“Enhancing Nutritional Profile, Functional Properties, Therapeutic Attributes of Finger Millet (Eluesinecoracana) by Germination: A Comprehensive Exploration”

Abstract

Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger). Finger millet (Eleusinecoracana L.) is stands out as a Nutri-cereal, gluten free making it a versatile and nutritious choice due to good source of carbohydrate (81.5%), protein (9.8%), fat (1.59 g), dietary fiber (11.5 g), phytochemicals, and essential amino acids and its unparalleled richness of calcium (220-450 mg/100 g) and iron (3-20%) compared to other cereals (rice and wheat). Among, the different processing technique, germination is a simple and traditional technique that can also be employed at the household level, which is used to soften the kernel structure, increase the nutritional composition and to enhance nutrient absorption of finger millet grains. The profusion of phytochemicals, a health-promoting reservoir compound in germinated finger millet significantly amplifies its nutraceutical capacity. It possesses notable health-enhancing attributes, including anti-diabetic effects against type 2 diabetes mellitus, anti-diarrheal properties, antiulcer activity, anti-inflammatory characteristics, antitumor effects specifically against K562 chronic myeloid leukemia, anti-atherosclerogenic effect, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. In terms of functional characteristics, the germination process significantly improves the ability of the millet flour to absorb water and/or oil, its emulsion capacity and stability, but reduced the bulk density and swelling power. This review mainly focuses on the germinated finger millet's nutritional, functional, phytochemical, and therapeutic properties.Household food processing strategy such as germination can be used for improving the nutritional quality to promote finger millet utilization.

Full text

“Enhancing Nutritional Profile, Functional
Properties, Therapeutic Attributes of
Finger Millet (Eluesinecoracana) by Germination:
A Comprehensive Exploration”
Haritha Rajkumar
1
, Ilamaran Muthu
1
, Prabhaharan James
2
,
Sivasankari Baskaran
2
, Karpagapandi Lakshmanan
1
,
Meenakshi Vellaichamy
1
, Selvi Jeyaraj
3
and Prema Pandi
2
Abstract
Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger). Finger millet
(Eleusinecoracana L.) is stands out as a Nutri-cereal, gluten free making it a versatile and nutritious choice due to good source of car-
bohydrate (81.5%), protein (9.8%), fat (1.59 g), dietary fiber (11.5 g), phytochemicals, and essential amino acids and its unparalleled
richness of calcium (220-450 mg/100 g) and iron (3-20%) compared to other cereals (rice and wheat). Among, the different pro-
cessing technique, germination is a simple and traditional technique that can also be employed at the household level, which is used to
soften the kernel structure, increase the nutritional composition and to enhance nutrient absorption of finger millet grains. The pro-
fusion of phytochemicals, a health-promoting reservoir compound in germinated finger millet significantly amplifies its nutraceutical
capacity. It possesses notable health-enhancing attributes, including anti-diabetic effects against type 2 diabetes mellitus, anti-diar-
rheal properties, antiulcer activity, anti-inflammatory characteristics, antitumor effects specifically against K562 chronic myeloid leu-
kemia, anti-atherosclerogenic effect, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. In terms of functional characteristics, the
germination process significantly improves the ability of the millet flour to absorb water and/or oil, its emulsion capacity and stability,
but reduced the bulk density and swelling power. This review mainly focuses on the germinated finger millet’s nutritional, functional,
phytochemical, and therapeutic properties.Household food processing strategy such as germination can be used for improving the
nutritional quality to promote finger millet utilization.
Keywords
Finger millet, sprouting, nutritional composition, functional attributes, therapeutic characteristics
Received: March 15th, 2024; Accepted: October 3rd, 2024.
Introduction
Millets are small-sized, edible seeds belonging to the family of
grasses. A major portion of the Asian diet is made up of cereals,
which are good sources of starch, protein and micronutrients but
lacking in dietary fiber which are vital to confer health-promoting
properties.
1
Millets possess a higher protein, mineral and dietary
fiber content balanced with optimum protein quality that can
enhance the nutritional security of a substantial portion of the pop-
ulation.
2
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) has traditionally served
as a significant staple crop in various regions of Eastern and Central
Africa, along with India. Globally, finger millet holds the fourth
position in terms of significance among the different types of
millets, following sorghum, pearl millet, and foxtail millet.
3
In
2017–2018, millet cultivation in 11.94 lakh hectares yielded 19.85
lakh metric tonnes of finger millet. In India, 64.8% of finger
millet is produced in Karnataka, with Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu as the second and third largest producers with respective
contributions of 5.4 and 7.1%. In 2023–2024 fingermillet produc-
tion is 13.86 lakh tonnes
4
which is shown Figure 1.
Finger millet exhibits diverse morphological characteristics.
It is a diminutive grain containing a singular seed, and its
1
Community Science College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Madurai, India
2
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Madurai, India
3
KrishiVigyanKendran, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, India
Corresponding Author:
Ilamaran Muthu, Community Science College and Research Institute, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India.
Email: maranfan@gmail.com
Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission
provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
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Natural Product Communications
Volume 19(12): 1–16
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kernel is classified as an achene rather than a typical caryopsis.
The removal of the minuscule seed coat involves rubbing and
subsequent soaking in water. The kernel shape may take on an
oval, round, or globular form, with sizes ranging from 1 to
1.8 mm.
5
Finger millet is a drought-tolerant crop that grows in
saline soils with a pH of 5.0 to 8.2, making it a suitable crop
for drylands.
6
It has a well-balanced amino acid profile and
exceptional protein quality, rendering it as one of the most nutri-
tious grains.
7,8
Finger millet is more nutritious than other cereal
grains, but is not widely used.
9
Significant amounts of micronu-
trients (vitamins and minerals) are present in finger millet, includ-
ing riboflavin, nicotinic acid, thiamine, calcium, phosphorus and
iron.
10
It is also a gluten-free. The therapeutic properties of finger
millet stem from the presence of bioactive compounds in the
grain with the added advantage of being gluten-free.
11,12
However, the presence of anti nutrients in the millet, such as
trypsin inhibitors, tannins, phytic acid, and certain phenolic com-
pounds, chelate minerals and interact with proteins to decrease its
absorption and limit its food value.
13
In food research, diverse approaches are explored to increase
the nutritional quality, encompassing methodologies such as pro-
cessing techniques, biotechnology applications, and nutrient for-
tification.
14
Conventional techniques such as steeping,
germination, and fermentation is employed to enhance the
Figure 1. Production status of finger millet in India.
Source:4 https://apeda.gov.in/milletportal/Finger_Millet.html.
Figure 2. Macro and Micro Minerals of Germinated and Non-Germinated Finger Millet.
Source: 32.
2Natural Product Communications

