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The internationalization of scientist stereotypes through new
media: Thai students’ perceptions of scientists from graphic
interchange formats (GIFs)
Yujiro Fujiwara
a
, Lee Kenneth Jones
a
*, Rebecca L. Hite
a
and Richard Carlos L. Velasco
b
a
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, STEM Education, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA;
b
Department of Instructional Leadership and Academic Curriculum, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
OK, USA
ABSTRACT
Background: Students from Eastern cultures have historically
viewed scientists dierently than those from Western cultures,
largely due to the high value of science in Eastern educational
systems, reinforced by Eastern values and maintained by geo-
graphic distance from the Occident. With the proliferation of new
media, Western (stereotypical) portrayals of scientists are now
reaching a younger, more diverse, and global audience, outside of
a formal education context (via social media, for example).
Purpose: The present study explored Eastern culture students’
perceptions of scientists in one specic type of new media mod-
ality, Graphic Interchange Formats (GIFs).
Sample: This study analyzed 97 adolescent aged Thai students’
(42 secondary and 55 tertiary level) perceptions of scientists as
portrayed in four dierent GIFs from the high/low warmth and
high/low competence dimensions of the pancultural Stereotype
Content Model framework.
Design and Methods: Upon viewing each GIF through an online
survey, participants narratively described their thoughts of the
scientist/s therein. Responses were analyzed using directed content
analysis to identify and categorize dimensions of high/low warmth
and competence.
Results: Findings suggest that Thai students perceived scientists
similarly to the High-Competence and Low-Warmth stereotype.
Female scientists were perceived as equally competent (yet warmer
than) their male counterparts.
Conclusions: The present study provides practical suggestions for
enhancing warmth in portrayals of scientists in media, such as
friendly imagery of scientists engaging in prosocial activities (e.g.
friendly appearance, collaboration, etc.). Educators and new media
creators can challenge and correct damaging stereotypical repre-
sentations of scientists by understanding the role of digital media in
shaping students’ perceptions of scientists around the world.
KEYWORDS
scientists; GIF; meme;
stereotypes; Thailand
CONTACT Lee Kenneth Jones Leejones15@gmail.com Department of Curriculum and Instruction, STEM
Education,Texas Tech University, 3002 18th Street, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
*Present affiliation for Lee Kenneth Jones is The Teachers College, Emporia State University, Emporia, KS, USA
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2024.2435341
© 2024 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
Introduction
Research indicates that Western portrayals of scientists in old media (i.e. textbooks,
newspapers, and lms), as eccentric and dangerous men in lonely labs, negatively impacts
students’ interests in science and science-related careers (Fujiwara 2021; Dudo et al. 2011;
Ford 2006; Frayling 2005; Tintori 2017). Students from Eastern cultures, particularly
Thailand, perceptions of scientists and science seem to dier from Western tropes of
scientists due to having formal educational systems that value scientists (Chamaratana,
Ayuwat, and Chinnasri 2017; Fry 2018; Sirindhorn 2018), societal emphasis placed for
university qualications (Mounier and Tangchuang 2010) and authoritative Thai gures
(e.g. kings) being scientists themselves (Fry 2018). Yet, the recent rise of new media, such
as graphics interchange formats (GIFs from hereon; Huber et al. 2019), have created
avenues for Western digital content to inltrate global audiences through social media
and mobile phones. It is unknown, to what extent if any, Western media inuences
Eastern culture students’ perceptions of scientists as depicted in new media sources,
like GIFs.
In this study, GIFs are a digital moving image format used to enrich a text and convey
emotions or expressions across dierent contexts (Chen and Picard 2016; Eppink 2014;
Gürsimsek 2016; Kanai 2016; Miltner and Higheld 2017). Social media users frequently
reuse GIFs featuring familiar gures to convey feelings across conversations by altering
meaning in unintended or new settings (Gürsimsek 2016; Miltner and Higheld 2017).
A digital meme is a idea, often humorous, that spreads rapidly through online social
networks, typically altering or evolving as it goes. Memes often reect cultural symbols or
social ideas, conveying shared experiences and commentary on contemporary events
(Shifman 2013). A meme conveyed in a GIF format is what therein after will be used as
meme-based GIF or GIF.
The present study employed the Stereotype Content Model (SCM)’s dimensions of
warmth and competence to measure and model stereotypes to assess the inuence of
Western inuences Thai students’ perceptions (Panela 2018). The SCM was selected as
a ‘pancultural tool for predicting group stereotypes’ validly and reliably across dierent
cultures (A. J. Cuddy et al. 2009, 2).
