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Pedagogy of the past and the future

Authors:

Abstract

The effectiveness and efficiency of instruction in schools are determined by classroom culture, which is a factor that is widely recognized. This is one of the perplexing and thought-provoking issues that teachers are currently facing. This paper presents the strategies or ways used by teachers in handling disruptive behaviour of students in the classroom to effectively achieve learning goals. Keywords: disruptive behaviour, classroom management, Complex Instruction Program (KIP)
Pedagogy of the past and the future
Collection of English language studies about XV. National “Taní-tani” Conference,
Faculty of Arts at the University of Miskolc, 02. 02. 2024
Miskolc University Press
2024
Emese K. Nagy (ed.)
Pedagogy of the past and the future
Pedagogy of the past and the future
Emese K. Nagy (editor)
Miskolc University Press
2024
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Department of Teacher Education
Lector
Balázs Molnár
Technical Coordinator
Monika Daruka-Bobkó
ISBN 978-615-6835-04-8
CONTENTS
Aaron Ankomah Adjei:
Strategies used by teachers to manage misbehaviour in the classroom ............... 9
Adrienn Biró:
Development of Intercultural Communicative Competence
in ELT with the Use of Technology .................................................................. 23
Róbert Erdei:
Developing Resilience within the Activities of the Pedagogical
Assistance Service among Preschoolers ............................................................ 38
Andrea Kovácsné Duró:
The characteristics of class discourse based on the opinion
of teacher trainee correspondent students .......................................................... 54
Judit Kelemen:
Art Education as a Means to Developing an Interdisciplinary Approach .......... 71
Emese K. Nagy:
Some notes on the academic achievement of disadvantaged students,
primarily from ethnic minorities by presenting examples typical of Central
European countries ............................................................................................ 86
Andrea Kocsis:
Oral drilling BE LIKE Prendergast: Internet memes as a possible tool
of language pedagogy based on secondary school students’ perception
of learning Russian grammar in Szeged, Hungary ............................................ 95
László Körei:
Development of mental health services in higher education institutions ......... 107
István Pacsuta:
Community values among students in higher education ................................. 118
Pál Zuti:
Dimensions of digital culture in the future-oriented training process
Our responsibility is huge, the education of the future needs to start today! ......... 126
Ferenc Pozsonyi–Mária Hercz:
Identifying Wellbeing Factors in Pre-service Lower-Primary
Schoolteacher Students’ Self-Reflective Journals ........................................... 137
József R. Nagy:
Use of Fine Art Films in Art Education Title of the Contribution
Font size16 Align left ...................................................................................... 151
Ádám Sinkovics:
Programme and creative activity-based exercises in the classroom ................ 161
Enikő Szőke-Milinte:
Information literacy in the National Curriculum ............................................. 173
Maroua Talbi:
The Internationalization of Hungarian Higher Education: English Majors’
Views on The Development of Their Intercultural Competence ..................... 183
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PREFACE
Dear reader,
Every year since 2008, the University of Miskolc has organized one of the most
significant domestic Teaching-Scientific conferences. This year, the title of the
conference was Pedagogies of the Future.
The main patron of the event was prof. dr. Rector Zita Horváth, rector. The
plenary speakers were Professor Falus Iván, Julianna Mrázik, Ida Szűcs who
presented the Didactic Handbook (Academic Hungarian Science, 2023). The
moderator was Emese K. Nagy.
The languages of the international conference were Hungarian and English. More
than two hundred people took part in the thematic sessions, including teachers,
university students and doctoral students from Vietnam, Romania and Slovakia. In
this volume, we have collected the most successful English lectures.
The writings are extremely colourful, giving space to the latest research results.
Each of the studies meets the expectations of science and the scientific method, and
each demonstrates the authors commitment to the topic presented. The professional
success was ensured by the community of the Teacher Training Institute, with great
emphasis on the practical content of the lectures, the discussion of issues related to
teacher training, and the involvement of practicing teachers.
Now its your turn to read, interpret and enjoy the writings.
Emese K. Nagy
director general
Teacher Training Institute
University of Miskolc
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Aaron Ankomah Adjei
Eotvos Lorand University, 1075 Budapest, Kazinczy u. 2327, Hungary
aaronankomahadjeiphd@gmail.com
STRATEGIES USED BY TEACHERS TO MANAGE MISBEHAVIOUR
IN THE CLASSROOM
Abstract: The effectiveness and efficiency of instruction in schools are determined by
classroom culture, which is a factor that is widely recognized. This is one of the perplexing
and thought-provoking issues that teachers are currently facing. This paper presents the
strategies or ways used by teachers in handling disruptive behaviour of students in the
classroom to effectively achieve learning goals.
Keywords: disruptive behaviour, classroom management, Complex Instruction Program
(KIP)
1. Introduction
Successful teachers implement strategies to monitor classroom events to enable a
conducive environment for teaching and learning. Discipline is one of the most
important ways successful teachers manage learner behaviour in the classroom, and
it is also an act of raising children on the right path [1]. Classroom disruptions pose
a serious threat to students academic progress, a major cause of stress for teachers,
and a substantial barrier to learning in schools [2]. The behaviors of students have
evolved significantly during the past 20 years, posing a serious behavioral problem
for educators in educational institutions [3]. The teacher maintains order and
motivation in the classroom in order to get the students to participate in the learning
process. The teaching process will fail if the teachers are unable to control their class
through a variety of teaching strategies [4]. Teachers use the term classroom
management to ensure that there are no issues throughout the teaching process, even
when there are disruptive actions from the students. According to Beaty-O’Ferrall
et al. [5], this expression refers to the prevention of behaviours that are likely the
most challenging parts of teaching for the teachers.
Although the study concentrated on teaching strategies, classroom management
and the interaction between teachers and students was taken into account because
these factors can help to reduce disruptions in the classroom [6]. Establishing a
supportive rapport with students is part of classroom management, which is defined
as an educators efforts to create a structured learning environment that facilitates
learning [6, 7, 8]. Prosocial and responsible behavior as well as academic
engagement are linked to positive and encouraging teacher-student relationships [9].
However, teaching is a challenging profession where educators must win over
kids hearts and even develop close relationships with the disruptive ones [10].
Through social encounters, this conquering of the hearts takes place. Research has
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indicated that educators who facilitate the growth of these connections witness a
decrease in behavioral issues from students and witness enhanced academic
achievement [11].
Additionally, teachers must be completely equipped to handle the challenges that
arise in the classroom [12]. Research on classroom management strategies and
techniques for confronting disruptive students has been done on occasion [13]. Few
studies, though, have examined these techniques. Researchers and policymakers
have launched a global effort over the past 20 years to investigate the elements that
contribute to the efficiency of educational institutions [14]. Therefore, the goal of
the current study is to examine the techniques and strategies used by teachers in
the classroom to deal with the disruptive behaviors of the students.
1.1. Classroom management
A wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep students organized,
orderly, focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive during a class is
how classroom management is frequently described in the literature [15, 16,]. This
is a general definition of a very broad subject, and in order to comprehend classroom
management to its fullest, one must be aware of the underlying theories that underpin
the whole field. Engaging students with relevant tasks is seen an important part of
classroom management, as previous research confirms that students who are highly
interested in the classroom tend not to disrupt or misbehave [17]. Suchyadi, Y. et al.
[18] similarly perceives that in order to provide a favorable environment for teaching
and learning, group activities and appropriate classroom behavior are two of the most
crucial elements of effective classroom management. It is critical to keep the
classroom calm and conducive to learning at all times [19]. The term classroom
management according to Nair and Otaki [20] describes the strategies that teachers
employ to maintain a secure, efficient, and well-organized teaching and learning
environment. This strategies include guidelines and policies, setting an example of
good behavior, and implementing policies, sanctions, and rewards that will improve
efficient instruction and learning. An earlier work, however, suggests that one of the
most important components of efficient classroom management is appropriate
classroom behavior [21]. The overwhelming majority of previous research
emphasizes that fostering a supportive learning environment for students is the
primary goal of classroom management. However, dealing with disruptive students
and enforcing discipline in the classroom appear to be the fundamental components
of classroom management in its broadest sense [22].
Maslow [23] proposes splitting the concept of classroom management into two
distinct categories in a more thorough approach. Instructional management and
behavioral management are these categories. According to him [23], planning and the
elements that influence a teachers capacity to instruct students using particular
materials are included in instructional management. On the other hand, behavioral
management refers to the expectations that a teacher has for the behavior of their
students, including appropriate behavior, interaction levels in the classroom, and a
number of other aspects. Consistent with most prior research, classroom management
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may be understood as a reaction to student behavior that disrupts the instructional
and behavioral aspects of teaching and learning, as proposed by Sowell [23].
Figure 1. Classroom management strategies
Modified after Monash University
1.2. The role of the teacher
It is impossible to overstate the importance of teachers in creating a classroom
climate that is supportive of learning. Without teachers continual guidance,
managerial abilities, teaching, and learning, classroom activities might not be
successful. Teachers are expected to assume a variety of roles in the classroom, such
as learner, facilitator, and manager [24], in order to effectively manage the
classroom. Firstly, teaching as a learner. Teaching and learning are ongoing
processes. Knowledge can be easily absorbed by students when it is presented from
the viewpoint of the learner. Secondly, teaching as a facilitator comes in second. In
order to support their studentsintellectual and improve their behaviour as well as
their engagement in the diverse classroom, teachers should provide a supportive
learning environment. Teachers ought to support their students in developing into
independent learners. this may be achieved by implementing relevant methods of
instruction. Lastly and possibly, teaching as a manager. An experienced teacher is
able to effectively manage time and space in a variety of contexts. To cover the
curriculum in the allocated time, teachers must prepare ahead of time by combining
academics, interpersonal skills, and a variety of teaching strategies. Through perfect
classroom management, teaching as a manager will result in successful teaching-
learning techniques. Teaching as a manager, facilitator, and learner that is, with the
focus on the needs of the students differs from traditional teacher-centered education.
The learning tasks in a traditional teacher-centered classroom are designed by the
teachers. The majority of their time is spent using PowerPoint or the whiteboard to
demonstrate the course material. In addition, students are required to pay attention
to teachers and take notes [25]. However, in a student-centered classroom, teachers
need to provide students a conducive learning environment. Instead of explicitly
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imparting knowledge, teachers provide students the chance to collaborate to
complete the assigned tasks, which strengthens student-to-student interaction [26].