nutritional composition. The process of grain germination is
crucial for both practicality and the augmentation of nutritional
value. The nutritional significance of germinated millets lies in
the enhancement of their nutrient profile through the germina-
tion process. During germination, various biochemical changes
occur, leading to increased levels of essential nutrients and bioac-
tive compounds. This includes the activation of enzymes, which
hydrolyze complex compounds such as starch, proteins, and fats
into simpler forms like sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids.
15,16
Germination is the most promising technique to decrease
anti- nutrients and improve the digestibility of the germinated
grains.
17
Germination serves as a cost-effective and efficient
methods for modifying the nutritional and functional attributes
of millet flours. Additionally, the levels of certain bioactive con-
stituents, including phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidants, are
enhanced through germination, as highlighted in the study
by.
18
Finger millet was steeped and allowed to germinate at dif-
ferent temperatures and humidity. For effective germination,
optimum moisture, oxygen, suitable temperature and germina-
tion time are essential to improve nutritional composition and
functional properties of the germinated seeds.
19,20
The Image
1 shows germination of finger millet at different time.The
present review endeavours a novel and comprehensive analysis
of current knowledge on the effect of germination on finger
millet. It solely integrates data and information across different
dimensions, including a brief analyses of nutritional changes,
alterations in functional properties, modification or activation
of enzymes and enhancements in therapeutic properties.
Impact of Germination on Nutritional
Composition of Fingermillets
Carbohydrates
Finger millet is notable by its elevated carbohydrate concentration, as
indicated by research findings reporting levels of 81.5% in the
grain.
21
In a study comprehensively, 10 Gujarat varieties, the carbo-
hydrate content ranges from 71.90–76.38%,
22
place it in line with
conventional cereal crops such as rice and wheat.
23
During germina-
tion, significant changes occur in its carbohydrate composition.
Initially, within 36 h, there is a minor decline in starch levels.
Subsequently, between 36 and 48 h, there is a notable surge in
sugar levels alongside a decrease in starch levels. Throughout a
96-h germination window, the overall starch content dropped
from 71.3% to 35.1%, while maltose escalates from 3.1% to
17.5% and sucrose from 1.8% to 12.8%. The germination process
results in a reduction of total carbohydrate content from 76.01%
to 74.14% in comparison to non-germinated millets.
24
The variations in carbohydrate composition during germination
are further underscored by the increase in reducing sugars from
0.86% to 10.54% and total sugars from 1.70% to 16.10% for a
96-h germination period. Starch content shows an inverse relation-
ship with germination duration, decreasing from an initial 62.83% to
41.19% after 96 h.
25
During early stage of germination carbohy-
drates used for energy production.
26
These alterations are linked
to the function of hydrolytic enzymes, specifically amylases, which
disintegrate starch into sugars for the sprouting seed.
27
Several
other studies have documented similar patterns, with reducing
sugars increasing from 1.44% to 8.36% and total sugars from
1.5% to 16% after four days of germination.
28
The proportion of
total reducing sugar to glucose in malted and native millet is
decreased as 3:2 and 2:1 respectively, indicating heightened
glucose utilization during germination.
29
These modifications in
carbohydrate content and composition can significantly influence
the nutritional and functional attributes of germinated finger
millet. According to researcher the maximum change in sugars
and starch content of FM was found after 48 h of germination,
because of high amylase activity in 48 and 72 h of germination.
30
Protein and Amino Acids
The Protein in finger millet (FM) is reported tobe 7.7 g per 100 g
according to USDA data. Grains, when subjected to germination,
have enhanced protein leve ls,
31,32
and finger millet exhibits varying
outcomes in different research findings. Different studies indicate
conflicting results regarding protein content changes during ger-
mination. Notably, one research study documented a 29.5%
increase in protein content, from 6.1% to 7.9%, after a 96-h
sprouting period.
25
Another study noted proteincontent enhance-
ments ranging between 14% and 40% mibithi 2000. Conversely,
contrasting outcomes demonstrated a decline in protein content
from 6.04% to 3.41% following 96 h of germination.
33
Nevertheless, inspite of these conflicting results, germination con-
sistently enhances protein digestibility, as evidenced by a 17% rise
in in vitro protein digestibility after 48 h of germination at 30 °C.
34
According to Nkhata
35
The changes in protein content during ger-
mination accompanied with changes in the amino acid composi-
tion. Over a 48-h germination period, aspartic acid exhibited a
7.8% increase, while asparagine saw a reduction of 6.8%, with
other amino acids maintaining relative stability. Some amino
acids, such as phenylalanine, alanine, and arginine, displayed
decreased levels post-germination. These modifications are asso-
ciated with multiple factors, encompassing the development of
new enzymes, generation of fresh amino acids, breakdown of anti-
nutritional components,
25,36,37
and the equilibrium between
protein synthesis and proteolysis.
25
The rise in cysteine, a prevalent
enzyme constituent, is especially noteworthy. The purported
decline in specific amino acids is believed to stem from the trans-
ference of seed nitrogenous substances to the burgeoning
embryo.
38
And the consumption of fats and carbohydrates
during respiration, potentially leading to anapparent protein
content increase due to a decline in dry weight.
37
Table 1 shows
amino acid content of germinated finger millet.
Fats
Finger millet (FM) exhibits a relatively low fat content, as indi-
cated by the USDA at 1.5 g/100 g. The lipid composition in FM
consists of free lipids (2.2%), bound lipids (2.4%), and struc-
tural lipids (0.6%). Predominant fatty acids found in FM
Rajkumar et al 3

include oleic acid (51.13 g/100 g), linoleic acid (24.42 g/100 g),
palmitic acid (20.25 g/100 g), and linolenicacid (4.07 g/100 g),
41
with unsaturated fatty acids constituting 74.4% and saturated
fatty acids 25.6% of the overall fatty acid profile.
42
The process
of germination exerts an impact on the fat content of finger
millet, yielding varying outcomes as reported in different studies.
An African variety showed that a decrease from 3.84 g/100 g to
2.73% post-germination,
32
adecreaseincrudefatcontentof
finger millet after 36 h germination was reported by Banusha
and Vasantharuba
33
whereas another study noted a decline from
0.57% to 0.41% after 48 h, followed by a rise to 0.85% after
96 h of germination.
25
Another researchers documented a
36.09% reduction in fat content due to increased lipase activity
during germination.
15
Ektha
43
documented the fat content in ger-
minated finger millet flour (GFMF) as 2.0–0.2 g/100 g. The var-
iations in fat content during germination are ascribed to diverse
factors, including fat oxidation to fatty acids, utilization of fat as
an energy reservoir,
44
and metabolic processes prompted by the
shift from a dormant to an active seed state.
45
The initial decrease
in fat content can prolong the shelf life of germinated millet flour
Image 1. Germination of finger millet (eleusinecoracana L.) at different germinated period.
4Natural Product Communications