One digitally connected country from the Eastern world is Thailand; over 74% of
Thais use social media, with 71% accessing social media on their mobile devices (Kemp
2019). Thailand has bridged the digital divide among dierent economic classes, with
citizens readily adopting new technologies (Fry 2018). Mobile social media usage
increased by 6.5% from January 2018 to January 2019. Within the same period, Thais
spent an average of 9 h and 11 min online, with an average of 3 h and 11 min spent
on social media. Online videos accounted for 98% of Internet use, while streaming and
gaming represented 53% and 36%, respectively. Furthermore, 92% of social media
users contributed and engaged with content in January 2019, and each internet user
had an average of 10.5 social media accounts (Kemp 2019). Provided that Thai people
are spending considerable time on the Internet and social media, and subsequent
exposure to GIFs, it is crucial to understand the inuence of these visual representa-
tions on the students’ perceptions of scientists. Social media, enabled by the Internet,
has become a platform for perpetuating cultural stereotypes (Ashcraft 2015; Davis
2018; Dobson and Knezevic 2018), yet it is unknown to what eect stereotypes are
2Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
generated from Western representations of scientists in new media. To that end, the
present study aimed to investigate the potential impact of GIFs on Thai students’
stereotypical perceptions of scientists. By uncovering Thai students’ stereotypes
related to scientists in digital media oers insights for countering negative stereotypes
of scientists in new, globally-reaching media (Besley, Dudo, and Yuan 2018).
Perceptions and stereotypes
Perceptions, which refer to the interpretation of sensory information, are inuenced by
various factors such as gender/sex and sociocultural backgrounds (Qiong 2017).
Researchers have studied social perceptions, including stereotyping, to understand
how people interpret reality (Munhall 2012). The formation of stereotypes involves
generalizations one makes about a group or its members based on certain beliefs
about the group, often overemphasizing certain traits and behaviors (Hilton and Von
Hippel 1996; Ramasubramanian and Murphy 2014). Stereotypes evolve over the life-
span; children form stereotypes from interrelated information, whereas adults’ stereo-
typing is more nuanced and based upon independent factors (Roussos and Dunham
2016).
In the context of the present study, we are interested in the dimensions that contribute
to stereotypes that inuence and impact science education (Buldu 2006). Specically
given that students’ perceptions of science and scientists’ (as stereotypes) signicantly
aects their current education and future involvement in science (McPherson, Park, and
Ito 2018). Furthermore, research suggests that cultural factors and media use have also
been identied as inuencers of students’ perceptions of scientists (Farland-Smith 2009;
Qiong 2017) and media has been found to play an important role in shaping youths’
perceptions of scientists (Chambers 1983; Finson, Farland-Smith, and Arquette 2018;
Steinke 2005; Steinke and Tavarez 2018). The present study sought to model these factors
to best understand what stereotypes arise due from the global dissemination of digital
media.
Western studies on stereotype perceptions of scientists
Most research literature on the media portrayals of scientists exists within Western
scholarship, commencing in the 1950s with the Draw-a-Scientist Test (DAST), in which
researchers asked students to draw and describe what they believe is a scientist. Results
from 70 years of DAST data suggest that United States and students from other Western
culture countries perceive scientists as middle-aged or elderly Caucasian males who work
indoors and wear lab coats (see Ferguson and Lezotte 2020). These stereotypes of
scientists, which persist among western youth, evolve into adults who have been found
to view scientists as untrustworthy, ruthless, and unethical (Fiske and Dupree 2014).
Western media’s portrayal of scientists may perpetuate the belief, among non-Western
culture students, that science is reserved for a certain kind of people (Steinke 2005). This is
because media representations and stereotypes of scientists vary based on cultural values
(Hinton 2017; Steinke 2005), and cultural stigmatization (see Rutjens, Heine, and Wicherts
2016).
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 3
Thai perceptions of science and scientists
Thailand’s historical culture and modern digital media use necessitates an explora-
tion of its students’ views on scientists. A study by Chamaraman (2007) revealed that
Thai students do not view science as a male-dominated eld; however, a later report
by Kuasirikun (2011) found that media outlets portrayed males as more competent
in elds including science and females in more conservative roles. To understand
this shift, a UNESCO (2015) report highlighted digital media’s underrepresentation of
female scientists, suggesting a possible inuence from digital media. Despite limited
literature on Thai students’ views of scientists, Thai culture holds science and
scientists in high esteem from a cultural emphasis on education (Chamaratana,
Ayuwat, and Chinnasri 2017; Fry 2018; Sirindhorn 2018), parents prioritizing math
and science in the home (Promboon, Finley, and Kaweekijmanee 2018), and
a reverence for educational credentials and experts (Fry 2018; Gullette 2014;
Mounier and Tangchuang 2010).