Poor classroom management could be a sign of poor instruction. It is the duty of
teachers with regard to this, to make sure that interactions in the classroom foster
achievement and lessen interruptions. The following recommendations are for
teachers to abide by: Teachers should first set up a comfortable space where students
can work in groups to complete assignments. By doing this, students will be engaged
in completing a shared work rather than disturbing other students [27]. In order to
help students relax, teachers are allowed to utilise humour and fun in the classroom.
In order for students to feel more secure and to share accountability for reaching the
desired results. Second, teachers should clearly communicate to students the aims
and goals of the class. By raising the expectation of rewards and lowering the
expectation of work necessary, this conduct will increase student motivation [25],
hence mitigate classroom disruption. Third, teachers should use a range of questioning
strategies and voice tones while interviewing other students. For example, when
reading instructions, teachers may pose thin and thick questions and give students
different methods to respond to the questions. Teachers ought to speak in a more
sophisticated manner while debating the papers major concepts.
1.3. Teacher-student interaction
The foundation of an effective teaching and learning process is the presence of
positive interpersonal interactions between teachers and students [18]. The degree
and calibre of student cooperation determine how well a lesson goes in the
classroom. There is a clear relationship between student group projects and how
frequently teachers intervene. When a teacher takes on a leadership role, the students
act differently from when the teacher is present but transfers the leadership role [28].
In addition to helping students manage conflicts within the classroom, the teacher
also plays a significant role in fostering positive relationships between students and
discouraging negative behaviour [29, 30]. As a result, a good rapport between
students and teachers can reduce the frequency of aggressive behaviours [31, 32] and
eventually encourage prosocial behaviours. This, in turn, can increase the frequency
of aggressive behaviours and foster a positive educational environment [33].
1.4. Culture of teaching and learning
The learning environment in a classroom has a direct impact on the standard and can
affect the relationship between teachers and students as well as their performance.
Research indicates that interactions between teachers and students have a significant
impact on how well learners are managed, how well they do academically, and how
well they progress socially [34]. Academic achievement can be impacted by poor
student wellbeing [35]. Additionally, a students learning capacity and engagement
may be limited due to a lack of resilience to protect wellbeing, which can have
consequences for continuation and attainment [36]. Teachers believe that the most
important element in a learners good attitude towards education is the quality of the
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teacher-student interaction. Additionally, the relationship between teachers and
students has an impact on both parties wellbeing. However, teachers may be able to
gradually alter a learners behaviour, managing the behaviour and enhancing the
relationship as well as the students achievement, if they critically observe the
behaviour of the student and attempt to understand the behavioural culture and
causes of the persistent act [37].
1.5. Disruptive student behaviour
One might define disruptive student behaviour in a variety of ways. Anger and
frustration are some of the negative emotions that are frequently caused by disruptive
student behaviour and these feelings can ultimately result in tiredness and teacher
burnout [38]. This behaviour refers to actions or demeanour by students that
impedes the smooth flow of instruction. It disrupts the classroom atmosphere and
prevents the educational process of the disrupters and other students. Although there
are many variations in this kind of behaviour, it frequently consists of acts that are
rude, disruptive, or could endanger the learning environment. Disruptive student
behaviour, as affirmed by Mabeba and Prinsloo [39], is connected to issues with
school discipline that restrict students access to basic rights, safety, and respect in
the classroom. In contrast to what is taught in the classroom, disruptive student
behaviours can also be seen as an attempt by the students to defend and protect
themselves. In this study, disruptive student behaviour will be viewed as a self-
defense tactic adopted by students that also disturbs other students in the classroom.
According to several sources [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46] disruptive student behaviour
(DSB) is defined as behaviour that controverts classroom instruction. It is a major
source of concern for teachers. Disruptive behaviours have been linked to learning,
poor academic achievement, and performance [47]. They can also lead to violent
incidents inside or outside of schools [48]. Accordingly, a students academic
achievement will either be successful or unsuccessful based on the presence or absence
of disruptive behaviour [49]. This implies that, while disruptive behavior impedes
learning and results in poorer academic outcomes, positive behaviour fosters a
productive learning environment and improves academic performance. Befring and
Duesund [50] state that environmental or personal characteristics are mostly
responsible for DSB. These behaviours, which annoy other students and can take
many forms, including making loud noises and disturbing the entire classroom
environment, occur when students perceptions of a situation differ from what
teachers have asked of them [51]. Ignoring or frequently breaking rules can lead to
disruptive behaviour in the classroom. Similarly, Jurado and Tejada [52] characterize
DSB as an unsuitable conduct that interferes with learning, shatters interpersonal
relationships, and hinders the advancement of the class, impacting not only the
individual student but also the other students and teachers who must bear the
repercussions [53]. These negative behaviours can be aggressive and therefore
expressed through physical aggressions and verbal abuse such as irritating messages
or threats [54]. In this study, combining all the above-mentioned definitions, DSB
will be acknowledged as a kind of student behaviour that deviates the instructions of
~ 16 ~
the teacher, hence making it difficult for teachers to control and manage the class
and affects the academic performance of students.
1.6. Effective teaching
Good education and classroom behaviour management are necessary for effective
teaching [55]. Students who are not paying attention or who are distracted by other
students disruptive actions will not learn, even in the context of excellent teaching
techniques [56]. According to Korpershoek et al. [57], teachers who possess a variety
of competencies, including subject-specific, pedagogical, and sociological
knowledge, are better able to comprehend the needs of their students, the learning
environment, and the curriculums applicability to achieving their learning goals.
Studies show that effective teachers promote learning by actually caring about their
students engagement [58]. Their aim is to foster relationships among students that
afford them the chance to investigate their cultural identities. They set high but realistic
goals for students growth in thinking, reasoning, communication, reflection, and self-
evaluation skills, and they give them the opportunity to question why and how much
the class is doing specific activities [59]. According to Bucher and Lee Manning [60],
experienced teachers are better able to identify the needs and issues of their students.
This suggests that when teachers are familiar with techniques for determining the
needs and issues of students, the disruptive behaviour in the classroom can be
effectively managed. A low self-image, negative experiences at home or in other
classrooms, peer or friend pressure, and other factors can all contribute to students
disruptive behaviour [61]. In order to put the right measures in place, the teacher must
possess the knowledge necessary to determine the circumstances underlying the
persistent behaviour. In order to accomplish this, the teacher needs to create plans for
handling disruptive behaviour in the classroom [62]. But in an improperly managed
classroom, teaching and learning cannot take place [63, 64, 65].
Figure 2. Modified after San Diego State University
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1.7. Complex Instruction Program
Complex instruction program (KIP) is a teaching method that enable teachers to use
cooperative group work to educate at a high level in a classroom with diverse of
academic backgrounds. With this program, all students in diverse classrooms will be
able to succeed in learning outcomes, hence mitigating disruptive student behaviour
in the classroom.
Studies show that in academically diverse classrooms (Gardners multiple
intelligences), teaching strategies such as group work that allow for the use of multiple
abilities are successful in helping students learn new subjects. Cohen and Lotan [26]
agree in their study that, with the help of tasks that enable status management, group
work organized in this way helps high-status students to see their low-status peers as
competent. The self-confidence and self-esteem of the latter group increases, which
affects their behaviour and performance related to the subject. This allows the student
to benefit both in terms of learning new subjects and in terms of social behaviour. In
the context of this study, good teaching methods (e. g. KIP enabling the management
of student status) can help teachers to effectively manage their classrooms. This
method helps to mitigate DSB, thus involving a wide range of students towards a
common goal.
Figure 3. The Principles of Complex Instruction (Cohen & Lotan, 1997)
2. Conclusion
Managing disruptive students in the classroom is an essential part of good teaching.
To establish a favourable learning environment, teachers have created and put into
practice a number of ways. The prevention and management of disruptive behaviour
in the classroom depend heavily on effective classroom management strategies.
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These methods concentrate on upholding discipline, creating routines, and
encouraging student participation. Among the strategies are creating routines,
utilising attention-grabbing signals, employing strategic seating arrangements, and
putting in place a regimented daily plan.
Complex Instruction Programme (KIP) enables teachers to use cooperative group
work to impart high-quality instruction to students from a variety of academic
backgrounds. This programme will help all students in diverse classes achieve their
learning objectives, which will reduce disruptive behaviour from students. Effective
classroom management can be facilitated by teachers using good teaching strategies,
such as KIP, which allows for the management of student status. Keeping students
motivated and engaged helps stop disruptive behaviour. Students that are highly
involved in their education are more likely to participate in class and are less likely
to act out. Linking lessons to students interests, utilising a variety of teaching styles,
including interactive and hands-on activities, and giving students opportunity for
choice and autonomy prevents them from being disruptive in the classroom. By
assisting in the mitigation of DSB, this approach unites a diverse group of students
in pursuit of a common goal.
Disruptive behaviour can be greatly decreased by teachers and students developing
strong, good relationships. A classroom that is positive can be fostered by relationships
based on mutual respect and trust. Teachers keep lines of communication open,
genuinely care about their students lives, and offer constant support and encouragement.
Teachers can effectively handle disruptive behaviours and create a happy and productive
learning environment for all students by implementing these strategies.
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~ 25 ~
Adrienn Biró
Hungary
badrienn1996@gmail.com
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE IN ELT WITH THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY
Abstract: Intercultural communication has a determinative role in our modern society, thus
the development of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) has gained ground in
foreign language teaching within the new approach, intercultural language teaching, in
order to prepare language learners for interaction with people from various cultural milieus
using the learnt foreign language. Technology in foreign language teaching can facilitate the
development of this competence to a significant extent, thus the aim of the study is to examine
to what extent supplementary digital materials are available in the case of a chosen
coursebook package. Furthermore, it is examined whether they are culture-related and may
be proper for the development of Intercultural Competence (IC). In the short research, a
coursebook package is examined from three perspectives. Firstly, the extent of supplementary
digital materials is searched, then the available supplementary digital materials are surveyed
looking for culture-related resources which are suitable for the development of IC.
Thereafter, a chosen supplementary digital material is examined from the aspect of the
possible extent of IC development. It can be concluded that in the case of the chosen
coursebook, there is a great amount of supplementary digital materials, but only two of them
are culture-related. The analysed material may develop all 5 components of IC but not to
equal extent, and the guidance and anticipation of the teacher are highly needed during the
activities. The coursebook package contains many supplementary digital materials but the
improvement of IC is not their priority, although this competence is indeed essential in the
case of foreign languages. The examined material is suitable for the IC development but
without the planning, preparation and instructions of the teacher not all of the components
of IC could be developed.