by diminishing rancidity, while the subsequent escalation during
prolonged germination may be linked to the consumption of car-
bohydrates and the substitution of sugars as an energy source.
25
Ash
Raw finger millet has an average ash content of 2.28%.
46
Studies on
the effect of germination on ash content demonstrate conflicting
findings. Some researchers indicate no significant changes between
non-germinated and germinated finger millet.
33
For example,
Ekhta
45
identified overall ash contents of 2.8±0.17, 2.7 ±0.10,
for whole raw finger millet flour (WRFMF), germinated finger
millet,withnosignificant variances following 48 h of germination.
Conversely, alternative investigations noted a notable decline in ash
content throughout germinating, with one documenting a decrease
from 2.27% to 1.24% after 96 h.
25
This reduction is ascribed to
the consumption of minerals during seed germinating metabolic pro-
cesses and potential depletion of the bran layer due to friction when
eliminating roots and shoots from sprouted grains. These diverse
outcomes suggest that the influence of on mineral content might
be contingent on factors such as germination duration, processing
techniques, and distinct finger millet cultivars.
47
Minerals
Finger millet (FM) is a rich source of minerals, particularly
calcium, iron, zinc, and phosphorus. It contains nearly eight
times the amount of calcium compared to wheat,
6
with
calcium concentrations ranging from 220–450 mg/100 g and
iron from 3–20%.
27
While mineral content can vary among dif-
ferent genotype,
48
However, Ambuko
49
reported in his study
reflects conflict with other studies, the mineral content of
calcium, iron, and zinc were not significantly different among
the kenya genotypes. But many of the study reported that, ger-
mination has been shown to enhance the mineral content and
bioavailability in finger millet.
35,45,50
Figure 2 illustrates the changes in the mineral content of both
germinated and non-germinated finger millet. During germina-
tion, calcium content increases significantly, rising from 225.15
to 280 mg/100 g in study of sharma.
15
This increase is attributed
to a decrease in oxalic acid, which acts as a calcium chelating
agent, making GFMF a good source of bioavailable calcium.
51
Germination hasbeen reported to increase calcium bioavailability
by 23.3%.
52
Phosphorus content in malted finger millet is also
high, ranging from 3657.83 to 3930.10 mg/kg in brown finger
millet (BFM) and 3871.40 mg/kg in dark brown finger millet
(DBFM), with peak levels observed at different malting durations
for each variety.
53
Sodium and potassium levels show opposite
trends during germination. Sodium content initially increases at
48 h of malting but then decreases (from 510.0-150.0 ppm) sig-
nificantly, while potassium levels increase from 470.0 to
2295.0 ppm.
26
The quantityof manganese found in the unmalted
and malted finger millets varied from 180.50–190.63 mg/kg in
the dark brown variety, and 146.73–169.43 mg/kg in the
brown variety. In the case of the dark brown variety of food
grains, a greater quantity of manganese was observed at 96 h,
with no significant difference when compared to the 48 h malt.
Conversely, for the brown variety, a higher amount of manganese
was observed after 48 h of malting compared to the other
malting periods.
53
Zinc bioaccessibility has been reported to
decrease in malted finger millet.
54
Iron, zinc, and copper
content were adversely affected during germination, with reduc-
tions of 63.7%, 16.7%, and 25% respectively after 96hrs of ger-
mination.
25
During germination there is no expected biosynthesis
and degradation of minerals, these decreases may be due to leach-
ing during soaking and germination stages or utilization by the
growing embryo.
53
The changes in mineral content during germi-
nation are complex and can be attributed to various factors,
including enzymatic hydrolysis of phytate, which can lead to
the release of bound minerals like iron, magnesium, phosphorus,
sulphur, and zinc. The highly water-soluble nature and single oxi-
dation state of sodium may explain its early release compared to
other minerals.
24
Vitamins
Singh
30
reported that finger millets are rich in B vitamins, espe-
cially thiamine, but poor in β-carotene (0.01 mg/100 g) com-
pared to other types of millets. According to George
46
the
β-carotene and B vitamin content in different varieties of
finger millet were increased after germination and also the bio-
accesibility were high which ranged from 10% to 16% and 5%
to 15% respectively. The variety of finger millet with a brown
color had the highest content of total tocopherols (4 mg /
100 g), followed by the variety with a white color. The γ
andα-tocopherol isomers are found in finger millet promi-
nently.
55
The ascorbic acid content of finger millet was increased
Tab le 1. Amino Acid Profile of Raw Finger Millet (RFM) and
Germinated Finger Millet (GFM).
Category Amino Acids
RFM
11
(g/
100 g)
GFM
39,40
(g/
100 g)
Essential Amino
Acids
Histidine 2.3 2.44
Phenylalanine 5.7 5.35
Isoleucine 3.7 3.85
Leucine 8.8 10.05
Lysine 2.8 3.5–4
Methionine 2.7 2.81
Threonine 3.8 4.31
Tryptophan 0.9 1.3–1.5
Valine 5.6 5.81
Non-essential
Amino Acids
Aspartic acid 6.4 6.21
Glutamic acid 20.22 23.75
Alanine 6.7 6.22
Arginine 4.3 4.04
Cystine 1.48 1.49
Glycine 3.59 3.38
Proline 5.42 6.30
Serine 5.3 5.51
Tyrosine 3.6 4.29
Source: 11, 39-40.
Rajkumar et al 5