Methodology
To understand the landscape of scientist-based GIFs, a study by Fujiwara et al. (2022)
found that over half of the 287 GIFs featuring scientists from Western popular culture
categorized scientists as competent but low in warmth. This study helps us to understand
related research by Fiske and Dupree (2014) in which they found that people perceived
scientists as competent but lacking in warmth. As social media platforms continue to
grow and serve billions of social media users worldwide, the present study sought to
model how adolescents (ages 14 and older) from an Eastern country (Thailand) perceive
scientists portrayed in GIFs. GIFs are an important object of research due to their ubiquity
in social media, ease of use, and for their potential persuasive power to inuence
emotions and cognition (Ash 2015).
To this end, this present study seeks to answer the following research questions:
(1) To what extent are the dimensions of warmth reected in Thai secondary and
tertiary students’ perceptions of GIF scientists?
(2) To what extent are the dimensions of competence reected in Thai secondary and
tertiary students’ perceptions of GIF scientists?
(3) How are other aspects not related to W&C represented in secondary and tertiary
students’ perceptions of scientists in GIFs?
Theoretical framework
To examine Thai students’ perceptions of scientists in GIFs, the Stereotype Content Model
(SCM) served as the theoretical framework to model how individuals and groups make
social judgments about others regarding their intention to help or harm them (warmth)
and the ecacy of that person based upon the warmth assessment (competence). Given
the type of stereotypes held by children, adults, and media in the Western world of
scientists, such a bi-dimensional model is warranted. In the dimension of warmth, judg-
ments are based on empathy, friendliness, morality, sincerity, sociability, and
4Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
trustworthiness; in the dimension of competence, judgments are based on intelligence,
power ecacy, and skill (Fiske 2018).
From these assessments, both warmth and competence dimensions can be modeled
using quadrants of high warmth, low warmth, high competence, and low competence
stereotypes (Wojciszke, Bazinska, and Jaworski 1998) as seen in Figure 1 (Refer to
A. J. Cuddy et al. 2009 for more on other occupations).
According to the SCM, assessments often associate high competence with social status
and perceptions of competition predictive for low warmth (Fiske et al. 2002), a nding
that has been conrmed across cultures (Fiske 2018). For instance, in the U.S., certain
occupations and groups are perceived as competent but cold (e.g. intellectuals, lawyers,
researchers, scientists), warm but incompetent (e.g. disabled, elderly), cold and incompe-
tent (e.g. dishwashers, garbage collector), and warm and competent (e.g. doctors, nurses)
(Fiske and Dupree 2014). It’s the latter, high warmth and competence that is called the
golden quadrant, representing an ideal schema for social acceptance (Aaker, Garbinsky,
and Vohs 2012). In a world in which each nation is universally seeking more students to
enter into science futures to remain relevant and competitive in global marketplace, how
students perceive scientists via the SCM can add valuable information to better promot-
ing scientists and their work. Roussos and Dunham (2016) noted that children’s judgment
about competence tend to closely match those of adults, while their assessment of
warmth may be based on an overall evaluation rather than seeing warmth as a separate
factor. Therefore, we may nd among adolescents, the developmental stage between
childhood and adulthood who are avid users of social media, may more readily incorpo-
rate into their mental schema the array of stereotypical elements attributed to scientists in
Figure 1. Modified BIAS map tool into an orthogonal plane. Modified from Fiske et al. (2002).
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 5
Western media portrayals. A. J. Cuddy et al. (2009) found that Asian cultures, which favor
collectivist ideals, held less reference-group favoritism than Western cultures. This nding
is intriguing as not only does SCM suggest it is a viable tool for cross-cultural stereotype
assessments, but also that persons from Eastern cultures are less likely to pre-establish
stereotypes for out-of-group people. This nding may suggest that Eastern culture
students could be more susceptible to new media of scientists due to their greater
acceptance of content featuring dierent (like Western) groups of people.
Materials and methods
A qualitative directed content analysis approach was employed to classify and analyze to
responses sourced from an open-ended survey of Thai students’ perceptions of four
representative GIFs, identied in this study as GIF1, GIF2, GIF3, and GIF4 and shown in
Figure 2. Each GIF represents a quadrant of the SCM model: GIF1 and GIF2 were categor-
ized as High Competence-Low Warmth (HC-LW) and GIF2 and GIF3 were categorized as
High Competence-High Warmth (HC-HW). GIF1 and GIF4 featured male scientists while
GIF2 and GIF3 featured female scientists. These GIFs were chosen based on ndings from
Fujiwara (2021) and Fujiwara et al (2022) as the four GIFs contained elements that
matched the classications of ambivalent (HC-LW) stereotype and the positive (HC-HW)
stereotype (Fiske and Dupree 2014; Rutjens, Heine, and Wicherts 2016).
