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Sustainable machining of aluminum MMCs: The role of biomimetic
textured cutting tools in cryogenic conditions
Nageswaran Tamil Alagan
a,b,*
, Nikhil Teja Sajja
a
, Pavel Zeman
c
, Tomas Primus
c,d
, Kalle Falk
e
,
Samuel A. Awe
f
a
Department of Engineering Science, University West, Trollh¨
attan, Sweden
b
Innovation and Technology, Extrusion Europe, Hydro Extruded Solutions AB, Finspång, Sweden
c
Department of Machining, Process Planning and Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
d
Department of Production Machines and Equipment (RCMT), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
e
Fortiva AB, Trollh¨
attan, Sweden
f
R&D Department, Automotive Components Floby, Sweden
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Al-MMC
Liquid nitrogen
Cryogenic cooling
Textured tools
Femtosecond laser
ABSTRACT
This study evaluated the feasibility of laser-textured biomimetic designs for cutting tools to investigate the effects
of laser-textured tools combined with cryogenic cooling using liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) on the tool-chip interface,
built-up edge (BUE) formation, and friction during Al-MMC machining. This study involved selecting a bio-
mimetic design, converting it into a textured cutting tool, evaluating the coefcient of friction (CoF) and cutting
forces on the textured surface under dry conditions, and using cryogenic LN
2
as a coolant with the textured tool.
Femtosecond lasers were used to precisely create biomimetic surfaces near the rake face edge without
compromising tool integrity. The pin-on-disc method revealed no signicant CoF difference between plain and
textured tools or among textured tools within the determinate pin load impact. Dry machining tests showed a
higher CoF than the pin-on-disc method owing to strong workpiece material adhesion. Cutting force analysis
under dry and textured conditions showed negligible effects on aggregate force components, although textured
tools had a higher feed force than untextured ones. Cryogenic cooling with plain tools reduced BUE height,
TCC
length
, and TCCarea compared to dry conditions. Textured tools in dry conditions increased BUE height and
acted as chip breakers, reducing TCC
length
and TCCarea compared to dry plain tools. Most textured tools with
cryogenic cooling reduced the BUE height, TCC
length
, and TCC
area
compared to their dry-textured counterparts.
The ndings suggest that combining biomimetic textured cutting tools with cryogenic machining is a promising
approach for sustainable manufacturing of Al-MMC’s.
1. Introduction
The production and manufacturing sectors are integral to the econ-
omies of numerous nations, necessitating continuous innovation to
enhance productivity, reduce energy consumption, and mitigate carbon
emissions. Industries such as automotive and aerospace contribute
signicantly to gross domestic product (GDP) and employment growth.
The paradigm shift in the automotive industry towards the production of
electric vehicles (EVs) has precipitated changes in the automotive
sector, with initiatives such as Sweden’s “Produktion 2030” focusing on
sustainable manufacturing to reduce emissions [1]. The advent of EVs
has also led to the replacement of ferrous alloys with lightweight
aluminum (Al) alloys and composites [2]. Aluminum is widely recog-
nized as one of the most abundant materials globally. Advancements in
materials science have facilitated the development of innovative
aluminum alloys and composites with enhanced mechanical properties,
thereby expanding their applications and improving product longevity.
A notable example of an aluminum-based material is an aluminum metal
matrix composite (Al-MMC) reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) par-
ticles. This composite is employed in the manufacturing of various
automotive components, including brake discs, piston rings, and cylin-
der heads, owing to its enhanced mechanical characteristics [3]. In most
current production processes, Al-MMC composites are machined using
coated sintered carbide tools in conjunction with ood cooling to
* Corresponding author at: Innovation and Technology, Extrusion Europe, Hydro Extruded Solutions AB, Finspång, Sweden.
E-mail address: nageswaran.tamil.alagan@hydro.com (N. Tamil Alagan).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Manufacturing Processes
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2024.11.057
Received 4 July 2024; Received in revised form 25 October 2024; Accepted 21 November 2024
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
Available online 7 December 2024
1526-6125/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
mitigate material adhesion. Nevertheless, the abrasive nature of SiC and
the adhesive properties of the Al matrix result in accelerated tool wear,
rendering these alloys challenging to machine. Cutting uids are
employed to mitigate friction and prolong tool lifespan [4]; however,
they present environmental and health hazards. The EU’s REACH
regulation pushes for alternatives to harmful chemicals [5], prompting
industries to explore eco-friendly machining processes like dry cutting,
improved tool design, coatings, and eco-friendly coolants. Conse-
quently, the sustainable manufacturing of Al-MMC presents a signicant
challenge. Numerous potential approaches exist to address the chal-
lenges associated with machining Al-MMC materials. One such approach
involves using structured cutting tools to inuence tool-chip contact
conditions and mitigate work-material adhesion.