Keywords: technology, intercultural communicative competence, intercultural competence,
analysis, supplementary digital materials
1. Introduction
Intercultural communication is a phenomenon which determines our daily life in the
modern world. Due to globalization, people communicate frequently with others
from different countries and cultures, thus efficient and appropriate communication
is a requirement of the 21st century in such situations. Foreign language learners
who learn English should acquire the proper competences in order to make and
maintain contacts successfully with people who have another mother tongue and a
different cultural background. The ability to communicate with others across various
cultures is essential in the case of language learning because a foreign language is
learnt to understand people from different cultural milieus with a different mother
~ 26 ~
tongue and to communicate with them in speech and in writing as effectively as
possible. Nowadays, we are surrounded by technology, and it is present on every
level of life, thus technology is applied in teaching and learning processes as well.
Digital tools and devices can help language learners to be prepared for intercultural
communication in an effective manner. The development of students’ Intercultural
Communicative Competence (ICC) within intercultural language teaching and learning
in the classroom may facilitate the success of their cross-cultural communication.
Intercultural teaching is a new approach in foreign language teaching which supports
the acquisition of the necessary skills, attitudes and knowledge for intercultural
communication.
2. Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)
2.1. Definition of ICC
ICC is not a universally accepted term which is used uniformly in scientific works.
Fantini [1] lists altogether 19 alternative terms which can be used instead of ICC.
According to him, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural competence and intercultural
communication competence are synonyms for ICC, for instance [2], but in the study
the term ICC is used universally. Likewise, ICC is conceptualised indeed differently
by different researchers and methodologists [3]. The basis of this study is Byram’s
definition and model of ICC.
According to Byram [4], ICC implies the capability to understand people who
speak another mother tongue and live in a culturally different context with the
capability to communicate with them successfully. In the interest of successful
communication among people with different cultural background and first language,
people should develop their ICC in order to understand other people and even
themselves, to reflect on issues of humanity, to interrogate social conditions and to
be critical. A foreign language is often used in an intercultural communicative
situation when the interlocutors’ knowledge about the world is present in
conversation, including possibly some knowledge about each other’s country and
their own country. Knowledge has an essential role in such situations, but it is not
enough. The aim in such communicative cases is efficient communication through
establishing and maintaining relationships which language learners can acquire
through ICC development.
2.2. Byram’s model of ICC
Byram’s model of ICC consists of 4 competences:
intercultural competence (IC),
linguistic competence,
sociolinguistic competence
and discourse competence [3].
These competences are based on the idea of van Ek, but Byram redefined van
Ek’s terms on the basis of his own ICC definition. Linguistic competence means that
the speaker has the knowledge about rules of the standard language, and the person
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can apply this knowledge about rules with the aim to create and explain spoken and
written language. Sociolinguistic competence indicates that the speaker is able to add
meanings to others’ produced language. Discourse competence implies the use,
discovery and negotiation of strategies to produce and interpret full, coherent texts
which are applied in intercultural situations [4].
According to Byram [4], ICC and IC are not the same (p. 70), albeit the two terms
are often used as synonyms of each other in other academic works. In fact, in his
model, IC is one of the four competences included in ICC. Byram understands under
IC the capability of a person to communicate in his or her own mother tongue with
people who have different cultural backgrounds and mother tongues. The person is
able to surmount cultural differences and is keen on intercultural interactions. On the
other hand, ICC involves decentring which means that the speaker is able to take up
other people’s perspectives and to resolve problems in interaction and behaviour in the
learnt foreign language, and the speaker uses foreign language for communication
instead of the mother tongue. IC is a component of ICC, which includes 5 elements:
knowledge,
attitudes,
skills of interpreting and relating,
skills of discovery and interaction
and critical cultural awareness [4].
Attitudes towards someone else can be explicit and implicit in the interaction, and
they influence the communicative processes. Attitudes can be either positive or
negative. They imply curiosity, openness and readiness to underplay disbeliefs about
someone’s own culture and other cultures [4].
Knowledge means the knowledge about social groups and their products and
practices in the person’s own country and other countries including the knowledge
about basic procedures of communication on societal and individual basis. The speaker
has knowledge about his or her own culture and social group in an intercultural
communicative situation, and the person may possess knowledge about other cultures
and social groups as well. Moreover, the speaker has a certain knowledge about the
idea and procedure of interaction individually and societally. The interlocutor is
required to use all of the acquired knowledge to understand certain documents from
and behaviours of other persons, social groups or countries [4].
Skills of interpreting and relating imply the interpretation of a document or event
of other cultures and their explanations. Furthermore, they indicate relating to
documents from the speaker’s own culture. Skills of interpreting and relating mean
that the competent speaker is able to explain and interpret documents from a given
country and to find connections with other documents. These skills depend highly
on someone’s acquired knowledge. They do not require necessarily interaction with
someone else. They can involve documents as well [4].
Skills of discovery and interaction means the acquisition of new knowledge about
a culture, about its cultural practices and the operation of knowledge, attitudes and
skills in real-time interaction. They are relevant when someone does not have any
knowledge or has just limited knowledge about a specific phenomenon, thus the
~ 28 ~
person has to develop particular knowledge and understanding about the relevant
beliefs, meanings and behaviours. These skills mean the recognition of meaningful
phenomena, the elicitation of meanings, connotations with their meanings in an
environment which is still new and unknown for a person. Moreover, skills of
discovery and interaction imply the management of communication when attitudes,
knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating are present at the same time in order to
manage problems during communication and mediate between people with different
identities and cultural backgrounds [4].
he last component, critical cultural awareness, means that the speaker is able to
assess perspectives, practices and products in his or her own culture and other
cultures in a critical way with the use of explicit criteria. A competent intercultural
speaker with the help of critical cultural awareness is able to identify others’ and his
or her own direct or indirect values and ideologies, and explain them in context [4].
The components of IC can be developed individually through experience and
reflection, but teachers in ELT can help language learners to develop their IC [4]. It
is demonstrated in this section that the elements of IC are dependent on each other
to a great extent.
3. Technology in education
3.1. Definition of technology in foreign language teaching and learning
The term technology implies in the study all electronic devices and functions which
can be applied in education [5]. Appropriate use of tools of technology may result in
the transformation of language teaching and learning complementing the facilitation
of communication in education [6]. This conversion means the renewal of teaching
and learning methods, the changing nature of collaboration and interaction among
students and teachers. Every digital tool which is used in education in order to assist
teaching and learning is called in this case technology [7]. Technology has many
more specified synonyms in the scientific literature regarding teaching and learning
purposes. For example, the terms educational technologies (edtech) and information
and communication technology (ICT) are also often used [7], [8].
3.2. Necessity of technology in education
People are surrounded by digital technology in the 21st century everywhere, all the
time. It has become an indispensable part of everyday life, thus it cannot be excluded
from education. New teaching methods and options have appeared based on
technological tools, and the use of technology in the classroom has become a general
demand [2]. Teacher trainees in most teacher training programmes have seminars in
connection with technology application in education, and different trainings are
available for teachers where they can get to know the effective use of technology,
thus they can broaden their knowledge.
Furthermore, the methods of traditional teaching are not enough for the students
of the Generation Z. They need new ways of teaching involving technology [2], [9].
Learners who are currently being taught in our education system were born and have
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grown up with the constant presence of technology. They have used digital tools
since their early childhood, and they can manage and handle digital devices
instinctively, automatically without any problems or difficulties. These learners are
called digital natives. The brain of digital natives operates differently from the brain
of elder people who were still born in an age without technology. This group of
people are called digital immigrants because they have adopted and learnt how
technology works, and how it can be used. Digital natives process information faster,
and they prefer multi-tasking, thus they are not as patient as digital immigrants in
the learning process. Digital natives do not prefer step-by-step logic and structure.
They favour graphics, such as videos, films, multimedia, and hypertexts instead of
traditional texts [9]. Technological tools provide a great opportunity for the
satisfaction of these demands which are an incentive to the modernization of
language teaching [10].
Technology is used not only in education, but also in every field of modern life,
society and the world [10], thus the proper management of digital technologies and
technical skills have recently become basic requirements in the world of work [2].
Language teachers are not teachers of informatics, but in language lessons teachers
can facilitate technology use supporting the practice and development of technical
skills because technological tools influence reading, writing and numeracy [11].
Finally, lifelong learning determines the society in the modern globalized world.
It means that knowledge has become a special value which nourishes improvement
in every area of life [11], and the members of society should develop their skills and
knowledge constantly because they have to keep pace with the changing expectations
worldwide. These digital tools and devices may provide a great solution for lifelong
learning, thus language learners should be taught how they can improve and maintain
their foreign language proficiency outside the classroom and after the school years.
4. Development of ICC with the use of technology
With technological assistance, a notable amount of resources and information have
become easily available [6], [12], thus technology makes it achievable with its new
inventions in the 21st century for people to get to know various cultures and languages
through sharing information, being involved in bilateral projects and activities online
[13]. Technology provides the opportunity to present culture and support intercultural
learning in the classroom from a new perspective [14] which is different from the
standard tools and methods such as coursebooks and printed sources.
4.1. Internet and authentic resources
According to Godwin-Jones [14], topics dealing with culture do appear in textbooks,
but they are often frivolous and based on general touristic facts (p. 2). Furthermore,
these topics are too general with the notion of a nation’s fixed culture, and students are
hardly involved in the culture-based activities which may appear in the coursebooks.
Generally speaking, textbooks include oversimplified, unauthentic texts and sources
which can be understood easily by language learners. Basically, their aim is easy
~ 30 ~
understanding, but it has been recognized by many teachers and educators that learners
need to deal with authentic sources from the learnt language as well.
On the first place, the internet is a good source of authentic resources. Various
products from different cultures are available for teachers on the internet, thus
authentic materials in the target language can be reached easily [6]. This may support
particularly the development of the knowledge dimension of IC, and students can learn
through resources how they can distinguish reliable and unreliable sources about
cultures on the internet [15], thus their critical cultural awareness may also evolve.
4.2. Visual and multimedia resources for intercultural learning
Additionally, the media which are available online provide a prosperous collection of
cultural contents [14]. There are applications and websites such as Pinterest, Pixabay
and Tumblr which include many pictures from all around the world which are suitable
for analysis from the perspective of IC development. There are video sharing portals,
such as YouTube and Videa, with multimedia resources which facilitate the skills of
exploration, analysis and interpretation in intercultural learning. Goodwin-Jones
highlights that active use of video sharing portals through editing and making videos
can be more effective in intercultural learning than watching videos because students
are involved in the process of video making. Videos can give the chance to see and
observe other people’s behavior from different cultures. The video sharing platform,
TikTok, is perhaps nowadays the most widespread source of various pieces of cultural
information from all around the world.