Figure 2. GIF1 top left (solitary older male scientist: HC-LW stereotype), GIF2 top right (solitary older
female scientist: HC-LW stereotype), GIF3 bottom left (two young/er female scientists: HC-CW stereo-
type), GIF4 bottom left (two young/er male scientists: HC-CW stereotype.
6Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
This study explored meme-based GIFs of scientists through the lens of warmth and
competence (W&C). The Western trope of the scientist as a white middle-aged male using
glasses still remains in GIFs as these images are recylcled from old media (Fujiwara et al.
2022). Thus, using the ndings and the theoretical framework of Fujiwara (2021), four GIFs
were selected from their study to understand Thai students’ perception of scientists in
new media. Additional dierentiating factors included scientists working alone versus in
pairs, perceived biological sex, and perceived age. These choices lens underscored the
need for more appropriate theoretical lenses to understand stereotype formation within
non-Western cultures, where cultural understandings of scientists may signicantly
diverge from Western perspectives.
(1) The Competent but Cold Male Scientist GIF1: This GIF features a middle-aged, White
male scientist interacting with scientic instruments, conveying competence but a lack
of warmth. His serious demeanor and solitary work setting highlight the stereotype of
a ‘competent but cold’ scientist, representing the ambivalent stereotype (HC-LW) and
akin to the traditional trope. The selction of Bill Nye was not intentional. The GIF was
selcted as part of the GIF bank within the HC-LW sector in the ndings of Author (2021).
(2) The Competent but Cold Female Scientist GIF2: This GIF shows a young female
scientist in a hazmat suit, focused on her work, with a serious demeanor, represent-
ing the ambivalent stereotype (HC-LW). To understand Thai students’ perception of
scientists, if any, by other diering factors from the traditional image.
(3) Collaborating Young Female Scientists GIF3: This GIF depicts two young female
scientists working together, smiling, and interacting with scientic instruments.
Their collaborative and friendly demeanor showcases high competence and high
warmth. Chosen to illustrate the univalent stereotype (HC-HW) adding the variants
not found in the traditional trope.
(4) Collaborating Young Male Scientists GIF4: This GIF features male scientists who
appear condent and engaged, interacting in a friendly manner. It was selected as it
represented the univalent type (HC-HW). In. both, GIF 3 and 4, Jarreau et al. (2019)
noted that positive and engaging image of scientists, can improve public perceptions.
In the online survey, respondents viewed each embedded GIF in a randomized order and
were asked to describe their perceptions of the scientist/s in the animation: What 3 words
rst come into your mind when you think about the scientist you saw in the GIF? And
what 3 words do you think that YOU would use to describe the character of the scientist
you saw in this GIF? Responses were limited to six words in total per GIF. Follow-up
questions allowed for respondents to provide clarify to the words provided. Although
these answers were not used in the analysis, these were used to clarify students’ meaning.
Last, the survey asked demographic information about the respondents’ nationality, age,
grade level, location, and gender identity.
Sampling
Convenience sampling data was collected from 42 secondary students (ages 14 through
18) at a private school in Bangkok due to accessibility to the participants who were minors
and data collection time constraints. Purposive sampling data was collected from 55
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 7
tertiary students at a Thai University due to their advanced understanding and ability to
provide in-depth insights into the perceptions of scientists in GIFs. Demographic informa-
tion of the sample is found in Table 1.
Analysis
Survey data was transcribed onto a spreadsheet and coded to one of three categories:
warmth, competence, or other using the SCM constructs of warmth and competence (W&C).
Responses unrelated to SCM constructs were coded as other or non-W&C. Non-W&C
responses were dierentiated a posteriori via categorical distinctions (Krippendor 2004;
Mayring 2014). All data yielded from each of the four individual GIFs were coded separately.
Responses coded a priori to the warmth dimension were further subcategorized based on the
W&C sub-constructs of facial demeanor, intent, posture of warmth, and social-aptitude as
shown in Figures 3 and 4. These sub-categories were contrasted for negative or positive
characteristics.
Likewise, the competence dimension was subcategorized based on deductive W&C
constructs of divergent-thinking, erudition and skill, mental ability, and posture of condence.
These codes were also given contrasts for positive or negative stereotypical elements.