during germination from 9.76 to 17.40 mg/100 g after 96 h of
germination.
25
An increase in vitamin C content was observed
after malting, as a result of breakdown of starch into glucose
by amylases and diastases, wherein the glucose serves as the pre-
cursor for vitamin C.
56
And also another study of Saleh
23
reported that thiamine and riboflavin increase during germina-
tion. Even though plenty of research studies are available for
finger millet, there is a notable lack of studies on the impact of
germination on finger millet’s vitamin content.
Impact of Germination on Phytochemical
Properties of Finger Millets
Total Phenol Content (TPC) and Phytic Acid (PA)
Finger millet comprises diverse phenolic compounds, with soluble
extractions ranging from 29.6 FAE/gm (dm) and bound extractions
from 2.2 to 11.8 FAE/gm (dm).
57
The phenols in finger millets
included ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid, which constitute 64–96
and 50–99% respectively.
11
Proanthocyanins, also known as con-
densed tannins, are found in various types of finger millets.
58
Processing techniques significantly impact the overall phenolic
content (TPC). Germination demonstrates conflicting results, one
study reported a decline to 0.023 mg GAE/g,
59
while Pressure
boiling or sprouting decreased TPC by 50%, although sprouting
enhanced bioavailable phenolics to 67%.
60
Malting for 96 h less-
ened bound phenolic acids (caffeic by 45%, coumaric by 41%,
and ferulic by 48%) while elevating free phenolic acids (gallic, vanil-
lic, coumaric, and ferulic). The decline in bound phenolics during
germination is ascribed to esterase activity, whereas the increase in
TPC is associated with enzyme activation producing phenolic com-
pounds.
60
These diverse outcomes underscore the necessity for
additional investigation to comprehensively grasp how processing
impacts the phenolic content of finger millet.
Azeez
61
reported that the raw BFM has a lower phytic acid
content than the value reported by Nakarani
22
for selected
finger millet genotypes from India. The average amount of
phytic acid in raw finger millet was 676.77 mg/100gm, which
was decreased to 587.20 mg/100 g after soaking for 12 h, and
noted to decrease even further to 238.46 mg / 100 g after
36 h of germination at 37 °C. After germination, concentration
of phytic acid in raw millet decreased by 45% after 48 h of ger-
mination.
34
Owheruo observed a 23.54% decrease in cream
variety of finger millet after 72 h of germination.
32
The impact of germination boosted the activity of innate or
native phytase, which can hydrolyse insoluble organic complexes
with minerals and may be responsible for the decrease in phytic
acid. Phytasehydrolyzesphytate to produce phosphate and myoino-
sitol phosphates, and thereby phytate is reduced by germination.
45,48
Trypsin Inhibitors and Tannins
The raw finger millet has a trypsin inhibitor activity of
6.59 TUI/mg. During soaking, should be, trypsin units
decrease from 6.37 to 5.70 TUI/mg, and then to 1.91 TUI/
mg after 36 h of germination at 37 °C. The decrease in
trypsin inhibitor activity in finger millet may be due to modifi-
cations rendered to the endosperm and axis of the plant during
soaking and germination.
62
Kumar
63
reported a decrease in
trypsin inhibitors during germination which was attributed to
their conversion into energy sources.
The tannin content has been reported to decrease during dif-
ferent durations of germination. In the non-germinated millets,
tannin content ranges from 1350–1700 mg/100gm, and after
24 of hrs germination, there is 50% decrease, and after 36 h,
there is 80% decrease in tannin content.
64
Researchers have
reported that reduction in tannin content on germination
enhances the nutritional composition of millet.
17,65
Increased
enzymatic activity and polyphenol leaching in soaking water
can be the cause of a decrease in tannin during germination.
25
Oxalic Acid
The oxalic acid content in finger millet is decrease after soaking
and germination. After soaking for 12 h, the amount of oxalic
acid in the millet decreased from 118.43 mg/100 g to
96.15 mg/100 g. At 25 °C, it further reduced to 53.85 mg/
100 g following 16 h of germination. The decrease may be due
to activity of oxalate oxidase and oxalate decarboxylase.
62
Similar result has reported by Brudzyński and Salamon.
66
Soluble oxalate leaches during germination as result of enzymatic
activity, resulting in a decrease in oxalic acid. Since oxalate affects
calcium bioavailability, it is important to reduce oxalate levels in
finger millet for enhanced mineral bioavailability.
67
Dietary Fiber (DF)
Finger millet contains approximately 22.0% dietary fiber, includ-
ing non-starch polysaccharides, cellulose, pectin, and lignin.
68
Dietary analysis of ragi revealed high levels of arabinose, xylose,
and glucose, with minor amounts of galactose, mannose, and
rhamnose. Dharmaraj
41
reported that germinated finger millet
had lower fiber content compared to native finger millet, with
TDF, IDF, and SDF values of 3.34 ±0.11, 2.62 ±0.04, and 0.72
±0.05 g/100 g, respectively. During germination, the arabinose
to xylose ratio decreased from 1:1 to 1:0.38 at 96 h, indicating ara-
binoxylan breakdown, which was supported by high xylanase
activity at this time point.
69
Roopa and Premavalli
70
reported
that dietary fiber has numerous health benefits, including hypogly-
cemic and hypolipidemic effects, lowering serum cholesterol, pre-
venting cardiovascular diseases like atherosclerosis, and
possessing antitoxic and anticancer properties.
Flavonoids
Compared to other millets, finger millet is a good source of fla-
vonoid compounds. which are mostly soluble.
71,72
Finger
millets specifically contain esterified forms of flavonoids that
are different from other millets.
73
The major flavonoids in
millets are quercetin, catechin, gallocatechin, epicatechin, and
6Natural Product Communications

epigallocatechin. Additionally, proanthocyanidins or condensed
tannins are found in significant amounts in the grain, with pro-
cyanidin B
1
and B
2
being the major dimmers.
72
Total
Flavonoids Content (TFC) in native FM was reported by
Hithamani
61
to be 5.54 ±0.40 mg CE/g, but it dropped to
3.33 ±0.32 mg CE/g upon sprouting. Conversely, Owheruo
observed a significant reduction in TFC in FM germinated
for 96 h, from 1.4 to 1.09 mg CE/g in the African variety of
finger millet.
32
The native grain’s bioaccessible flavonoid
content was 1.09 mg/g, or about 20% of the grain’s total flavo-
noid content. When compared to the native sample, sprouted,
pressure-cooked, and microwave-heated samples revealed a sig-
nificantly lower bioaccessible flavonoid content.
61
Impact of Germination on Enzyme Activity of
Finger Millet
Carbohydrate Degrading Enzymes
The study on malting of finger millet reported high enzyme activ-
ity, especially concerning amylase, in the Indaf-15 variety. The
activities of amylase and pullulanase, enzymes involved in starch
degradation, were maximum at 72 h of germination. The increase
in sucrose content was expected due to the conversion of glucose
to sucrose by sucrose synthase, but sucrose content slightly
decreased at 96 h due to the rise in sucrase activity. Maltose and
maltotriose were observed during germination, originating from
the degradation of starch by amylase and pullulanase. Cereals
contain low amounts of raffinose series oligosaccharides com-
pared to pulses, as substantiated by the negligible activity of α-
galactosidase
69
α-amylase is produced during germination in
finger millet, and its production is influenced by the temperature
of germination.
74
Reduced germination temperature and
extended germination duration leads to a significant build-up of
amylase.The study of Gimbi
75
reports that probably three iso-
zymes make up finger millet α-amylase.As the germination time
increases from 3 to 6 days at 20 °C and from 5 to 9 days at 15 °
C, α-amylase activity is gradually higher, starting at very low
levels at 15 and 20 °C. At pH values of about 5.4 and temperatures
lower than 70 °C, α-amylase is also found to be fairly stable. The
endogenous enzymes, the α- amylase responsible for the break-
down carbohydrates into simple sugars thereby improving diges-
tion of carbohydrates.
76
Beta-amylase activity was observed
during germination in finger millet seeds. Beta-amylase in finger
millet seeds exhibited a high affinity for starch, amylose, and amy-
lopectin, and a reasonable level of affinity for glycogen. The
enzyme was also found to be stable in a pH range of 4.0–10.0
and a temperature range of 30–70 °C. However, the enzyme was
irreversibly inactivated by heating to 60 °C and 70 °C, which was
often related to aggregation.
77
Table 2 shows a enzymes involved
in the germination process.
Protein Degrading Enzymes
The study conducted by Patoliya
78
found that protease activity in
finger millet was 1.77 mg/g. Germination process of finger millet
had the highest protease activity (2.15 mg/g). The decrease in proteo-
lytic enzyme activity during roasting was due to enzyme deactivation.
Soaking and germination treatments resulted in a significant increase
in free amino acid contents, with germination having higher values
than soaking. This is due to the partial hydrolysis of storage proteins
by endogenous proteases during the germination. According to
Ramana
80
De Novo protease synthesis during germination may be
thecauseoftheincreaseinproteaseactivity.Inthestudyconducted
by Vidyavathi,
79
the highest proteolytic activity was seen on the third
day of germination. The proteolytic activity was greatest at pH 2.5
when the inhibitor was used as the substrate and was inhibited by diaz-
oacetylnorleucine methyl ester and Pepstatin.
Peroxidase Activity
Peroxidase activity in finger millet undergoes significant changes
during germination. Research shows that this activity can increase
up to eightfold during the initial 36 h of germination, followed by a
decline,but still remaining four times higher than in dry grains after
144 h.
81
The mean values for peroxidase activity in finger millet
are reported as 8.79 (ΔOD.mg-1 protein.min.-1), with values
increasing to 12.00 (ΔOD.mg-1 protein.min.-1) during germina-
tion treatment.
72
This higher activity in finger millet compared
to sorghum, pearl millet, and little millet highlights its unique bio-
chemical profile during germination.
Various factors influence peroxidase activity during finger
millet germination. Ethanol and lactic acid treatments
have been found to reduce peroxidase activity, with different
responses observed among cultivars.
82,83
These findings
underscore the dynamic nature of peroxidase activity during
finger millet germination and its potential role in disease
resistance.
Impact of Germination on in vitro Protein
Digestibility, Starch Digestibility of Finger
Millet
In vitro Starch Digestibility
Starch digestibility is a crucial nutritional aspect of finger millet.
When consumed, starch is converted into glucose for energy,
and its ease of digestion is categorized into three types:
Table 2. Enzymes Involved in Germination.
Enzymes Functions
Amylase
76
Break down of major carbohydrates
Protease
78
Hydrolysis of protein
Peroxidases
79
Scavenging of free radicals generated at
stress condition
Acid phospatase and
Alkaline phospatase
79
Phosphorus metabolism
ATP ase
79
ATP hydrolysis to provide energy for
metabolism
Nitrate reductase
79
Catalyses the nitrogen assimilation in
higher plants
Rajkumar et al 7