Furthermore, intercultural learning may be enhanced by different kinds of online
games [13]. There are online games where players can interact with each other
synchronously during the game from all around the world in multiplayer modes or
there are games which can only be played online with others. For example, players
can use chats within the games to communicate with each other. Such a game is, for
example, the very popular strategic game of 2020 Among Us. On the other hand,
people can communicate through headphones and microphones in games. The games
Minecraft and Fortnite offer for the players such opportunity, for instance. Players
can cooperate within such games and contact people efficiently worldwide.
5. Empirical researc
5.1. Aim and research questions
As it can be read previously in the study, coursebooks contain mainly only a few
oversimplified texts which are culture-related, but the cited scientific literature does
not deal with the supplementary digital materials which belong to the coursebooks
from this point of view explicitly, thus the aim of my research is two-fold. Firstly,
the supplementary digital materials of the chosen coursebook package are surveyed.
Then, these supplementary digital materials are analysed for culture-related contents.
As a third part, a chosen culture-oriented material is studied in greater detail to
determine the extent to which students’ IC could be developed with the use of the
given resource. The research is based on the following three research questions:
~ 31 ~
1. To what extent does the coursebook package include supplementary digital
materials?
2. Which of the digital supplementary materials include specifically cultural
contents?
3. To what extent does the chosen culture-oriented material facilitate the
development of students’ IC?
5.2. The studied coursebook package
The studied coursebook package is called Solutions 2nd edition [16]. The materials
for this edition were published firstly in 2012 and 2013 by Oxford University Press
(OUP) [17]. A third revised version of the package was published in 2017, but the
materials of the second edition are still in use, and they are available except a few
ones. The package consists of five levels from level Elementary to Advanced which
are designed for teenagers who learn English as a foreign language. The main printed
materials at each level are the Student’s book (SB), the Workbook (WB) and the
Teacher’s book (TB).
5.3. Methods of data collection and analysis
In the first phase of the research, information about supplementary digital materials for
the coursebook package is collected in order to define the extent of supplementary
digital materials which belong to the coursebook package. Thereafter, the available
supplementary digital materials are examined for cultural content. Every content is
understood under cultural content which is in connection with culture, and IC
development may be possible with the application of them. The official OUP website
(https://elt.oup.com) is studied where reliable information about the second edition of
the coursebook package is accessible. Furthermore, many materials can be found on
the website. Additionally, the webpage of the Hungarian Oxford Bookshop (https://
oupbooks.hu) and the TB of the package on pre-intermediate level are looked at.
It is essential to clarify for the research which materials are understood under
digital materials and supplementary materials. The collected data about the
supplementary digital materials were analysed on the basis of an own definition.
Taking the following definition as a point of departure for the research, every piece
of material is regarded as digital if a technological device is required for reaching,
opening or using it. Supplementary materials are such materials which supplement
the core materials which are the SB, WB and TB.
Thereafter, a chosen material with cultural content, which is a video with its
worksheet, is analysed in detail based on the results of the first part of the research
for receiving answer to the third research question. The clip and the worksheet are
considered as one resource because according to the recommendation of the
coursebook package, they should be used together. The video with the worksheet is
studied in order to determine the extent to which they facilitate the development of
IC as defined by Byram [4]. This means searching the materials for elements that are
~ 32 ~
in any way connected to the 5 IC components and to the corresponding objectives
(see Table 1).
Table 1
Main objectives of IC’s components (Byram, 1997, pp. 5763)
COMPONENT
MAIN OBJECTIVE
1.
attitudes
curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend
disbelief about other cultures and beliefs about
one’s own
2.
knowledge
the knowledge of social groups and their
products and practices in one’s own and in
one’s interlocutor’s country, and of the general
processes of societal and individual interaction
3.
skills of
interpreting and
relating
the ability to interpret a document or event from
another culture, to explain it and relate it to
documents or events from one’s own
4.
skills of
discovery and
interaction
the ability to acquire new knowledge of a
culture and cultural practices and the ability to
operate knowledge, attitudes and skills under
the constraints of real-time communication
5.
critical cultural
awareness
an ability to evaluate, critically and on the basis
of explicit criteria, perspectives, practices and
products in one’s own and other cultures and
countries
The video and the worksheet on the Culture DVD are looked at, and checked whether
they can be used by the teachers to develop their students’ competence connected to
their own culture or other cultures, and if yes, how.
5.4. Results
5.4.1. Supplementary digital materials and cultural content
There are two types of supplementary digital materials in the case of the Solutions
coursebook package. There are supplementary materials which automatically belong
to the printed core materials free of charge, and there are materials which can be
bought as extras. As an addition to the TB, which contains suggestions for lesson
plans and answer keys for the SB and WB, there is a special so-called Teacher’s
Resource CD-ROM which includes printable and interactive materials. The printable
resources are various classroom activities, student self-test sheets, warmers and
fillers. Interestingly, these materials are available online on the OUP website under
Oxford Teacher’s Club page after registration as well for free. Moreover, the TB can
be downloaded in PDF format from this page. These materials are not especially
~ 33 ~
culture-related. Furthermore, on the CD there are three types of interactive materials.
There are vocabulary and grammar exercises for each unit. Additionally, there are
two types of games on the CD-ROM.
There are 3 CDs for the TB on each level for the listening tasks of the SB, and
the CDs include the texts of the reading tasks in audio formats as well. According to
the TB, on pre-intermediate level, there is a Test-Bank CD-ROM for each level with
various kinds of tests in PDF and Word formats, but further information about this
additional material is not available on the official OUP website. It may not be
supported anymore by OUP.
Students can reach online extra tasks with automatic feedback on OUP website
in the case of the SB. These tasks are available under the option Learning Resources
Bank. Each level has a separate webpage with the same structure. Furthermore, the
audio materials can be downloaded for the WB under Learning Resources Bank on
each level. To conclude, there are no supplementary cultural materials on this page.
To the WB belongs a special access code for an online exam task on the level of the
given course.
Theoretically, students should visit the website www.oxfordtestofenglish.com
where after registration they can work autonomously, and teachers can follow the
results of the students when they are in a common study group created by the teacher,
but it can be claimed after detailed research that the publication is not supported
anymore on the platform. Furthermore, there were earlier apps for smart devices
available on Android and iOS which could have been used for acquiring vocabulary
and practice in the case of each unit on four levels for free, but they cannot be accessed.
Cultural contents are probably not specifically included in these extra materials.
Moreover, a DVD-ROM is available on each level, which contains videoclips
fitting to the units of the SB as supplements supporting the use of multimedia
resources, which require more than one sense at the same time during perception,
thus they can be more motivating for students. There are various contents on the
DVD which deal with culture related to the units of the basic course materials
labelled with section C in the SB.
The above-mentioned DVD is available for each level separately, but in the case
of the second edition of Solutions there is a special publication called Culture DVD
which, according to the OUP website’s description, is designed for use on every
level, but is recommended mainly for pre-intermediate and intermediate levels. It is
a resource pack which focuses specifically on culture. It is the teacher’s decision
when the videos should be used because the videos are independent from the units
of the courses.
To sum up, it can be said that there is a great amount of digital resources, for the
TB, SB and the WB, on each level. Altogether, there are only two additional digital
materials which include specifically culture-oriented materials, the DVD-ROM,
which is available for each level separately, and the Culture DVD, which is designed
for the whole coursebook package. The DVD-ROMs’ additional materials are based
on the SBs, and match the units. Meanwhile, the Culture DVD is a material for each
level, and it is not tightly designed for the units of the SBs.
~ 34 ~
5.4.2. Analysis of the Culture DVD and the chosen material
The Culture DVD is a special supplement for the coursebook package which is culture-
related, thus the resource for the further analysis is chosen from this supplementary
collection of materials. One video is going to be observed and analysed with its
worksheet after a short introduction to the structure of the Culture DVD.
The Culture DVD was published later than the other materials of the package in
2015. The application of the DVD is simple. A menu appears after starting the
programme where the teacher can choose the video which they would like to watch.
The subtitles can be turned on and off in the right bottom corner.
The clips are around 4 and 5 minutes long. The worksheets are available
separately in PDF files for each video. The videos can be used without their
worksheets as well, but the worksheets offer more opportunities for teaching and
learning. Each worksheet is 3 pages long. There are 5 tasks on the first page, on the
second page the answer key is available and the transcript of the given video can be
read on the third page. The worksheets are built on the same structure.
Clip 5, Working in the US: a day in the life is examined with its corresponding
worksheet in the study. It can be stated that the video on its own without the
worksheet may support the development of the knowledge component of IC because
language learners can acquire new information, for example, about the general
statistics of employment in the US, and they can get to know the average life of a
young, American man in New York. The man’s occupation, bike messenger, may be
new for them, thus they can broaden their knowledge on this field as well. The
teacher may help the development of other components with questions towards the
language learners to help them explain their opinions and views after watching the
video. The video is a great basis for classroom discussions. The video offers a stable
ground for the development of students’ IC, but it is important to say that watching
the video does not imply the immediate development of the components. Knowledge
may be broadened individually through watching the video, but the other
components can be developed only by activities which make students think about
the issues presented in the video from different aspects and perspectives.
Considering the question of authenticity discussed in Section 4.1., the narration
in the video cannot be said authentic because it includes simplified language use
which is suitable for learners. The narrator’s speaking pace is slower, and the narrator
articulates to a great extent. Alex’s speech, who is the main character in the clip, can
be said authentic because he does not use simplified language. However, the
narrator’s speaking time is dominating, thus the main part of the material is not
authentic, but it is made for learning purposes.
The first page of the worksheet consists of 5 tasks. There are two set of questions
in the first task on the worksheet. Their aim is mainly to activate learners’
background knowledge on the topic. If the questions are discussed in the group
before the video, they can be good for introduction. The first question “Which
aspects of a job does the term ‘employment conditions’ cover?” can develop the
knowledge of students in the frame of a group discussion, for example, where the
other students or the teacher may share some information during class which are new
~ 35 ~
for some students. This is the same situation in the second set of questions “In which
jobs are the employment conditions generally good? In which are they often poor?” as
well, but besides the development of knowledge learner’s attitudes may be developed
because stereotypes and cultural presuppositions can be questioned during the
discussion. It may be possible that some students have false presuppositions in their
mind in connection with some jobs and professions but their attitudes can be changed
hearing each other’s views. These questions may be the most effective in the case of
class discussions, pair work or group work because answering these questions
individually does not necessarily support the components’ development. If the
teacher adds here extra questions to compare the Hungarian and American situation
or indeed markedly different situations, such as that in Denmark, students’ critical
cultural awareness and skills of interpreting and relating may be developed. In the
case of extra questions, the development of skills of discovery and interaction can
be supported if learners are asked, for example, to look for information about these
issues on the internet using authentic resources in a digital format. In summary, the
questions in task 1 are rather knowledge-based, but with the right guidance of the
teacher every component of IC can be developed. Task 2, 3 and 4 do not support the
development of the components of IC, thus they are left out from the study in the
detailed analysis because they rather support the development of listening skills and
vocabulary.