Non-W&C responses identied in the rst round of coding were grouped into emer-
gent categories in the second round of coding as age-related, gender-related, race/ethni-
city-related, media-related, and science-related. The science-related category was
contrasted by negative and positive tags. Like the W&C dimensions, a coding schema for
non-W&C data was created per Figure 5. During coding, repetition of words implied
saliency and were tallied in one category and not across multiple categories.
Trustworthiness
This study assessed trustworthiness using credibility, dependability, conrmability, and
transferability criteria. The SCM theory aords a refereed value of truth (credibility),
consistency in data analysis (dependability). For neutrality (conrmability), inter-coders
were used to establish reliability and maintain coding consistency; Inter-rater reliability
among good three independent coders yielded high agreement for warmth (94.2%),
competence (93.0%), and the non-W&C inductive (96.5%) data.
Results
Of the 2,318 words collected from the survey, 32.7% (n = 759) were categorized as being
related to the SCM dimension of warmth. From GIFs 1 (HC-LW), 3 (HC-HW), and 4 (HC-HW),
Table 1. Demographic information of study sample (N = 97) from secondary (n = 42) and
tertiary (n = 55) students in Thailand.
Gender
Secondary Tertiary
Total9th 10th 11th 12th College
Male 3 6 2 6 16 57
Female 5 7 7 6 39 40
Total 8 13 9 12 55 97
8Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
participants centrally identied positive aspects of warmth with 87.0% (n = 127), 99.2% (n
= 264), and 91.0% (n = 22), respectively. Whereas GIF2 (HC-LW), a GIF featuring a solo
female scientist, was identied as mostly negative overall (68.9%, n = 71). In all GIFs, the
subconstructs of W&C that were most identied were those related to facial demeanor.
For example, GIFs 1, 3, and 4 were perceived as having positive facial demeanors and GIF2
was perceived only negatively (57.3%, n = 59). Subcategories of warmth, disaggregated by
GIFs, is found in Table 2.
Of the data, 56.1% (n = 1,302) were coded to the competence dimension. Perceptions
of competence were largely positive for all GIFs: 87.8% (GIF1, n = 302), 88.2% (GIF2, n =
36), 80.6% (GIF 3, n = 228), and 57.5% (GIF 4, n = 153) of the identied competence
characteristics being positive in each GIF, respectively. In all GIFs, common stereotypes
Figure 3. A deductive coding schema for grouping competence-related responses with sample data.
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 9
identied were positive and related to erudition and skill. The only case where there was
a higher percentage of negative characteristics was in posture and competence for GIF2,
with 10.5% negative (n = 43) and 4.9% positive (n = 20) codes. Subcategories of compe-
tence disaggregated by GIFs are provided in Table 3.
Inductive coding of the remaining 11.1% (n = 257) data, outside of the W&C dimen-
sions, revealed ve categories related to age, media, scientists’ apparent gender, scien-
tists’ race/ethnicity, and negative/positive responses to science-related work. The
frequencies and percentages of responses by subcategory are presented in Table 4.
The age-related response of ‘old’ was observed most for the scientist in GIF1 (19.6%, n
= 18) of the middle-aged scientist and ‘young’ for GIF3 (36.7%, n = 11) featuring the two
female scientists. Media-related responses were found for all four GIFs meaning that the
Figure 4. A deductive coding schema for grouping warmth-related responses with sample data.
10 Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
Thai participants were able to identify the scientists from Western popular culture. For
example, for the scientist in GIF1, students seem to have been aware of the name of the
character Bill Nye being a television personality. For the scientist in GIF2, responses were
related to sci- movies or documentary-related words. GIF1 (52.2%, n = 48) and GIF4
(67.1%, n = 47), the two GIFs featuring males, had more media-related responses than
the other GIFs featuring female scientists.
Participants were more aware of the apparent gender of the scientists when the
scientists were women; these codes were more frequently in GIF2 (16.9%, n = 11) and
GIF3 (23.3%, n = 7). The term ‘guy’ was used to describe the scientist in GIF1, but this
reference is assumed to refer to the television show and not necessarily about his gender.
There were only two responses for the women in GIF3 (3.3%) and one response for the
men in GIF4 (1.4%) in the race/ethnicity-related category, respectively. In the science-
Figure 5. An inductive coding schema for grouping non-W&C related responses with sample data.
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 11
Table 2. Counts and frequencies of warmth constructs in Student survey responses to characteristics
of scientists in GIFs.