Rapidly Digestible Starch (RDS), Slowly Digestible Starch
(SDS), and Resistant Starch (RS). A study by Sharma and
Gujral
84
revealed significant changes during germination.
Non-germinated finger millet flour had low RDS (12.17% dry
basis) but high RS (30.17% dry basis) and SDS (28.23% dry
basis). As germination progressed up to 48 h, these proportions
changed to low SDS (17.96% dry basis) and RS (20.23% dry
basis)but high RDS (21.35% dry basis).
84
The RDS increased
while SDS and RS decreased, indicating improved digestibility.
During germination of finger millet, starch digestibility increases
as starch is hydrolyzed into shorter chain polysaccharides by amylo-
lytic enzymes, leading to higher levels of reducing and nonreducing
sugars.
24
The process of soaking and sprouting gradually reduced
RS and SDS fractions while increasing RDS in all millet flour
types. These findings suggest that germination enhances the
overall digestibility of finger millet starch, potentially making its
energy more readily available to the body.
84
In-vitro Protein Digestibility
The study focused on the in-vitro protein digestibility (IVPD)
of finger millet, revealing that unprocessed flour exhibited an
IVPD value of 72.01%. Through the process of soaking and
germination, there was an enhancement in IVPD, reaching its
peak after 48 h of germination at 83.96%, surpassing other
types of millet.
84
This enhancement can be linked to the rise
in proteolytic activity, the weakening of protein-starch connec-
tions, elimination of protease inhibitors, and an increase in
protein solubility.
85
Nevertheless, the inclusion of finger millet
flour in waffles resulted in a decline in IVPD due to its substan-
tial tannin content, which obstructs proteolytic enzymes and
generates protein-tannin complexes.
86
The germination of
finger millet brought about noteworthy reductions in phytic
acid (45%), oxalates (29%), and tannins (46%), factors that
exhibited a negative correlation with the rise in IVPD. Table 3
and Figure 3 shows aImpact of germination on in vitro
Protein Digestibility, Starch Digestibility and Predicted
Glycemic Index of Finger milletHejazi
34
proposed that the
enhancement in protein digestibility was also a consequence
of enhanced plant amylolytic activity, especially α-amylase,
which aids in the disintegration of starch granules.
Impact of Germination on the Functional
Properties of Finger Millet
Bulk Density
Raw finger millet flour had a bulk density of 0.65 g/cm³, while
GFMF measured 0.97 g/cm³.
15
This represents a 44.21%
decrease in bulk density after germination.
The reduction in bulk density following germination and fer-
mentation can be attributed to the breakdown of complex,
dense carbohydrates and proteins into smaller, less bulky
Table 3. Impact of Germination on in Vitro Protein Digestibility,
Starch Digestibility and Predicted Glycemic Index of Finger Millet.
Finger millet IVPD % SDS RDS RS PGI
Ungerminated 72.01 28.23 12.17 30.17 42.24
Germination
12 h 74.76 25.05 15.16 24.78 46.82
24 h 82.69 21.83 16.99 23.84 49.61
36 h 83.84 19.94 18.6 23.75 51.79
48 h 83.96 17.96 20.23 21.35 54.99
(SDS, RDS, RS=per cent on dry basis IVPD –In Vitro Protein Digestibility,
RDS - Rapidly Digestable Starch, SDS - Slowly Digestable Starch, RS -
Resistant starch. PGI –Predicted Glycemic Index).
Source: 84.
Figure 3. Impact of germination on in vitro protein digestibility, starch digestibility. (IVPD –In Vitro Protein Digestibility, RDS - Rapidly
DigestableStarch,SDS - Slowly Digestibility Starch,RS - Resistant starch.).
Source: 84.
8Natural Product Communications