Various studies have been conducted on the impact of structured
tools on cutting processes. The design of a structure is critical to its
function in the process. The design of structures can be categorized into
two primary groups: (i) geometric entities and (ii) bioinspired. Consid-
erable research has been conducted on the effect of design with geo-
metric entities for machining (see Appendix A). Research has
demonstrated that the use of structured tools for machining aluminum
alloys, magnesium alloys, carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium, and
nickel-based alloys can result in reduced cutting force, extended tool
life, enhanced abrasive resistance, and decreased adhesion (see
Appendix A). The decisive factors in the success of a structure are its type
and main characteristics, namely dimensions, structure density, and
orientation to the cutting edge. This aspect is signicant for bio-inspired
structures. However, the application of these structures in cutting tools
remains highly limited.
The term “biomimetics” derives from ancient Greek, denoting life
and imitation, and encompasses the process of drawing inspiration from
nature to address human challenges [6]. This concept applies biological
principles such as structure and functionality to man-made designs,
potentially aiding in the development of “functional surfaces” with
improved properties [7]. Nature offers numerous biomimetic designs for
various applications. However, owing to time and resource constraints,
this study focused on designs based on textures utilized in machining
research, low adhesion, low wettability, reduced coefcient of friction
(CoF), and abrasion resistance. Recent investigations have predomi-
nantly focused on determining the properties of one structure or a
limited number of structures, wherein basic properties, such as friction
and adhesion, are examined. Limited machining tests have been con-
ducted primarily on steel materials. Previous research has emphasized
nature-inspired designs for cutting tools. In their investigation, Fatima
et al. [8] developed “Snakeskin” textures for the dry turning of AISI 4140
steel, resulting in reduced wear, temperature, and cutting force. You
et al. [9] engineered a “Dung beetle head” structure on a WC tool for
turning Ti6Al4V, leading to a decrease in cutting and thrust forces. Cui
et al. [10] utilized a “Procambarus clarkii” design on ceramic tools to
optimize laser parameters for enhanced performance. S´
anchez et al. [11]
and Li et al. [12] emulated “Vipera ammodytes” and “Sharkskin” textures,
respectively, observing reduced friction under dry conditions. Li et al.
[13] fabricated “Pangolin scales” on surgical blades, thereby enhancing
anti-adhesion properties, reducing the coefcient of friction (CoF), and
inducing a hydrophobic effect. However, it is challenging to extrapolate
the ndings from previous research, which was conducted on a limited
number of samples and structural types, to a fundamentally different
material, such as an aluminum metal matrix composite (Al-MMC). Based
on our previous research, it is essential to design numerous bio-inspired
structures using innovative approaches. The objective is to evaluate
their effect on both the friction coefcient analysis and machining
processes. The current investigation incorporated the utilization of our
previously developed and optimized technology for the fabrication of
precise and high-quality structures on cutting tools. This technology is
predicated on an ultrashort pulse laser process that precludes undesir-
able thermal effects on the cutting material.
Textured cutting tools are an alternative to reducing coolant usage
by enhancing tribological properties and improving machinability [14].
The generation of macrotexture on the cutting tool surface facilitates
coolant access, diminishes adhesion and chip segmentation, and en-
hances tribological properties. Ranjan and Hiremath [15] observed that
texturing reduced the CoF at the tool-chip interface in comparison to
conventional tools. Kümmel et al. [15] studied dimples and grooves
textures on tungsten carbide tools and found that dimple-textured tools
exhibited lower wear during dry turning of carbon steel SAE 1045.
Sugihara and Enomoto [16] used micro-stripe grooves on WC tools to
improve anti-adhesion during wet face milling of an aluminum alloy.
Kawasegi et al. [17] used micro- and nanoscale textures on WC tools to
reduce friction and cutting forces when turning aluminum alloy (A5052)
with Minimum Quantity Lubricant (MQL). Textured tools reduce fric-
tion and decrease the cutting forces at high cutting speeds. Devraj et al.