Subcategory
GIF1
(HC-LW)
GIF2
(HC-LW)
GIF3
(HC-HW)
GIF4
(HC-HW) Total
Facial Demeanor
Negative 4 (2.7%) 59 (57.3%) 1 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 64 (8.4%)
Positive 57 (39.0%) 0 (0.0%) 143 (53.8%) 159 (65.2%) 359 (47.3%)
Intent
Negative 4 (2.7%) 8 (7.8%) 1 (0.4%) 14 (5.7%) 27 (3.6%)
Positive 34 (23.3%) 23 (22.3%) 21 (7.9%) 6 (2.5%) 84 (11.1%)
Posture
Negative 3 (2.1%) 1 (1.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (0.5%)
Positive 17 (11.6%) 3 (2.9%) 17 (6.4%) 14 (5.7%) 51 (6.7%)
Social Aptitude
Negative 8 (5.5%) 3 (2.9%) 0 (0.0%) 8 (3.3%) 19 (2.5%)
Positive 19 (13.0%) 6 (5.8%) 83 (31.2%) 43 (17.6%) 151 (19.9%)
Overall Warmth
Negative 19 (13.0%) 71 (68.9%) 2 (0.8%) 22 (9.0%) 114 (15.0%)
Positive 127 (87.0%) 32 (31.1%) 264 (99.2%) 222 (91.0%) 645 (85.0%)
Table 3. Counts and frequencies of competence constructs in Student survey responses to character-
istics of scientists in GIFs.
Subcategory
GIF1
(HC-LW)
GIF2
(HC-LW)
GIF3
(HC-HW)
GIF4
(HC-HW) Total
Divergent Thinking
Negative 11 (3.2%) 0 (0.00%) 1 (0.4%) 4 (1.5%) 16 (1.2%)
Positive 29 (8.4%) 18 (4.4%) 23 (8.1%) 63 (23.7%) 133(10.2%)
Erudition and Skill
Negative 11 (3.2%) 4 (1.0%) 43 (15.2%) 60 (22.6%) 118 (9.1%)
Positive 151 (43.9%) 171 (41.8%) 131 (46.3%) 57 (21.4%) 510(39.2%)
Mental Ability
Negative 16 (4.7%) 2 (0.5%) 7 (2.5%) 44 (16.5%) 69 (5.3%)
Positive 98 (28.5%) 151 (36.9%) 52 (18.4%) 17 (6.4%) 318(24.4%)
Posture of Competence
Negative 4 (1.2%) 43 (10.5%) 4 (1.4%) 5 (1.9%) 56 (4.3%)
Positive 24 (7.0%) 20 (4.9%) 22 (7.8%) 16 (6.0%) 82 (6.3%)
Overall Competence
Negative 42 (12.2%) 48 (11.7%) 55 (19.4%) 113 (42.5%) 258(19.8%)
Positive 302 (87.8%) 361 (88.2%) 228 (80.6%) 153 (57.5%) 1044(80.2%)
Table 4. Counts and frequencies of non-W&C codes by categories in Student survey responses to
characteristics of scientists in GIFs.
Non-W&C categories
GIF 1
(HC-LW)
GIF2
(HC-LW)
GIF3
(HC-HW)
GIF4
(HC-HW) Total
Age-related 18 (19.6%) 0 (0.0%) 11 (36.7%) 1 (1.4%) 30 (11.7%)
Media-related 48 (52.2%) 18 (27.7%) 6 (20.0%) 47 (67.1%) 119 (46.3%)
Gender-related 10 (10.9%) 11 (16.9%) 7 (23.3%) 4 (5.7%) 32 (12.5%)
Race/Ethnicity-
related
0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (3.3%) 1 (1.4%) 2 (0.8%)
Science related
Negative 6 (6.5%) 33 (50.8%) 1 (3.3%) 8 (11.4%) 48 (18.7%)
Positive 10 (10.9%) 3 (4.6%) 4 (13.3%) 9 (12.9%) 26 (10.1%)
12 Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
related category, negative aspects appeared in 10.1% (n = 26) of the non-W&C responses
and positive aspects appeared in 18.7% (n = 48) responses. Negative aspects for the male
scientists in GIF1 (6.5%, n = 6) and GIF4 (11.4%, n = 8) manifested with the terms hard, not
real science, and liberal propaganda. For the women scientists in GIF2 (50.8%, n = 33),
terms used by respondents were, danger, and hazard. Only GIF2 was identied as having
more negative than positive aspects.
Positive aspects were recorded as entertaining, interesting, enjoyable, and not danger-
ous. In GIF4, the two male scientists received 12.9% (n = 9) positive responses related to
science, which were described as interesting. The coded responses in this category often
used symbols related to science work, such as stating that chemistry was fun and/or
interesting. Although the female scientist in GIF2 received mostly negative responses,
participants reported that her work was important, and critical element of the compe-
tence dimension.