molecules.
87
Abioye
36
observed that germination time influ-
ences the bulk density of millet flour, with shorter germination
periods resulting in higher bulk densities.
Ocheme et al
88
suggested that the decrease in bulk density
during germination is likely due to the breakdown of complex
compounds such as proteins and starches into smaller
constituents.
Water Absorption Capacity (WAC)
Azeez
59
reported that the Water Absorption Capacity (WAC)
was increased in GFMF compared to the non germinated
millet flour. WAC of raw and germinated millet flour was
found to be 3.33 g/g and 4.12 g/g, respectively, rendering an
increase in WAC by 33.24% after germination. Water absorp-
tion represents the volume occupied by starch after swelling
in excess water, which maintains starch integrity in aqueous
medium.
15
Higher WAC helps to improve the bulkiness, softness and
consistency of products.
89
The WAC is determined by the
protein content of the flour, the amount of starch damaged
during milling and the presence of non-starch carbohydrates.
90
WAI and OAI increase due to more damaged starch and greater
surface area. Damaged starch absorbs more water than regular
starch, boosting overall absorption.
91
Water Solubility Index (WSI)
Water Solubility Index (WSI) is an important quality parameter
for the development of cereal based drinks. The change in WSI
is due to changes in carbohydrates and proteins. Germination
decreases amylase content of starch and reducing molecular
weight proteins. WSI increases significantly by 15.73% with
increase in germination time after 96 h germination period.
The increase in WSI may be due to increased sugar content
as a result of breakdown of starch.
25
Different finger millet vari-
eties show marked increases in solubility over a 72-h germina-
tion period. Axum’s solubility rises from 2.70% to 26.83%,
Meba’s from 3.98% to 26.18%, Tessema’s from 3.88% to
30.32%, and Tadesse exhibits the most dramatic change,
increasing from 2.68% to 31.01%.
92
This rise in solubility is
attributed to starch hydrolysis and increased sugar levels
during germination, a finding supported by Kumar,
25
who
reported similar increases in WSI with extended germination
time.
Swelling Capacity (SC)
Abioye
36
reported that the Swelling Capacity (SC) of raw and
germinated millet flour ranged from 1.80 to 1.87%. The
extent of flour swelling is influenced by factors such as particle
size, flour type, and processing methods. The micellarnetwork’-
strengh and makeup within the granule can be seen in the
increasing strength. The swelling power of starch stands out
as a crucial factor to determining the swelling capacity.
93
As germination progressed, swelling power showed a signif-
icant decrease. Nefale
94
reported that un-germinated flour had
a swelling power of 4.83 g/g, which dropped to its lowest value
of 3.17 g/g after 72 h of germination. Similar results noted by
Adadeji et al,
87
in their study of germinated flours. They attrib-
uted the reduction in swelling power to two factors: amylases
breaking down hydrogen atoms, and proteases hydrolyzing
compounds into sugars and amino acids.Lower swelling capac-
ity is beneficial for gut food handling, especially in infants, as
reported in the study.
Oil Absorption Capacity (OAC)
GFMF had higher OAC than the non-germinated millet, which
ranged from 1.38 to 1.45%. High oil absorption capacity plays
an important role for boosting the energy density of comple-
mentary foods.
36
An increased oil absorption capacity enhances
the flavor, taste, and lipophilicity of food products, which may
be caused due to protein dissociation and solubilization, thereby
exposing non polar components within the protein molecules
during germination.
95
Research by Nefale
94
showed that germi-
nation affects the oil absorption capacity of finger millet flour.
They found that non-germinatedflour had an oil absorption
capacity of 163%, which increased to 178% after 72 h of
germination.
In another study, Yensaw
92
observed variations in oil
absorption capacity among different finger millet varieties.
The range was quite wide, with values between 103.33% for
non-germinatedflour (0 h) and 173.33% for flour germinated
for 72 h. This indicates that both germination time and
variety can significantly influence the oil absorption properties
of finger millet flour.
A higher oil absorption capacity for germinated millet flour
indicates that it could be used to make gluten free, high oil prod-
ucts. The WAC and OAC are useful markers of a the ability of
the grain protein to prevent fluid loss when food is being
stored.
15,96
Water Absorption Index (ABI) and Oil Absor ption Index
(OAI)
On sixty hrs of germination, the WAI and OAI was found to
increase, after which the WAI and OAI were noticed to reduce lin-
early. The increasing surface area and damaged starch in the millet
flour is the factor leading to the rise in WAI and OAI. Because of
its increased hygroscopicity compared to native starch, the
damaged starch absorbs more water.
91
The study of Saxena
97
states that germination followed by sonication enhances the func-
tional properties of finger millet milk.
Foam Stability and Foam Capacity
The foaming capacity of the millet flour varied from 36.20 to
38.17%. The study showed that the 96 h germinated sample
Rajkumar et al 9