[18] demonstrated that microhole textures on WC cutting inserts
enhanced the machining performance of Al-MMC. However, each
parameter exhibited distinct inuences, with the hole depth affecting
the friction behavior, hole diameter impacting chip breakability, and
localized stress. Numerous studies have been conducted to investigate
the inuence of textured tools on the friction behavior (coefcient of
friction, CoF). Cutting tests for force measurement are widely employed
to describe the frictional behavior during the chip formation process.
These tests involve determining the frictional and normal forces as well
as the CoF [19,20]. Several researchers have reported the positive effects
of textured tools on friction behavior and resistance [21–23].
Nevertheless, the frictional inuence is contingent upon cutting
conditions, work and tool materials, tool geometry, cutting environ-
ment, and associated phenomena, such as tool wear and Built-Up Edge
(BUE). Thus, the pin-on-disc (P-o-D) test can determine the friction
behavior of the structures under different conditions than cutting. These
differences include point versus area contact, various types of material
pairs (hard ball and soft/ductile chip), strong adhesion of the material
during the chip formation process, different temperatures, pressures,
and relative velocities in the contact zone between both sliding ele-
ments, different lubrication conditions, and various wear intensities of
the structure during sliding. A limited correlation with cutting was
observed, as reported in [24], despite the common use of specic open
tribometers [25] and the application of pin tribometers under cryo-
cooling conditions [26]. In recently published studies, Lian et al. [27]
demonstrated this approach for the circular motion of a titanium ball on
a structured surface. Ze et al. [28] used a reciprocal linear movement of
the pin against a structure that is closer to the actual situation of
tool–chip contact. Li et al. [12] conducted an investigation on the CoF of
a sharkskin biomimetic design applied to a coated AISI 316 L steel
sample, utilizing the ball-on-disc method with a hardened steel ball. A
decrease in the CoF was observed for the structures on the ZrO
2
/WS
2
coating. However, some biomimetic designs are dedicated to working
correctly in only one exact direction. Hence, a linear movement in one
(chip ow) direction is the closest setup to the actual process conditions
for investigation using a pin-on-disc test. This methodology was
employed in this study, and two distinct loads were applied under dry
contact conditions. The pin-on-disc method serves as an indirect indi-
cator of frictional properties and relative differences among various
cutting tool structures. The P-o-D method was used in our study for the
relative comparison of the nine different original structures and un-
modied tools.
Cryogenic-assisted machining has been a subject of interest in
manufacturing research since the 1950. However, technical handling
limitations and the costs associated with the storage and utilization of
liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) have constrained research opportunities.
Notwithstanding the aforementioned, certain investigations have
employed cryogenic uids as coolants to supplement the conventional
cutting uids. LN
2
is administered at subzero temperatures to the cutting
zone to diminish the shear zone temperature and enhance the friction
properties, consequently leading to a reduction in tool wear [29]. In
recent years, the use of LN
2
has gained renewed interest due to
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1006
environmental concerns and healthier workspaces. LN
2
evaporates
without residue, improving productivity by increasing material removal
rates (MRR) and cutting speeds, without increasing tool wear [30].
Mishra et al. [31] used Finite Element Method (FEM) simulations to
study cryogenic cooling on Ti6Al4V alloy with regular and micro-hole
textured WC cutting tools. The results showed reduced ank and
crater wear on textured tools under cryogenic conditions compared to
dry conditions. Dinesh et al. [22] conducted experimental studies on
cryogenic machining of ZK60 magnesium alloy with micro-textured
cutting tools. They found that LN
2
cooling, combined with the lubrica-
tion effect of textured tools, signicantly improved machinability, sur-
face nish, and reduced cutting forces, with parallel-textured tools
showing better performance.
Based on the above review, it is evident that the utilization of LN
2
cryogenic media for machining Al-MMC materials using structured tools
has not yet been addressed, despite the theoretical potential for signif-
icant benets from such an application. This investigation aims to
examine the effects of employing a combination of cryogenic medium
(LN
2
) and surface structure on the cutting tool (rake face) for turning a
specic type of Al-MMC alloy. The objective was to elucidate the
adhesion phenomena under constant cutting and cooling conditions.
This study compares the properties of nine types of high-quality bio-
mimetic structures with those of conventional tools. Initially, the study
examined the fundamental frictional properties utilizing the pin-on-disc
method. Subsequently, this study explores and delineates the effect of
combining these structures with cryogenic cooling during the machining
process. The primary aim was to enhance the machining process using
these techniques to develop an environmentally sustainable process by
minimizing or eliminating the use of conventional coolants.