Discussion
In this sampling of Thai students’ perceptions of scientists depicted in GIFs using the SCM,
regarding the extent to which dimensions of warmth were perceived by participants, the
model suggests the single male scientist in GIF1 was predominantly seen as competent
and warm. The vast majority (87%) of responses highlighted positive competence, with
warmth-related responses also leaning toward the positive contrast. This nding is intri-
guing as it challenges Wojciszke, Bazinska, and Jaworski (1998) assertion that warmth is
the primary factor in stereotype evaluations. A. J. C. Cuddy, Fiske, and Glick (2008)
provides a potential reconciliation, noting that stereotype evaluations may depend on
context and the perceivers’ disposition. From this study, we may relate Eastern cultural
values fostered Eastern culture learners who prioritized competence over warmth. Steinke
(2005) pointed out that media representations and stereotypes of scientists vary based on
cultural values, and given Thailand’s emphasis on education and reverence for experts
(Fry 2018; Mounier and Tangchuang 2010), this cultural context might inuence how Thai
students evaluate scientists in media. Notably, among the four GIFs, positive and negative
aspects of facial demeanor in the subcategory of warmth were noted among Thai
students’ responses. This nding aligns with other research ndings indicating that
people naturally get information from facial cues of others (within 30 m) to determine
personality traits of others (Todorov and Oosterhof 2011). It is not surprising then that
responses related to warmth (or coldness) were mainly related to feelings extrapolated
from facial cues. Facial expressions convey feelings that seem to transcend even cultural
dierences. (Walker et al. 2011)
Another salient nding by percentage of classied word, related to the dimension of
warmth, was the negative perceptions of the female scientist in GIF2 reported by Thai
students (68.9%, n = 71). Warmth-related responses related a discernible coldness, even
though positive intent was recognized and reported by a large portion of participants.
This duality in perception underscores the intricate challenges female scientists might
face in media portrayals. As highlighted in previous literature, media has been instru-
mental in shaping youths’ perceptions of scientists (Chambers 1983; Finson, Farland-
Smith, and Arquette 2018; Steinke 2005; Steinke and Tavarez 2018). Benson-Greenwald,
Joshi, and Diekman (2022) highlight specic English-language media outlets as moving
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 13
away from depicting scientists as Fiske and Dupree (2014) noted, as cold and competent;
yet Benson-Greenwald et al. noted these stereotypical portrayals persist within the
broader media. In the context of Thai culture these stereotypical elements in global
media, like GIFs, may shape perceptions around gender and science. The ndings of
A. J. Cuddy et al. (2009) suggest that Thai students, with their collectivist ideals, might be
particularly receptive to developing negative stereotypes from these portrayals.
In the present study, 1302 responses were related to the dimension of competence and
759 related to warmth. With a dierence of 543 by frequency counts, the results contra-
dict the primacy of warmth found in the literature. One explanation for this nding is the
judgment that people hold about an out-group is biased by preconceptions about said
group (Dotsch et al. 2008). In the present study, Thai secondary and tertiary students were
asked to provide words that came to mind describing the character of the scientists in the
meme-based GIFs. As a result, participants provided responses related to competence rst
as these may be perceived as more salient for the group of scientists. This means that rst
and foremost, scientists in meme-based GIFs were perceived as competent. As mentioned
in the literature review, educational attainment confers a higher status for Thai students in
comparison to their peers with lower levels of education (Charoenkul 2018). This educa-
tional attainment may confer a default high level of competence to scientists in the eyes
of the Thai participants. Students may perceive scientists as authoritative gures of
knowledge (Mounier and Tangchuang 2010). Again, this assertion can be made based
on the number of responses related to competence. A second explanation may be that
the primacy of warmth was retained as the scientists in meme-based GIF represented no
immediate threat to students, thus amplifying reports of students’ perceptions of com-
petence. Certainly, comparative studies involving participants from the West and other
Eastern culture nations are necessary to further qualify this nding.
Beyond the dichotomy of warmth and competence, 258 responses were coded to
reveal salient categories of age-related, media-informed, and gender-related stereotypes.
These broader perspectives support our understanding of participants’ perceptions of the
scientists (Jones and Hite 2023) in the meme-based GIFs.
Age-related responses category manifested for the scientist in GIF1 received 20%,
scientist in GIF2 received 0%, scientists in GIF3 received 37% and scientists in GIF4
received 1% of its total inductive categories for age related responses. These ndings
suggest that students were aware of the age of the scientists only for the middle-aged
male scientists in GIF1 and for the younger female scientists in GIF3. The responses
manifested as old and young respectively.