The last task includes 4 sets of questions which are suitable for class discussion,
pair work or group work as in the case of the first task. The questions are related to
the country of the language learners, but, as seen in Section 2.3. in the study, IC
development involves a focus on the language learners’ own culture as well [4]. The
first bunch of questions, “What is the current rate of unemployment in your country?
Do you think that the situation will get better or worse in the future? Why?”, are
appropriate for developing more than one component of IC. Students can develop
their knowledge with the first question, and if the statistics of the homeland are
compared with the US data, then skills of interpreting and relating may be developed.
In the case of the second and third questions attitudes and critical cultural awareness
may be developed because these questions may raise interest, and answering the
questions requires some critical analysis of the data and statistics of Hungary. If the
proper data are absent, students can look for some information, developing skills of
discovery and interaction. The second set of questions, “How much paid holiday do
employees usually get in your country? Do you think it fair?”, are structured in the
same way, with the possibility of developing the same IC components. The third set
of questions, “How are urgent letters and packages delivered where you live? Who
is this service usually used by?”, are rather for the development of knowledge, but if
learners cannot answer, they can look for some information again on the internet,
and with the use of authentic sources skills of discovery and interaction can be
evolved. The fourth set of questions “Do you think that secure jobs are a thing of the
past? Why/Why not?”, is suitable for the development of students’ critical cultural
awareness because it makes them think and express their own opinions based on
previously acquired data. It can be said that the questions in task 5 may be suitable
~ 36 ~
together for the development of all components of IC, if the task is introduced and
managed well by the teacher.
Examining the worksheet, it can be claimed that the first and the fifth tasks may
be suitable for IC development, but it is vital to stress that successful IC
development depends on the methods of the teacher, how the activities and
questions are applied in class. Skills of discovery and interaction are not involved
directly in the tasks and questions, but with the application of technology this
component can be trained as well. All 5 components may be developed with the
application of the video and the worksheet together, but the teacher’s guidance and
instructions are necessary for successful IC development. The worksheet on its
own focuses mainly on knowledge supplemented with attitudes, skills of
interpreting and relating, critical cultural awareness. Skills of discovery and
interaction are not explicitly present in the worksheet and the video, but they can
be enhanced with some extra activities or questions.
It can be concluded based on the analysis of this one video and the corresponding
worksheet from the Culture DVD that IC components are not equally included in the
material, but some questions on the worksheet may develop more than one
component at the same time, and the video and the worksheet may be suitable for
developing students’ IC to a great extent. Due to the same structure of the videos and
worksheets, it can be presumed that all resources on the Culture DVD are appropriate
for IC development. The videos and worksheets of the Culture DVD do not belong
tightly to the core materials of the coursebooks, thus they can be used as supplements
in the case of any other coursebook packages as well.
6. Findings
The short literature review described substantial information and facts about ICC,
technology and ICC development with the application of technology in ELT
establishing the basis of the empirical research. The aim of the empirical research
was to examine and analyse the chosen coursebook package, Solutions 2nd edition,
from three points of view. Firstly, information about supplementary digital
materials was collected. The result was that a great amount of supplementary
digital materials is available for the coursebook package. Some of them are
included to the printed core materials. The coursebook package highly stresses the
importance of technology in ELT.
Thereafter, the collected supplementary digital materials were examined in order
to find materials which include cultural contents. On the basis of the results, it can
be said that the coursebook package has only two resources, the DVD-ROM and the
Culture DVD, which are supplementary digital materials with a cultural orientation.
Only these two culture-oriented supplementary digital materials are added to the
coursebook package, thus it can be stated that culture is not a highlighted component
of extra digital resources. As third part of the research, a chosen supplementary
digital culture-related material was analysed in order to examine the extent of the
material’s IC support.
~ 37 ~
It was a resource which consists of a video and worksheet from the Culture DVD.
The video and the worksheet may facilitate IC development remarkably, but the
components are not equally present in the video and in the tasks of the worksheet.
Mainly knowledge may be developed with the material, but all of the components
may be evolved equally if the teacher applies additional questions and tasks. The
worksheet can be applied in printed format or it can be edited with proper tools on
smart devices, but the worksheet can be digitalized on various platforms.
The cultural content of the DVD-ROM could be examined as well for further
research. All contents of the Culture DVD could be analysed in the same way for a
further and more detailed research. Furthermore, the third edition of the coursebook
package can be analysed from the same aspects as well as an extension of the
research.
7. Conclusion
ICC development is one of the main objectives of intercultural teaching which is a
relatively new approach in language teaching in contrast with the grammar-translation
method, for instance. Due to the intercultural approach in teaching, ELT teachers
started to focus on the development of ICC besides the 4 basic skills in English lessons.
Furthermore, technology has a determinative role in the progress of learning and
teaching. Technology can facilitate successful ICC development to a great extent
because technology is present in education and English lessons, thus the opportunities
which are given by technology can be used for the improvement of ICC.
It can be concluded that there are supplementary digital materials with a
meaningful ratio in the case of this coursebook package, but only few culture-related
supplementary digital materials are available. However, the writers and contributors
of the coursebook package recognized the importance of ICC development, thus this
approach can be found in supplementary materials. Many of the supplementary
materials are digital resources, thus the coursebook package supports technology
application in language teaching and learning. Clip 5 from the Culture DVD is
suitable for the development of IC and its components, but a further and extended
study could be made with the analysis of all resources of the DVD in order to get a
more precise and general picture about IC development with the DVD.
References
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d-shyamlee-1-m-phil-2.html
~ 40 ~
Róbert Erdei
University of Miskolc Faculty of Arts Teacher Education Institute.
Miskolc-Egyetemváros C/1 building 320. 3515 Miskolc, Hungary.
robert.erdei@uni-miskolc.hu
DEVELOPING RESILIENCE WITHIN THE ACTIVITIES
OF THE PEDAGOGICAL ASSISTANCE SERVICE A
MONG PRESCHOOLERS
Abstract: The present study explores the potential of a program to build resilience among
preschool children facing multiple risk factors or challenges (at least four concurrent
factors). Early childhood is a critical period where developmental risks can significantly
negatively impact children. However, research results suggest that pedagogical interventions
can be used to mitigate these risks. The program focuses on enhancing childrens cognitive
abilities, reducing their manifested behavioral problems, and fostering their resilience as
perceived by parents and educators. Children participate in regular sessions throughout the
academic year. Their progress in the aforementioned areas is measured through pre- and
post-intervention assessments, including cognitive tests, behavioral screenings, and
resilience scales. Considering the programs results, positive outcomes are evident. A small
but statistically significant improvement in cognitive abilities was observable. The risk of
developing learning difficulties decreased among the participants. Behavioral problems
became less frequent and severe. Finally, parents and educators indicated a significant
increase in the perceived resilience of the participating children. Despite a small sample size
and potential for external influences, the program demonstrated positive effects across all
measured domains. It utilizes a multifaceted approach, exceeding the scope of conventional
educational services. Based on the preliminary findings, the program is a promising tool for
addressing the risk factors among preschoolers and promoting their school readiness.
Keywords: resilience, developmental risk, educational services, school readiness
1. Introduction
This study and its findings represent a significant step forward in implementing an
action research program. Previous research successfully demonstrated the
effectiveness of diagnostic and developmental-therapeutic work in pedagogical
services during the kindergarten-to-school transition period [1], [2]. However, this
action research program aims to go beyond the assumption that the developmental
activities of the pedagogical assistance service, which utilize the accumulated and
interrelated measurement data, are sufficient to develop resilience in preschool-aged
children. Developing and evaluating a specific, holistic program that expands the
range of service provision focused on the cognitive abilities of children has become
increasingly relevant and necessary.
~ 41 ~
1.1. Purpose of the Resilience Development Program
The primary goal of the resilience development program is to determine whether it
is possible to design a series of pedagogical-psychological interventions that can
effectively foster resilience in children at risk and consequently mitigate the effects
of these risks.
1.2. Research Objectives
The main objectives of the research were to:
1. Identify children in the available sample who, despite facing moderate or
prominent levels of risk in their lives, do not exhibit adverse outcomes,
develop appropriately, integrate effectively, and perform adequately in the
kindergarten and later elementary school environment.
2. Examine the presence of resilient functioning, defined as successfully coping
with the effects of risks and successfully adapting to an environment that
offers positive development opportunities.
1.3. Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses of the research were as follows:
1. Participation in the program contributes to the development of cognitive
abilities based on the measurement of intelligence and the results of the MSSST
screening test.
2. Based on the results of the Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire, participation
in the program contributes to reducing behavioral problems.
3. The perceived level of resilience of children, as assessed by educators and parents,
improves because of the program, based on the results of resilience scales.
2. Review of the Literature
2.1. Understanding Resilience
Defining resilience has become increasingly challenging as scientific knowledge of
the phenomenon expands and interpretive frameworks broaden. There is a growing
consensus that the dichotomous view of resilience, which suggests that an individual
either possesses this mode of functioning or does not, needs to be updated. It is being
replaced by a continuum-based approach that can also make sense of resilience
manifested to varying degrees in different areas of life. Observable resilient
functioning in one area does not automatically imply that the individual will also be
characterized by this in other life areas or developmental tasks [3].
2.1.1. Resilience as a Complex Phenomenon
Masten and Powells [4] classic interpretation suggests that two fundamental
conditions are necessary for judging resilience: exposure to significant risk in the
current life situation or the past and adequate coping despite the risk. Optimistically,
~ 42 ~
Masten [5] views resilience as everyday magic, suggesting that resilience should
be considered not an exceptional but a much more general and accessible
phenomenon and possibility for many individuals. Michael Rutter [6], [7] disagrees,
arguing that resilience is more exceptional than general. Veronese and Castiglioni
[8] also express their reservations about interpreting resilience as an everyday
phenomenon. If we look at it this way, it becomes difficult to distinguish between
resilient and normal, healthy functioning. However, it is essential to separate the two,
as normal functioning does not involve the same degree of exposure to risk as
resilient functioning.