2. Experimental methods
2.1. Materials and cutting tool
The work material used in this study was an Al-Si-Mg (A359) alloy
composite containing 20 wt% SiC particle reinforcement. The aluminum
composite was produced using a squeeze casting method supplied by
Automotive Components Floby, Sweden. The microhardness of the
workpiece was measured using a Vickers hardness tester with a test force
of 500 gf, resulting in an average hardness of 140 ±21 HV0,5. A K68
uncoated carbide tool manufactured by Kennametal with an 80◦
rhombic shape was used as the cutting tool for the machining experi-
ments. The ISO nomenclature used for the cutting insert is
CNMA120408, as listed in Table 1. Grade K68 consists of tungsten car-
bide and cobalt, which are alloyed to produce a ne-grained structure.
This grade is widely recommended by cutting tool suppliers for rough
machining [32].
2.2. Biomimetic textures for the cutting tool
In biomimetic texture research, the potential of biomimetic-inspired
designs was investigated, ltered, and evaluated for their feasibility of
application to cutting tools based on the criteria previously mentioned
to enhance the performance of the cutting tool. The developed cutting
tools were used to machine the Al-MMC reinforced with 20 wt% silicon
carbide (SiC) particles, which are highly abrasive. Table 2 summarizes
Table 1
Insert nomenclature.
Insert cutting edge length [mm] 12.7
Insert thickness [mm] 4.763
Corner radius [mm] 0.8
Insert hole size [mm] 5.16
Clearance angle [◦] 0
Type of insert Uncoated carbide
Insert shape Rhombic 80◦
Table 2
Selected Biomimetic textures and purposes.
S.
no
Texture Reasons Applications
1 Tractor tyre
(Leaf petal)
Low friction rate,
adhesion, easy to machine
difcult to cut materials
Tractor tyre texture has an
aggressive tread that helps
in removing excessive hard
material. Utilizing this
texture, machinability is
enhanced (reduced CoF) on
abrasive surfaces.
2 Pangolin Scales
(Riblets)
Lowers friction at the tool-
chip interface, smooths
the ow of chips, and
achieves tool wear, and
machine abrasive
materials.
Pangolin texture has riblets
on each scale that helps to
achieve friction conditions
at the tool-chip interface.
Riblets on the scales act as
tough outer armour that
helps in machining abrasive
material.
3 Armadillo shell High tool life, tool wear
(adhesion, ank), and
achieve COF
Armadillo shell texture acts
as a strong protective case
for the tool. The texture has
a dense triangle pattern that
will not allow longer chips
to form.
4 Fish scales Lower tool wear, thin
chips, low adhesion, and
friction
Scales look similar to the
Axe hand tool towards the
cutting tool which can
break chips and improve
friction properties.
5 Sharkskin Resistant to abrasive
wear, and good chip
owability led to reducing
friction
Sharkskin has miniature
tooth-like shark teeth
known as dermal scales.
These scales help sharks to
move more efciently with
less drag because of the
hydrodynamic effect.
6 Honeycomb Enhances load
distribution, reduces
surface friction, and
improves wear resistance
by evenly dispersing
forces across contact
areas. Its unique geometry
minimizes material
deformation and controls
heat dissipation.
Honeycomb texture offers
high load-bearing capacity
with low friction due to its
structured pattern. It is
ideal in applications
requiring wear resistance
and durability, such as
machining lightweight yet
brittle materials. The
texture helps reduce tool
wear and ensures smooth
chip removal by controlling
contact pressure and heat
generation.
7 Snakeskin
(European viper
snake)
Favourable to machine
abrasive materials,
improve friction
properties, and less
adhesion
Ventral scales of viper
(brils) texture are more
relevant to provide low
friction with the
combination of coolant.
Because the viper snake
lives in a soil environment
where lubrication of skin-
soil is insufcient still it
moves faster.
8 Dimples
(cylindrical)
Lower friction, and
surface roughness, lower
wear rates check it
Dimples can achieve
friction conditions at the
tool-chip interface because
Al-MMCs have a good
thermal conductivity that
removes heat in the form of
chips. So, there is less
chance of lling dimples
with workpiece material.
9 Grooves (Grid) Best anti-adhesion effect,
lower friction, and surface
roughness
Grooves can help in
increasing in owability of
coolant towards the cutting
zone. Water in groves helps
to reduce chip contact on
the tool.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1007
the eight selected textures with their corresponding purposes. Most of
these textures are predicated on friction, adhesion, and abrasive resis-
tance properties, with dimples and grooves being extensively utilized.