The inuence of the media was also noted among the inductive codes as participants
were aware of specic aspects that related to the character or specic medium type. For
example, for the scientist in GIF1, seemed to be familiar with Bill Nye being a television
personality. This outcome was not the intent of selecting such GIF. For the scientist in
GIF2, responses were related to sci- movies or documentary-related words (about 28%).
These results suggest that global media and Western popular television has reached
students in Thailand. Additionally, the participants in this study were students enrolled in
university and an international school. This may mean that participants have been
exposed to science-related media to incite interest in science as science and math are
considered important for Thai parents (Promboon, Finley, and Kaweekijmanee 2018).
Similarly, Archer et al. (2012) found that middle-class families promote their children’s
14 Y. FUJIWARA ET AL.
interest in science by watching science-related television programs. It is not a coincidence
then that students may have been aware of media characters. Media-related responses for
GIF3 were minimal and related to the aspects of the GIF which the participants found
relevant. For the scientists in GIF4, the responses were related to new media platforms
mainly as YouTube. Students may have associated the informal setting and the clothes of
these scientists in GIF4 as homemade videos. In sum, the two GIFs with male scientists had
notoriously more media-related responses.
Gender-related responses manifested 11% for scientists in GIF1, 17% for scientists in
GIF2, 24% for scientists in GIF3, and 5% in GIF4. For the scientists in GIF2 the word female
or woman was seen more often. For GIF3, the word girls was frequent. These ndings
suggest that students were more aware of the gender of the scientists when the scientists
were female. For GIF1, it could mean that students familiar with the Bill Nye’s television
show Bill Nye the Science Guy and they provided the word guy as references to the
television show and not necessarily about their gender. For GIF4, only four responses
referred to their sex. These ndings indicate that Thai students were aware gender
because of the mismatch between sex and career role expectations. For example, Carli
et al. (2016) ndings noted that participants thought of women as lacking the character-
istics to be scientists. Steinke et al. (2021) found that students in the U.S. found female role
models in STEM-elds more positively. However, an interpretation of these ndings based
only on the frequency of response is not possible.
Limitations
This study has several limitations. Purposive and convenience sampling introduces
potential sampling bias that limits generalizability to wider populations. Additionally,
the relatively small sample size undermines the reliability of the results. Self-reported
data collection may introduce bias, such as social desirability bias. Participants might
provide responses that appear socially desirable rather than their true thoughts and
behaviors. GIF images focusing exclusively on stereotypical scientists also limit our under-
standing of how non-stereotypical portrayals might alter perceptions. Also, as this study
occurred in one specic cultural setting, its ndings may only apply in limited circum-
stances elsewhere. The temporal context of this study depends on perceptions at one
moment and may change as media representations and societal views evolve.
Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not capture changes over
time in perceptions. There is a need for a longitudinal study that can show how percep-
tions of scientists change over time.
Conclusion
The overall ndings of the present study suggest that perceptions of scientists
among adolescent students in Thailand ts with broader global discussions on
stereotypes in science. The media has oscillated between portraying scientists as
brilliantly cold or aably incompetent. By focusing on GIFs, a popular contempor-
ary medium, our study oers fresh insights into this age-old narrative. It under-
scores the imperative for more nuanced representations of scientists, given that
adolescents incorporate a greater number of visual elements when making
RESEARCH IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION 15
stereotype-based assessments (Roussos and Dunham 2016). Future studies of stu-
dents’ perceptions of scientists in meme-based GIFs should conduct comparative
studies at a larger scale to support or refute some of the relationships and claims
made in this study. These may include how cultural, socioeconomic, education and
age dierences may aect perceptions of warmth and competence in scientists.
Additionally, experimental design studies should investigate by manipulating the
scientists’ characteristics, such as sex, race, and science-related artifacts. For exam-
ple, an experimental design study can give several GIFs to students and ask
students to rate the GIFs using the responses identied in this study to determine
the level of warmth and competence and to what extent those ndings match the
present study categorization. In sum, the study highlights the impacts of Western
cultural imperialism as it shapes perceptions of scientists across the world through
the GIF-based medium. However, GIFs present an opportunity to recalibrate
entrenched stereotypes. By crafting and disseminating GIFs that showcase
a diverse and accurate representation of scientists, we can inspire a new genera-
tion and challenge existing biases (Jarreau et al. 2019).
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
Yujiro Fujiwara http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7271-2013
Lee Kenneth Jones http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2322-3472
Rebecca L. Hite http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6275-3804
Richard Carlos L. Velasco http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9572-3460
Human subjects research approval
This research was approved under TTU IRB #IRB2020–404 ‘Analyzing Warmth and Competence in
Tertiary Students’ Judgement of Scientists from Internet Sourced Meme-Based GIFs’
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