had higher protein content, foaming capacity and foam stability,
which were dependent on the levels of protein, lipids, salt,
sugars, temperature and pH of the sample.
36
Foaming capacity
increased upto 36 h of germination followed by a significant
decrease. A similar trend was observed in foam stability and
with increase in germination time, the stability of foam was
also increased, which might be due to the increased concentration
of sugars and salts.
91
A decrease in protein content might be
responsible for loss of foaming properties.
98
Siddiqua
89
reported
that germination led to surface denaturized protein and reduced
the surface tension of molecules, which gave good formability.
Emulsion Capacity (EC) and Emulsion Stability (ES)
According to navyasree
59
EC of native finger millet is 8.43 ±
0.51% to germinated finger millet is 11.40 ±0.53%. During
germination the emulsion capacity (EC) and emulsion stability
(ES) was increased in non-germinatedand germinated finger
millets ranged from 19.24 to 23.45% and from 15.21 to
21.03, respectively.
15
Siddiqua
89
reported that hydrophobic
protein activity increased that tends to increase in EC and ES
of both germinated and non-germinated finger millet. The
increase in the EC of GF may be due to hydrolysis and
partial unfolding of polypeptides. The lipid droplets interact
with the hydrophobic portions of the protein chain. Thereby
volume to the surface area of protein was made available.
59
Protein Solubility
The protein solubility of raw finger millet was 37.45%. After
germination, the protein solubility increased to 66.30%, and
paired germination and fermentation increase the protein solu-
bility to 81.84%.
61
Similar increase in PS after germination
(10-48 h) has been reported in sorghum (40.25-84.95%).
98
The improvement in protein solubility has been linked to the
breakdown of proteins into peptides and free amino acids,
which in turn increases the solubility.
98
Pasting Property
When comparing bioprocessed finger millet flour to raw millet
flour, there was a notable decrease in pasting viscosities of BFM
flours, but the pasting temperature was found to increase from
76.70 to 92.95 °C). The break down viscosity was found to be
332 ±1.10cP which indicated that the flour has good paste
stability and strong shearing resistance.
61,98
The bioprocessed
finger millet flour samples recorded the decreased pasting vis-
cosities which could be partially explained by protease
induced protein hydrolysis and α-amylase mediated starch deg-
radation.
99
Protease and α- amylase activity has been shown to
increase rapidly during germination, and this results in the
breakdown of basic elements as noticed during fermentation.
100
For thickening of food or for food applications needing high gel
strength, the pasting temperature of the bioprocessed finger
millet flour samples was higher than raw flour.
101
The native
and germinated flours had different pasting times, while the
GFMF had the shortest pasting time of 4.93 min.
61
Impact of Germination on Therapeutic
Properties of Finger Millets
Antioxidant Activity
Phenolic compounds present in the millets contribute to the anti-
oxidative property of the grains and also improve the shelf life of
cereal products.
58
Ferulic and p-coumaric acid are the two main
bound phenolic acids that make up, respectively, 64–96 and
50%–99% of the total ferulic and p-coumaric acid content of
finger millet grains.
11
The potential antioxidant activity of a sub-
stance(DPPH)maybedefined by its ability for reduction of free
radicals.
32,61
The studies indicated that the color of seeds impact
the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of finger millet.
Both raw and germinated millets have enzymatic antioxidant
activity. On comparison of the free radical scavenging activity
(DPPH) of non-germinated and germinated millets, a significant
increase from 71.34 to 80.0% was noticed.
15
The antioxidant
activity of phenolic acids present in the germinated finger
millet was lower in comparison with synthetic antioxidants.
102
The ABTS (20-Azinobis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
radical cation was used to determine the antioxidant capacity of
finger millet. The results showed that the range from 9.78–
10.32 μM TE/g for DBFM and BFM was 9.76–10.63 μM
TE/g. After 24 h of malting, DBFM’s ABTS radical quenching
activity significantly (p < 0.05) decreased; this effect remained for
96 h without changing. After 24 h, there was no discernible
change in the ABTS radical quenching activity in BFM
however, after 48 h, there was an increase that remained for
96 h. The iron-reducing activity of the finger millet malt ranged
from 0.7975–0.9798 in DBFM and 0.9199–0.9961 in BFM.
For up to 96 h of BFM malt, increased iron-reducing activity
was noted with increasing malting time. Within 24 and 48 h of
DBFM malting, there was a significant decrease in iron-reducing
activity, which increased significantly at 96 h.
103
Flavonoids
increase anti-oxidant activity in germinated finger millet by
enhancing it from 26.66% to 33.33%, as shown in the study, con-
tributing to improved health benefits.
36
Germination significantly enhances the antioxidant proper-
ties of millet grains, particularly finger millet. Studies have
shown that germinating rye grains for 6 days at various temper-
atures increases methanol-extractable phenolic compounds,
attributed to the synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes that modify
cell-wall structure and produce new bioactive compounds this
may be reason for increasing antioxidant activity in finger
millet.
104
In finger millet, germination for 72–96 h results in
increased antioxidant activity due to higher levels of catechin,
epicatehin, and protocatechuic acid. This process activates
enzymes involved in antioxidant defense mechanisms, leading
to enhanced production of phenolic compounds, flavonoids,
tannins, and vitamins C and E. Additionally, germination pro-
motes the synthesis of bioactive peptides and proteins with
10 Natural Product Communications

antioxidant effects, capable of inhibiting lipid oxidation and
neutralizing free radicals. The activation of antioxidant
enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase
(CAT), and peroxidase further contributes to the increased anti-
oxidant capacity of germinated millet grains. These changes col-
lectively result in improved antioxidant and potential
antidiabetic properties, making GFMF a promising ingredient
for functional foods.
57
The recent study of saxena et al reported
that germination after sonication increase the phenolic activity
as well as anti oxidant activity of finger millet.
97
Antidiabetic Property
Due to Finger Millet Flour’s high concentration of dietary fiber,
arabinoxylan, phenolic compounds, and ANFs (tannins, phytic
acid), FMF has an advantage over other staples because it pre-
vents starch from being hydrolyzed by enzymes.
105
Kim and
White
106
also showed in another study that fats and phenolic
compounds adsorbed on the starch surface reduces break
down by enzymes, that lowering the starch’s glycaemic index.
Finger millet have low glycemic index, which causes glucose
to be released slowly during digestion thereby lowering the
risk of diabetes.
107
Germination increase the calcium and mag-
nesium, Due to its high calcium and magnesium content,
studies have shown that finger millet can help with type –II dia-
betes by regulating blood glucose levels. In addition, the insol-
uble dietary fibers present in finger millet have laxative
properties that help prevent constipation, colon cancer, and
heart problems.
70
In comparison to the non-germinatedflours,
the progressive germinated millets had a significantly higher
predicted Glycemic Index (pGI).
After 48 h of sprouting, the percentageis increases for
30.18% in finger millet. Due to enzyme activity during sprout-
ing led to increased starch hydrolysis and digestibility, which is
reason there is an increase in GI. A prolong sprouting period
could result in the release of more glucose (more RDS),
which would raise the postprandial glycemic response.
84
The
germinated finger millet dosa and roti has greater glycemic
response in comparison to traditional whole finger millet dosa
and roti. The germination process leading to conversion of
starch into dextrins and maltose are mainly responsible for
the increased glycemic response.Prior studies have isolated
the carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, minerals and secondary
plant products such as phenolics from native and germinated
finger millet and showed health beneficial effects such as anti-
diabetic and anti-inflammatory properties.
108
Anti-Cancer Property
The phytochemicals and antioxidants present in finger millets
inhibit excessive cellular oxidation and act as free radical termi-
nators, protecting humans from heart attacks and some forms
of cancer.
63
The phenolic components, tannins, and phytate
found in millet may have the potential to inhibit the initiation
and progression of cancer in multiple tissues.
109
Finger millet
contains a wide range of these compounds, which may inhibit
excessive cellular oxidation and shield against various cancers
that are common in the human population. According to
research in breast cancer cells,
110
Ferulicacid may function as
chemotherapeutic agent against cancer. Flavonoids possess
anti-tumor potential, while saponins possess immunomodulat-
ing capabilities, anticarcinogenic qualities, and control over
cell division. They also have positive health effects like prevent-
ing cancer cell growth and reducing cholesterol. The role of ger-
mination in anti-cancer properties of finger millet, still need
more studies. Studies have shown that germination of finger
millet seeds leads to the release of phenolic compounds,
which exhibit antioxidant properties and have the potential to
modulate the proliferative potential of breast and colorectal
cancer cells.
111
Antimicrobial Property
Germination of finger millet has been shown to enhance its anti-
microbial properties, making it a potential natural antibacterial
agent.
112
Finger millet is rich in phenolic compounds, flavonoids,
and polyphenols, which contribute to its antimicrobial activity.
113
Additionally, germination increases the total phenolic content and
antioxidant properties of finger millet, further enhancing its anti-
microbial potential.
61
The presence of compounds like tannins,
saponins, and cyanide in finger millet also contributes to its anti-
microbial effects.
114
The phenolic compounds present in finger
millet especially the tannins, may provide protection from
fungal infection. The tannins in the outer layer of the grain act
as a barrier against fungal infection. Methanol extracts of the
seed coat have stronger antifungal and antibacterial properties
compared to whole wheat extracts due to their high polyphenol
content.
115
Singh
116
provided information on the zone of inhibi-
tion rendered by finger millet extracts against various pathogenic
microorganisms. The largest inhibition zones were seen against
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiellapneumoniae. The finger millet
extract in ethyl acetate showed inhibitory activity for all microor-
ganisms except Escherichia coli. Rane
112
reported that germinated
finger millet seeds have a bactericidal effect on Escherichia coli and
can be used to treat infectious diarrhoea. The minimum inhibi-
tory concentration (MIC) for germinated finger millet was
125 mg/ml. More over there is no studies available for how ger-
mination affect microbial properties of finger millet.
Other Therapeutic Properties
Children fed the germinated FM diet for six months showed
increases in blood ferritin and haemoglobin levels, which sug-
gested potential medical effects.
117
Germinated finger millet
promotes increased production of antihypercholesterolemic
metabolites (statin 5.24 g/kg and sterol 0.053 g/kg) in a short
time (7 days). Germination also improves nutrient availability
for Monascus sp. and lowers pH, resulting in higher production
of statin and sterol. Additionally, sprouting aids in the degrada-
tion of anti-nutrient factors in finger millet grains.
16
Rajkumar et al 11