2.1.2. Resilience as a Trait, Process, or Outcome
Researchers have yet to determine whether to interpret resilience as a trait, a process,
or an outcome [9]. Garmezy [10] defines resilience as a personal capacity, while
Rutter [11] defines it from the perspective of positive outcomes. Wolin and Wolin
[12] interpret resilience as seven distinct traits that collectively describe a personality
type. Of the seven different resilience types, the first is insight, which refers to the
ability to ask difficult questions, the second is independence (persons can be
themselves), followed by the role of relationships (attachment to significant people),
initiative (taking control), creativity (using imagination), then humor (finding the
funny side of certain situations), and finally ethics (the ability to do the right thing).
2.1.3. Resilience as a Capacity and Competence
There is a growing emphasis on an approach to understanding resilience that focuses
on capacities and competencies rather than deficits. This paradigm is also more
fortunate because it views resilience development as a realistic possibility [3].
Numerous other authors, such as Sikorska [13], highlight the possibility of
developing resilience, emphasizing that it should not be seen as an innate trait or
property but rather as a functioning that can be supported with appropriate tools and
interventions. For children, the most influential developmental opportunity in terms
of resilience is surrounded by a stable, secure, and loving environment that helps the
natural defense systems functions. These can contribute to the healthy development
of the nervous system and the proper improvement of the cognitive, emotional, and
physical areas [3]. Sikorska [13] considers completed development tasks vital for
laying the foundations for resilient functioning, as they provide a basis for
successfully facing further challenges. Completing development tasks can equip
children with the competencies and skills necessary for further normal development.
2.2. Promoting Resilience in Children
Achieving resilient functioning or developing existing resilience in children can be
an essential pedagogical goal. Several researchers agree on this. For example,
Sikorska [13] highlights the impact of the early years of life. This assumption also
suggests that resilience is not an innate ability or gift but can be developed
individually. As mentioned earlier, completed developmental tasks provide a
~ 43 ~
reasonable basis for the individual to cope successfully with new tasks and
challenges. Seiler [14] agrees that resilience and skill development also help children
cope with the difficulties that arise in everyday life. Alvord and colleagues [15]
believe that resilience can be learned, which does not mean the affected child will
not experience difficulties or problems.
2.2.1. Characteristics of Resilient Children
Specific characteristics of educational institutions can facilitate resilient functioning
or help children cope with difficulties in children raised or educated there. Fallon
[16] suggests that such characteristics include strong leadership, high expectations
for learners, appropriate development of basic skills, orderliness of the learning
environment, and continuous and thorough evaluation of learners.
Researchers have identified several key characteristics that are commonly associated
with resilient children. While these traits may vary slightly across different
perspectives, they encompass a range of positive attributes that enable children to
cope with challenges and adversity effectively. Here are some of the most prominent
characteristics of resilient children:
Challenge-Competent Approach: Resilient children view challenges and
obstacles as opportunities for growth and learning rather than insurmountable
hurdles. They are more likely to approach difficult situations with determination
and a belief in their ability to overcome them.
Optimism and Positive Outlook: Resilient children maintain a positive
outlook despite adversity. They have a powerful sense of hope and believe
things will eventually improve. This positive attitude helps them to persevere
and maintain motivation in the face of setbacks.
Strong Self-Regulation and Emotional Control: Resilient children can
effectively manage their emotions and regulate their behavior, even in
stressful or emotionally charged situations. They can delay gratification,
tolerate frustration, and maintain composure under pressure.
Problem-Solving Skills and Resourcefulness: Resilient children
demonstrate strong problem-solving skills and can create creative solutions to
challenges. They are resourceful in utilizing available resources and seeking
support when needed.
Social Competence and Supportive Relationships: Resilient children
typically have strong social skills and develop positive relationships with
peers, family members, and mentors. These supportive connections give them
a sense of belonging, encouragement, and guidance.
Adaptability and Flexibility: Resilient children can adapt to changing
circumstances and adjust their expectations and behaviors. They are flexible
in their thinking and approach to problem-solving, allowing them to navigate
challenges effectively.
Sense of Purpose and Meaning: Resilient children often have a keen sense
of purpose and meaning in life. They clearly understand their values and goals,
which provides them with direction and motivation in the face of adversity.
~ 44 ~
·Empathy and Compassion: Resilient children are often empathetic and
compassionate towards others. They can understand and share the feelings of
others, which fosters positive relationships and contributes to their overall
well-being.
It is important to note that these characteristics are not mutually exclusive and may
manifest differently in each child. Resilience development is a complex process
influenced by a combination of factors, including individual traits, family dynamics,
and environmental influences [5], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22].
2.2.2. Resilience and Mental Health
While resilience is associated with positive mental health outcomes, it is essential to
recognize that it does not guarantee immunity to mental health challenges. Resilient
individuals may still experience stress, anxiety, or even depression at times.
However, their resilience enables them to cope with these challenges more
effectively and bounce back from setbacks more quickly. Resilient individuals may
have a higher stress tolerance and can better regulate their emotions. They may also
have more robust coping mechanisms and social support networks that help them
navigate difficult periods. While resilience does not eliminate the possibility
of mental health challenges, it can be a valuable protective factor that promotes
overall well-being and enhances an individuals ability to cope with adversity [4],
[15], [17], [23], [24].
2.3. Goals and Rationale for the Resilience Development Program
The development and implementation of this program were deemed necessary due to
the stark evidence from recent years highlighting the risks associated with exposure to
adversity. When the programs concept was initially conceived, the COVID-19
pandemic and the outbreak of war in a neighboring country were unforeseen.
However, as a practicing psychologist, my experiences led me to anticipate the
challenges faced by children and families residing in the area, the high number of
concurrent risk factors, and the difficulties in coping with these challenges.
Supporting this assumption are relevant research findings, such as those by
Southwick et al. [3], which indicate a tendency to live our lives with the expectation
that everything will be fine, a message we often convey to our children. However,
this is only sometimes the case, and the experiences of recent years have also shown
that it is not exclusively groups traditionally considered more exposed to risk factors
that can find themselves in demanding situations. Instead, anyone can be affected.
Accordingly, preparing for the high probability of challenges is crucial, thereby
supporting more successful coping [3]. Fay et al. [25] emphasize the role of
institutionalized education in developing and maintaining resilience, to which
numerous other factors contribute beyond educational and teaching practices, such
as childcare and cooperation between institutions and families. In many cases,
institutionalized education plays a primary role in childrens development, even
though the home environment also has a significant contribution. Institutionalized
~ 45 ~
educational settings also function as communal spaces that enable children to form
and maintain relationships with peers and other significant individuals.
The programs primary objectives align with the findings of relevant research.
Placing the program within the framework of institutionalized education is crucial,
given the close collaboration between the pedagogical assistance service and the
kindergarten. This ensures that children can access the intervention in a safe,
familiar, and accustomed environment. Southwick et al. [3] emphasize that
interventions at a certain level have a ripple effect across other levels, suggesting
that we can rightfully expect positive outcomes achieved in the kindergarten context
to be transferable to both the home environment and later to school.
The programs key objectives include:
Identifying risk factors that pedagogical assistance service professionals can
most effectively address through their diagnostic and developmental-
therapeutic activities.
Determining the most valuable resources and most effectively operable
protective factors that can be:
a. Delivered and ensured for children who contact us through pedagogical
assistance services.
b. Effectively reduce or modify the impact of risk factors or adversities in
childrens lives.
c. Enable those affected to perform more effectively within the framework
of educational institutions, experience fewer integration or behavioral
difficulties, be more effective both individually and in their social
relationships, and cope more successfully with risk factors.
3. Methodology
The study employs a primarily quantitative methodology, incorporating qualitative
and quantitative data collection approaches. The qualitative aspect stems from the
inherent nature of resilience research and its use as an interpretive framework.
Utilizing multiple data collection methods allows for a more accurate and reliable
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation [26]. The study sample
comprises children from the kindergartens of Szemere and Encs.
3.1. Data Collection Procedures
The study utilizes a range of data collection procedures to assess pre-intervention
and post-intervention indicators, including various cognitive abilities, social status,
the presence or absence of diagnoses indicating various problems (e. g., special
educational needs, integration, learning, behavioral difficulties, psychiatric
diagnoses, etc.), assessment of the number and nature of risk factors faced by the
child, the quality of integration into institutionalized education, and the presence or
absence of behavioral problems experienced by the institution and parents.
Exposure to a higher degree of risk and the cumulative impact of multiple risk
factors were crucial criteria for inclusion in the program. The number of risk factors
~ 46 ~
was set at four, aligning with the index described by Jenkins and Keating [27], which
suggests that four concurrent risk factors increase the likelihood of adverse
outcomes by 50%. The risk factors include poverty; minority status; low cognitive
abilities; integration difficulties; behavioral problems; problems related to the
COVID-19 situation (e. g., death in the family, illness, job loss, adverse changes in
the family atmosphere, etc.); congenital or disease-related conditions or disorders;
negative self-image, low self-esteem; presence of a diagnosed problem or disorder;
divorce, parental absence, adoption, or upbringing by foster parents; large family
size, multiple competitive siblings (age difference less than two years); young
parental age, parental inexperience; abuse or neglect; as well as antisocial, criminal,
or other developmentally risky parental behaviors or attitudes [4], [19], [27], [28],
[29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34].
Based on these factors, kindergarten teachers were requested to assess potentially
eligible children for the program. Additionally, other relevant input measures were
employed. All children participated in the MSSST screening test at the beginning of
the school year, which screens children at risk of learning disabilities or difficulties
in motor skills, visuomotor perception, and language skills. At the Encs Pedagogical
Assistance Service, all children who have turned five participate in this screening
test at the beginning of each school year as part of the educational service. Based on
the results of the MSSST screening, colleagues working in educational counseling
select the participants for the developmental sessions. The selected children also
underwent intelligence tests using the Raven nonverbal test or the Budapest Binet
test [35]. It is important to note that intellectual abilities were not a selection
criterion, as even a child with higher intellectual abilities may have risk factors,
behavioral problems, or integration problems that hinder optimal development. The
assessment of intellectual abilities at the input stage was particularly relevant as the
programs declared goals include the development of cognitive abilities, and the
most obvious indicator of this is the assessment of intellectual abilities. The Conners
Child Behavior Checklist, completed by parents and teachers, was also considered
during the selection process. This tool is suitable for mapping a wide range of
behavioral problems in preschool children, allowing for the detection of oppositional
behavior or signs suggestive of hyperactivity. Finally, the parents and kindergarten
teachers of the participating children completed a scale assessing the current level of
the childrens resilient functioning.
