zald, M. N., & McCarthy, J. D. (1987). Social movements in an organizational society. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