Osteoporosis is a “silent disease”which is loss of bone mass.
Many times, osteoporosis is not recognized until fractures
happen.
118
Increased consumption of naturally occurring
calcium through diet helps to prevent bone diseases such as
osteoporosis.The FM contain up to 350 mg/100 g of calcium,
which is five to ten times more than other cereals.Finger
millet is a reasonably good source of the minerals.
119
Finger
millet’s bioavailability is increased by bioprocessing processes
like germination and fermentation. Because finger millet is
lactose free and easily digestible, its products can be used to
maintain bone mass in growing children as well as to prevent
osteoporosis and other bone diseases in adults and the aging
population.
Impact of Germination on Sensory Attributes of
Finger Millets
The color value of finger millet was studied. One of the most
crucial aspects of food quality is color. Food that has undergone
undesirable color changes may lose quality and marketing
value.DE is a measure of the overall color change. Germination
increased the lightness (L) value from Hunter L 70.10 of
un-GFMF to Hunter L 72.83 of germination after 72 h.
92
There
was no significant difference on the control (un-germinated) and
GFMFs after 24 and 48 h, respectively. The lowest DE is found
in unblanched germinated finger millets. For blanched germinated
finger millet, it increased by nearly 2.5 times, and for powdered
form, it increased by 7 times. The amount of browning is indicated
by a hue anglevalue. Hue angles for every type of finger millet were
contrasted. Hue angle dropped as it soaked.Hue angle values com-
pared to BGFM were greater than those from a UGFM sample.
The sample that was powdered had the lowest hue angle value.
119
The L value decreased for porridge compared to FMF and
GFMF 24 h, 48 h, 72 h. A lower L value indicated brightness
loss in finger millet grains during cooking.
92
Mandge
116
found
similar results on lightness changes in cooked porridge.
Browning reaction during oven drying caused darkness in
finger millet grains. An increase in germination period led to
an increase in the L value. The yellowness (b*) significantly
increased due to Maillard reaction and shear forces during
cooking, causing pigment discoloration.
92
Wheat dough in biscuits was replaced by NFMF and GFMF.
Biscuits with NFMF and GFMF were harder and stickier but
less cohesive and springy. Biscuit dough with NFMF and
GFMF had disrupted protein matrix. Replacing 40% with
NFMF or GFMF made biscuits with good qualities. GFMF bis-
cuits with SSL scored higher in surface characteristics and
crumb color. Overall quality improved, considering the nutri-
tional benefits of germinated finger millet.
120
Conclusion
Finger millets are cereal crops that are rich in macro and micro-
nutrients and can grow in a variety of agro-climatic conditions.
Different processing techniques are essential for improving the
nutritional value of finger millets. Other research findings
showed that as the germination period increased, the pH
value, ash content, and fat content decreased while the germina-
tion percentage, germination loss, total titrable acidity, and
protein content increased. The solubility, oil absorption capac-
ity, and WAC of flour samples increased significantly during ger-
mination, but bulk density and swelling power significant
decreased. As the germination period increased from 0 to
72 h, the calcium and iron contents increased in all finger
millet varieties, while the zinc content decreased. In acompara-
tive study between non- germinated and germinated flours, the
tannin and phytate content was noticed to decrease in all finger
millet varieties at 24, 48, and 72 h of germination. In addition,
all varieties showed a significant reduction in the phytate/
calcium and phytate/iron molar ratios at 72 h of germination.
During germination, enzymes such as amylase, protease, perox-
idise, ATPase were actively synthesized and increase the bio
availability nutrients. The germination significantly increased
the therapeutic properties of finger millet such as anti–diabetic
(type 2), anti-microbial, anti-tumerogenic, wound healing effect,
antiulcerative effect,etc.still need more research on this
properties.Future research on germinated finger millet should
focus on optimizing germination processes tailored to specific
end products, maximizing nutritional benefits while considering
desired functional properties. Investigating combinations of
germination with other bioprocessing techniques could lead
to more effective reduction of anti-nutritional factors and
enhanced overall nutritional quality. Exploration of novel func-
tional foods and nutraceuticals utilizing germinated finger
millet, targeting specific health benefits or consumer needs, rep-
resents a promising avenue. Additionally, conducting clinical
studies to further validate and quantify the health benefits of
germinated finger millet consumption in various populations
will be crucial. Finally, research into scalable and cost-effective
methods for commercial production of germinated finger
millet products could increase market availability and consumer
acceptance, ultimately realizing the full potential of this nutri-
tious grain.
Abbreviations
ABTS 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic aci
ANF Anti Nutritional Factor
BFM Brown Finger Millet
BGFM Blanched Germinated Finger Millet
DBFM Dark Brown Finger Millet
DF Dietary Fiber
DPPH 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
EC Emulsion Capacity
FAE Ferulic Acid Equivalents
FM Finger Millet
FMF Finger Millet Flour
GAE Gallic Acid Equivalents
GFM Germinated Finger Millet
12 Natural Product Communications

GFMF Germinated Finger Millet Flour
gm Gram
IVPD in-vitro protein digestibility
IVSD in-vitro Starch digestibility
mg Milligram
NFMF Non Germinated Finger Millet Flour
OAI Oil Absorption Index
PGI Predicted Glycemix Index
RDS Rapidly Digestable Starch
RFM Raw Finger Millet
RS Resistant Starch
SC Swelling Capacity
SDF Soluble Dietary Fiber
SDS Slowly Digestable Starch
TDF Total Dietary Fiber
TFC Total Flavonoids Content
TPC Total Phenolic Content
TUI Tripsin Inhibitors
UGFM Un blanched germinated finger millet
WAC Water Absorption Capacity
WAI Water Absorption Index
WSI Water Solubility Index
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Haritha Rajkumar https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2303-437X
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