3.2. Study Sample
The study involves children from the Encsi Csoda-r Kindergarten and the Szemerei
Mesekastély Kindergarten and Kitchen. Thirty-four children were selected from the
two institutions: eleven from the Encs kindergarten and twenty-three from the Szemere
kindergarten. All these children are in their last year of kindergarten, which means they
will reach compulsory school age during the program implementation. The sample
includes fifteen girls and nineteen boys. The average age of the participants at the start
of the program was 5.78 years. The youngest participant was 5.2 years old, while the
oldest child was 7.1 years old at the beginning of the program implementation.
~ 47 ~
4. Research Findings
4.1. Hypothesis 1: Improvement in Cognitive Abilities
The researchs first hypothesis posited that the participating childrens cognitive
ability measures would show an improvement due to their involvement in the program.
To assess this, I examined various indicators, including the intelligence scores obtained
during the initial and post-intervention measurements and the level of risk of learning
difficulties indicated by the MSSST screening tests. It is important to note that the
score values of the children were not fully available for the MSSST screening, so I
could only consider the risk, mild risk, or no risk of learning disabilities based on the
input and control measurements. The first and second figures present the results that
were obtained.
Figure 1. Intelligence scores obtained during pre- and post-intervention
assessments: for both the input and control measurements, either the Budapest
Binet or the Raven non-verbal test (child version) was employed to assess: s the
intelligence of the participating children.
The measurement of childrens intelligence indicated a notable improvement. The
paired t-test results showed that the initial intelligence score was significantly lower
than the value obtained during the control test (t = 5.618, df = 33, p < 0.0001). While
the numerical difference may not seem particularly substantial (86.32 versus 89.56),
the statistically significant solid difference suggests that the childrens performance
improved during the period between the input and control measurements.
A comparison of the recommendations based on the MSSST screening results
reveals a significant reduction in the level of risk for learning disabilities (2.35 versus
1.88). It is important to note that the MSSST screening results were evaluated based
on the children's current ages. The result is statistically significant (t = 4.871, df =
33, p < 0.0001). The MSSST screening recommendations indicate a notable decrease
in the risk of learning disabilities among the participating children. This
improvement aligns with the findings from the intelligence assessment, suggesting
an overall enhancement of cognitive abilities. The statistically significant results
provide compelling evidence in support of the first hypothesis.
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Average IQ
IQ
pre post
~ 48 ~
Figure 2. MSSST screening recommendations based on initial and control
assessments: The MSSST screening test categorizes the risk of learning disabilities into
three levels: absence of risk (coded as 1), mild risk (coded as 2), risk (coded as 3)
4.2. Hypothesis 2: Reduction in Behavioral Problems
The studys second hypothesis posited that the childrens behavioral problems would
diminish due to their participation in the program sessions. The Conners Child Behavior
Checklist was administered to assess this, with both parent and teacher versions available
for analysis. The results of the Conners questionnaires are presented in Figures 3 and 4.
In addition to overall scores, the results for each subscale, including oppositional
behavior, cognitive abilities, hyperactivity, and ADHD, were also examined.
Figure 3. Conners Child Behavior Checklist results based on pre- and post-
intervention assessments (teacher ratings): The diagram presents the results of the
Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire for both the input and control measurements,
as rated by teachers. It includes the scores for each subscale (oppositional,
cognitive, hyperactivity, ADHD) and the overall composite score.
The Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire was used to measure changes in behavioral
problems among the participating children. The results suggest a significant reduction
in various aspects of behavioral problems, including oppositional behavior,
hyperactivity, and ADHD. These findings provide further support for the effective-
ness of the resilience development program.
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
MSSST
screening
result
MSSST
pre post
~ 49 ~
The study findings support both the first and the second hypotheses, indicating
that the resilience development program positively impacted the participating
childrens cognitive abilities and behavioral patterns. These improvements suggest
that the program may enhance at-risk childrens overall well-being and development.
Based on the overall composite score of the Conners Teacher Questionnaire
(28.62 versus 26.65 points), there was a significant decrease in the number of
behavioral problems according to the teachers ratings (t = 1.044, df = 33,
p < 0.0001). While there was no significant difference in the oppositional subtest
results, the other subscales showed significant changes. The cognitive subscale (3.53
versus 3.32 points, t = 2.508, df = 33, p = 0.017), hyperactivity subscale (7.56 versus
6.97 points, t = 3.583, df = 33, p < 0.001), and ADHD subscale (15.79 versus 14.76
points, t = 3.93, df = 33, p < 0.0001) all showed significant differences between the
input and control measurements. All significant differences indicate lower scores in
the control measurement, suggesting a downward trend in behavioral problems. The
results of the Conners questionnaires filled out by parents also exhibit similar trends
to the teacher version. According to the data provided by parents, there was a
significant decrease in the overall composite score between the input and control
measurements (29.26 versus 26.88 points, t = 6.893, df = 33, p < 0.0001). All
subscales showed significant reductions in the scores given by parents. The
oppositional (4.12 versus 3.76 points, t = 2.425, df = 33, p = 0.021), cognitive (6.71
versus 6.41 points, t = 2.052, df = 33, p = 0.048), hyperactivity (6.85 versus 6.35
points, t = 3.137, df = 33, p = 0.004), and ADHD (15.26 versus 14 points, t = 6.489,
df = 33, p < 0.0001) subscales all had scores in the second measurement that were
statistically significantly lower than those obtained in the input measurement. The
findings from the Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire, both teacher and parent
versions, provide robust evidence that the resilience development program positively
reduced behavioral problems among the participating children. This improvement
aligns with the studys overall findings, suggesting a beneficial effect of the program
on cognitive abilities and behavioral patterns.
Figure 4. Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire Results Based on Input and
Control Measurements (Parent Ratings): The diagram presents the results
of the Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire for both the input and control
measurements, as rated by parents. It includes the scores for each subscale
(oppositional, cognitive, hyperactivity, ADHD) and the overall composite score.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
oppositional cognitive hyperactivity ADHD sum
Conners parents pre post
~ 50 ~
Based on the overall composite score of the Conners Parent Questionnaire (29.26
versus 26.88 points), there was a significant decrease in the number of behavioral
problems according to the parents ratings (t = 6.893, df = 33, p < 0.0001). All
subscales showed significant reductions in the scores given by parents. The
oppositional (4.12 versus 3.76 points, t = 2.425, df = 33, p = 0.021), cognitive (6.71
versus 6.41 points, t = 2.052, df = 33, p = 0.048), hyperactivity (6.85 versus 6.35
points, t = 3.137, df = 33, p = 0.004), and ADHD (15.26 versus 14 points, t = 6.489,
df = 33, p < 0.0001) subscales all had scores in the second measurement that were
statistically significantly lower than those obtained in the input measurement.
The second hypothesis can be accepted based on the obtained results. Both
teachers and parents reported a decrease in behavioral problems compared to the
input data. The findings from the Conners Child Behavior Questionnaire, both
teacher and parent versions, provide convincing evidence that the resilience
development program positively reduced behavioral problems and enhanced
resilience among the participating children. This improvement aligns with the
studys overall findings, suggesting a beneficial effect of the program on cognitive
abilities, behavioral patterns, and psychological well-being.
4.3. Hypothesis 3: Assessment of Resilience
To investigate the third hypothesis, the perceived level of resilience based on data
provided by teachers and parents was compared. Resilience is less directly
measurable than intelligence or other abilities; therefore, in this case, I relied on the
judgment of significant adults in the lives of participating children, similarly to the
Conners questionnaires. The results indicate an upward trend in the childrens
observed resilience level. The scores given by teachers (39.09 versus 41.79) and
parents (46.24 versus 48.59) are higher in the second measurement. The results are
statistically significant in both cases (t = 15.308, df = 33, p < 0.0001 for teacher
ratings, t = 5.111, df = 33, p < 0.0001 for parent ratings). The results are also
presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5. The results of the resilience scale based on the judgement of parents and
teachers pre-and post-intervention.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Teachers Parents
Resilience scale
pre post
~ 51 ~
The findings presented in Figure 5 further support the third hypothesis, which
posited an increase in perceived resilience among the participating children. Both
teachers and parents reported a significant improvement in assessing the childrens
resilience between the input and control measurements. This suggests that the
resilience development program positively impacted the development of resilience
in children.
Additional Observations: While not related to the hypotheses, the study also
revealed some interesting patterns in the data collected from teachers and parents.
Initial Ratings: At the beginning of the study, there were no significant differences
between teacher and parent ratings regarding overall Conners questionnaire scores,
hyperactivity, and ADHD. However, parents rated the children as having more
significant cognitive and oppositional difficulties than teachers.
Persistent Differences: These differences in ratings persisted even after the
program, with parents consistently reporting more concerns about cognitive and
oppositional issues than teachers.
Higher Resilience Perception by Parents: Interestingly, parents consistently rated
the childrens resilience higher than teachers, both at the beginning and end of the
study. This suggests that parents may have a more optimistic view of the childrens
ability to cope with challenges.
Further Assessment Recommendations: Seven of the thirty-four participants
teachers identified them as requiring further comprehensive evaluation, primarily
based on the MSSST screening test results.
The study findings provide compelling evidence that the resilience development
program effectively enhanced resilience and reduced behavioral problems among the
participating children. The consistent observations from both teachers and parents
further support the programs positive impact. While some initial differences in their
ratings were noted, these differences did not diminish the overall positive outcomes
observed. The study also highlights the importance of considering teacher and parent
perspectives when assessing child development and well-being.
5. Conclusions
The programs outcomes provide promising evidence for the effectiveness of
resilience development interventions. Positive changes were observed in cognitive
abilities, behavioral issues, and resilience levels among the participating children.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge the studys limitations, including a small
sample size and the ongoing nature of the program. Despite the positive program
outcomes, it is essential to note that the underlying risk factors in the participants
lives remained unchanged. These risk factors, such as poverty, minority status,
~ 52 ~
removal from the biological family, and parental unemployment, are often beyond
the scope of direct pedagogical-psychological interventions. The study population
exhibited a wide range of abilities and behavioral challenges, with some children
exhibiting severe difficulties and others demonstrating average or above-average
abilities. This heterogeneity highlights the need for individualized and differentiated
approaches within the program.
The programs development and implementation faced various methodological
challenges, including finding the optimal balance between the childrens
developmental levels, the level of challenge in the activities, and alignment with the
programs goals. Additionally, some activities proved to be too difficult and had to
be discarded despite their initial promise. Certain aspects of the program, such as the
entrance code activity, were consistently repeated across groups and sessions. This
repetition aimed to capitalize on the childrens familiarity and enjoyment of specific
activities. The contributions of preschool teachers to childrens daily lives should be
noted. Their involvement in the program can provide a valuable perspective and
reinforce the importance of addressing risk factors.