Fig. 1 illustrates an example workow for extracting design patterns
from nature, specically in the case of the pangolin skin.
2.3. Laser parameters and texturing
Nine distinct textures (Fig. 2) were fabricated on the rake face of the
inserts using laser surface texturing. The orientation of these textures
emulated natural structures and considered factors such as the chip ow
direction, tool tip angle, tool tip radius, major cutting-edge angle, feed,
and depth of cut. The optimal position of the texture was determined to
be 0.08 mm from the cutting edge at the corner, resulting from opti-
mization based on tool-chip contact length and cutting-edge strength.
The depth of the structure was 30
μ
m, with a width of 35
μ
m and a
texture occupancy rate of 10 %. The spacing between textures was 45
μ
m, except for specic types, such as tractor tyre and snakeskin. The
depth of the structure was 30
μ
m and a texture occupancy rate of 10 %.
The width of each laser groove between entities was 35
μ
m. The spacing
between textures was 45
μ
m (only tractor tyre, Snakeskin, Dimples, and
Grooves had different spacings, calculated from the occupancy rate).
The laser conditions and strategies were adapted and optimized ac-
cording to previous research works (see Appendix A) for the highest
quality and minimal thermal effects using a femtosecond (fs) laser
(Carbide, CB3-40 W, Light Conversion, Lithuania) (see Fig. 3 (a)). To
determine the optimal laser parameters, multiple laser texturing ex-
periments were conducted to rene the process parameters. The laser
parameters were as follows: 40 W average power, 267 fs pulse duration,
200 kHz repetition rate, 30
μ
m spot diameter, 1030 nm wavelength, and
a Gaussian prole of energy distribution. The femtosecond pulses helped
eliminate heat-affected zones of sintered carbide. Two texturing strate-
gies were used: linear (along a CAD-dened path) and contour-based
(using offset contours from the original element), depending on the
texture type. The parameters of texturing, laser uence, pulse overlap,
and number of slices varied by texture type (see Table 3). All textures
were inspected in detail to ensure their quality for cutting experiments.
2.4. Coefcient of friction and cutting forces
In this experimental investigation, the relative differences in the
frictional properties between the plain and structured surfaces of the
tools were studied using an adapted pin-on-disc (P-o-D) test. The Pin-on-
disc method involves a linear movement in a single direction. Conse-
quently, the structured surfaces were oriented in the direction of chip
ow relative to the pin movement during the tests. To accommodate
longer proles in the linear tribology testing, larger specimens of the
same grade as the cutting inserts were used. These specimens had di-
mensions of 9.65 ×25 mm and were of grade NB5L from Kennametal.
To conduct the friction tests, a linear tribometer, specically the CETR
UMT 2MT multi-specimen test system manufactured by Bruker, was
employed (Fig. 3 (b)). The system was equipped with a 2D force dual-
friction/load sensor DFH-10-G, which had a measurement range of
1–100 N. The sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 5 mN (0.5 g). The testing
device allowed for temperature control within the range of 0–350 ◦C.
Cutting-force measurements were performed to determine the in-
process friction coefcient under dry conditions. It was anticipated
that the coefcient of friction (CoF) would differ signicantly from the
values obtained using the pin-on-disc (P-o-D) method. This discrepancy
can be attributed to the utilization of different material pairs, elevated
temperatures in the cutting zone, and tool wear. Consequently, only
plain and structured tools were used in this investigation. An identical
cutting tool and insert, as described in Section 2.1, were used for force
measurement. An Al-MMC brake disc with a diameter of 350 mm and
thickness of 60 mm was secured in a three-jaw chuck of a CNC turning
center. The machine possessed sufcient power and speed to execute
both facing and longitudinal turning operations at a constant cutting
speed. The cutting parameters were kept constant for all force mea-
surements. They were set at a cutting speed of 40 m/min, feed rate of
0.3 mm/rev, and depth of cut of 0.5 mm. The experimental setup for
force measurement is shown in Fig. 3 (c). The total cutting force
component (F) was measured using a Kistler 9257 B dynamometer. Each
measurement was repeated ve times under constant conditions. The
cutting force (F
c
), feed force (F
f
), and passive force (F
p
) after the same
short (2 s long) regular cuts were evaluated. The tool wear effect on the
force magnitude was eliminated using this approach. The measured data
were evaluated and compared using Dynoware and MATLAB software.