The programs findings suggest that resilience development is a viable and
relevant pedagogical goal, opening opportunities for collaboration among various
stakeholders. This collaboration includes direct interactions between program
facilitators and participants and broader partnerships between preschool teachers,
program facilitators, and school administrators. Disseminating the programs
knowledge and approaches to a broader audience of educators can positively impact
their work, especially if they gain a deeper understanding of the theoretical and
research underpinnings of resilience.
Expanding the programs age range, both younger and older, could be considered.
Early intervention might significantly impact mitigating risk factors while providing
support during the transition to school, which could be beneficial for children facing
challenges in that context. Involving children from a broader range of institutions
and backgrounds could further enrich the programs knowledge base and provide
insights into diverse experiences.
Overall, the programs encouraging outcomes and the identified areas for
improvement highlight the potential of resilience development interventions to
support vulnerable children and promote their well-being.
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Kovácsné Duró Andrea
University of Miskolc, Egyetem út 1, H-3515, Miskolc, Hungary
duro.andrea@gmail.com
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS DISCOURSE BASED
ON THE OPINION OF TEACHER TRAINEE
CORRESPONDENT STUDENTS
Introduction: Unfolding the special features of discourse in lessons is an interdisciplinary
field, which can be examined from aspects of pedagogy, social psychology, methodology,
sociology, linguistics, communication theory, sociolinguistics, or information theory as well.
Based on relevant research, first of all, we talk of the continuance of communication
techniques applied on an instinct level, which can mostly be viewed at from the aspect of the
superordinate, coordinating role of teachers. At the same time, nowadays, students belonging
to generation Z and Alpha require more diverse learning situations and more interactive
class communication. From this comes the well-founded question: How can future teachers
meet these expectations?
Methods: In this study, based on the experiences and reflections of correspondent teacher
trainees in the consultation seminary, the issue of this research is looked at from the
perspective of teacher explanations, question techniques, and the involvement of learners
into the classroom discourse. As a revealing method, an individual written survey was
carried out, while as an evaluating method, a structural content analysis was taken. Results:
In this presentation, based on the experiences and reflections of correspondent teacher
trainee university students, the issue mentioned above is viewed at from the perspective of
teacher explanation, question techniques, and the involvement of students into class
discourse. The people participating in the research have found one of the biggest challenges
in choosing the style of speech matching previous knowledge of learners and their abilities,
specifying the complexity of explanations and instructions, and forming questions matching
the right level and the competences of learners. In several regards, the informants followed
the same practice: They strived for an explanation which makes various learning modalities
possible and is paired with illustration and a realization of a style which is in accordance
with the requirements of the given subject and which is at the same time close to learners;
all this could mostly be reached through the illustration of abstract materials by means of
lifelike examples, through often giving questions regarding the understandability of the
material, that is to say, through prioritizing the triadic dialogue between teacher and student.
On the other hand, it turned out from the reflections of university students that teacher
statements based on knowledge stood in the focus, furthermore, making learners active was
in several cases a challenge. Since the answers of students have often been short, they haven’t
given a nuanced picture about the complex phenomenon of class discourse. Conclusions: The
results point out first of all the fact that during education, it is in connection with the
constructivist paradigm a significant task (even more than before) to prepare university
students for new communication situations fitting the characteristics of leaners of generation
Z and Alpha, to make them familiar with patterns connecting roles of observation and
knowledge organization, and with question techniques developing thinking, resp. to further
develop their self-reflexive competence. In this way, students can receive support for making
classroom discourse more effective.
~ 57 ~
Keywords: teacher research, teacher-student discourse in class, communication competences
and question techniques of teacher trainee university students
1. Introduction
Revealing the characteristics of classroom discourse is an interdisciplinary field, which
can be examined from the aspect of pedagogy, communication theory, linguistics,
sociolinguistics, information theory, or even social psychology, methodology, and
sociology. The results of researches connected to this topic support the superordinate,
coordinating role of teachers regarding the amount and methods of utterances. At the
same time, nowadays, students belonging to generation Z and Alpha require more
diverse learning situations and more interactive class communication, moreover, they
expect the adaptation of the pedagogy of experience. From this comes the well-
founded question: How can correspondent teacher trainees meet these more and more
complex expectations? Based on the problems mentioned, in this study, I focused on
revealing the experiences demonstrated by teacher trainees and the reflections
connecting to these, especially with regards to teacher explanations, question
techniques, and the involvement of learners into classroom discourse.
2. Theoretical basics: The quantitative and qualitative characteristics
of classroom discourse
With connection to the discourse taking place in lessons, the analysis representing
approaches of different kind can provide several conclusions, regarding both the
examination of classroom interaction resp. the elements of discourse between teachers
and learners and the characteristics of their language use resp. the amount of their
utterances in the lesson [1]. Based on the studies focusing on the topics mentioned
before, similar conclusions can be drawn in several respects. One of the characteristics
of lessons is the remanence of some traditional patterns and the communication
techniques intuitively applied within classroom interactions in the lessons [2], which
can mostly be embraced in the superordinate, coordinating role of the teacher resp. in
the asymmetric relation [3].
The amount of speech of teachers and learners is a characteristic indicator of
classroom interactivity. The fact that the teacher speech significantly exceeds the
utterances of learners has been supported by several empirical researches. For
example, while working in a frontal way, this relation can reach 70-30% as well, and
almost 40% of teacher utterances are made up of instructions [4]. Beside the factors
mentioned, the explanations resp. the discourse organizations of questionanswer, and
the ones explaining by giving questions and building on statements or following a
descriptive structure can be viewed as central elements of classroom discourse. These
tendences can of course be changed depending on the methodologies applied as this
is demonstrated by the cooperative methods preferring communication between
learners [5]. From the perspective of teachers, a strategy based on cooperation resp.
adjusting to the different levels of learners’ knowledge can prove as beneficial. From
this point of view, “the presence of the maxims of communication described by
~ 58 ~
Maxim is determining too. According to these, a teacher says as much from the topic
which he/she considers necessary based on the knowledge level of learners (maxim
of quantity); he/she says things of which truth he/she is convinced (maxim of
quality); he/she aims to provide information in a straightforward way resp. to provide
information strongly connecting to the topic (maxim of relevance); he/she aims to
transfer his/her knowledge in a way that learners can understand it (maxim of
manner)” [6]. Another characteristic indicator of the “effectiveness” of teacher
communication is how much the teacher is able to involve more and more learners
into the classroom work and to activate silent, withdrawn learners resp. to train the
ones with an excessive “stage fever” to be patient [7].
The teacher questions are also significant components of teacherlearner
interactions, which solely connect to the elements of speech acts following them and
make triadic dialogues with them. It’s not surprising that these latter ones stand with
the repetition of sequences of initiation answer feedback in the center of analyses,
for the evaluating reactions of teachers given to the answers of learners (e. g.
acceptance, correction, critique) can also become source of several conflicts,
especially if the orally describing evaluation is paired with a grade [8]. Among
others, reporting on knowledge is a significant form of the manifestation of teacher
dominance, which nowadays has lost from its significance but still represents the
characteristics of social interactions (realization of roles, content of utterances,
pattern of verbal and non-verbal utterances, characteristics of cooperation,
communication strategies) [9]. Among the rituals of classroom communication, the
conventions connecting to the start and ending of the lesson resp. speech acts
connecting to the report on knowledge can contribute (beside the speech attitude in
classroom manifesting during the lesson) to the analysis of the characteristics of the
speech attitude of teachers resp. of the teacherlearner relation [10].
3. Characteristics of the survey
3.1. The aim, methods, and patterns of the research
Covering the whole system of activities in the work of teaching and educating, the fact
that all the 9 fields of competence enlisted in the evaluating system [11] include (in a
direct or indirect way) the existence of abilities of this kind marks the need for
developing the communicative competences of teachers. The 8. competence
(Communication and professional cooperation, problem solving) highlights the
importance of this on its own too. Among the requirements of teacher training, beside
the personality development of learners and maintaining individual treatment, the
KKK emphasizes the support of learner groups and communities as well. The system
of criteria in the document mentioned contains the fact that the teacher should express
himself/herself both in writing and in speaking in a nuanced way, moreover, he/she
should be capable of “creating and conveying the connections between terms, theories
and facts on the fields fitting his/her subject”, of adjusting the structure and of
conveying the material to the learner group, of taking care of his/her learners’
understanding difficulties, resp. developing their thinking, continually upholding their
~ 59 ~
attention and interest, and creating an ideal atmosphere. By taking the age, individual
and group characteristics into account, the teacher should strive for the cooperation
with learners, for the “adaptation of learner strategies supporting activity, interactivity
and differentiation”, and for the correct evaluation. Overall, in teaching situations, the
becoming teacher should be able to show consideration, cooperation, mutuality,
assertivity, a helping, emotional, compassionate, professional, articulate, open and
credible communication” [12]. All this can be expressed (in a synthetized form) in a
way that a teacher should always strive for a scientific and educational renewal and,
beside this, for the continuous development of his/her communication skills.
The list above illustrates the complex system of criteria, the fulfilling of which is
not an easy task for correspondent teacher trainees, in a good way, especially if we
consider the fact that in the teaching of professional subjects, special communication
situations not really typical for teaching general knowledge can also occur, for example
the four-step simulation method in the education of health studies [13]. Since it is a
significant question during the education, to what extent future teachers are capable of
acquiring and carrying out professional and adequate classroom communication, it is
definitely worth unfolding this field, for the results can provide important information
for the preparation later on at the university resp. for the renewal of its content and
methodology and for student’s competence in self-reflection.
It follows from all this that the primary goal of this survey adapting an inductive,
descriptive strategy was to unfold the own experiences of correspondent teacher
trainees regarding classroom discourse and the reflections connecting to these.
The recalling of personal experiences is first of all significant because the
articulation and analysis of these can contribute to a more well-founded construction
of lessons and among others to the development of teacher communication as well.
In this research, as a finding method, I carried out an individual written survey,
while as an analyzing method, I carried out a structural content analysis. While using
the adapted version of the list of questions entitled “Reflecting on the lesson” resp.
covering 14 topics [14], the examinations of planning and organizing the lesson and
describing the experiences covering the whole circle of classroom activities were
equally crucial. Therefore, it touched upon the aims, upon choosing and organizing
the material, the methods applied, activities and word forms, judging own
adaptability, resp. difficulties of involving students, and possible forms of teacher-
learner communication. All the 64 questions of the questionnaire focused directly on
the problem area and was bound to the performance of students’ optionally chosen
lesson given in their subject. In this study, I present a s