The friction force (F
t
), normal force (F
n
), and friction coefcient (
μ
) were
calculated using the measured data as friction behavior identiers.
2.5. Machining process and cryogenic cooling setup
Rough machining is a widely used process in manufacturing lines to
achieve high material removal and a near-net shape at a lower cost. One
of these operations is facing, which is commonly used in brake-disc
blank manufacturing. In a facing operation, the workpiece (blank) is
machined to remove excess material to achieve the desired dimensions
for the nishing operation. In this study, the facing operation conditions
were selected to closely approximate those of the industrial machining
process. An Al-MMC brake disc blank was prepared to accommodate the
machine tool, as illustrated in Fig. 4 (a), and the surface was pre-
machined before the test.
A high-pressure liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) setup was built in the labora-
tory facility with maximum pressure handling of 26 bar vacuum-
insulated piping to maintain pressure at delivery [33,34]. LN
2
was
directed to both the ank and rake faces of the cutting tool using a
specialized tool holder known as DCLNL2020X12JETI, designed spe-
cically for turning operations [35]. The tool holder features ank and
rake nozzles aimed at the cutting edge, as illustrated in Fig. 4 (b). In this
setup, LN
2
was supplied at a tank pressure of 20 bar to a ank nozzle
with a diameter of 1.4 mm. Simultaneously, the rake side received LN
2
through two nozzles with diameters of 0.8 mm. The purpose was to
Fig. 1. (a–e) - Process of design extraction from nature and implementation procedure from nature to cutting tools, where (a) Original Pangolin skin pattern, (b)
transfer into a 2-D shape with dimensions that are feasible to structure with a laser. For instance, the size of the laser spot is of vital importance, (c) Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) is used to transform a 2-D view into a 3-D view, (d) higher magnication illustrates how the design has transformed into a texture on the tool and the
constraints in covering the area along the edges, and (e) a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image to compare the biomimetic texture to CAD.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1008
achieve dual cooling to ensure targeted delivery of LN
2
coolant to the
cutting zone, facilitating effective cooling and lubrication during the
machining process. The cooling strategy employed in the system aims to
provide simultaneous and continuous cooling of both the cutting tool
and workpiece throughout the machining process. Cooling of the cutting
edges is achieved through the utilization of ank and rake nozzles in-
tegrated into the tool holder. These nozzles direct the ow of coolant
towards the cutting edges, effectively reducing the heat build-up and
maintaining lower temperatures at the tool-workpiece interface.
Simultaneously, the workpiece was cooled through cryogenic heat
transfer mechanisms, primarily through convection and conduction.
The outer (D
1
) and inner (D
m
) diameters of the Al-MMC disc were
182 and 72 mm, respectively, with a thickness of 15 mm. The machined
length varied with the outer and inner diameters; however, the spiral
cutting length (SCL) was 17.5 m and remained constant during the
facing experiments, as shown in Eq. (1).
SCL =D1+Dm
2×
π
1000×lm
fn(1)
Premachining trials were conducted for different SCLs, and the
Fig. 2. (a–j). Illustration of texture inserts in 3D-view, 2D-view, and a sketch of each texture.
Fig. 3. (a) Laser system with femtosecond laser and galvo-scanner, (b) linear tribometer (CETR UMI, Bruker Alicona) with clamped sample, and (c) turning machine
with clamped Al-MMC Disc and dynamometer.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1009
following constant cutting conditions were based on a limit for the
length of the ank wear land: VB
max
<1 mm. Cutting parameters such as
v
c
=40 m/min, f
n
=0.3 mm/rev, a
p
=0.5 mm, ank and rake pressure
=20 bar and SCL =17.5 m were constant for all experiments. A feed rate
of 0.3 mm/rev was selected to create the tool-chip contact on the rake
side textures which would not be possible for the lower feed rates.
Another reason for the selection was aligned with industrial parameters
(rough machining). The depth of cut (DoC) was selected to be 0.5 mm
because it should be less than the nose radius of the insert to increase the
strength of the insert (to avoid breakage). From the research method-
ology, all cutting parameters were kept constant by varying two pa-
rameters - textures and cooling conditions–on different cutting tools.
Ten distinct types of tools were used for the machining process. The
selected conditions and three repetitions were implemented to ensure
repeatability, and a randomized order was maintained for all experi-
ments to mitigate systematic errors. Experiments were conducted at two
levels based on varying the cutting tools (10 different tools) and coolants
(dry and cryogenic), as presented in Table 4. Following the experiments,
various types of tool-wear investigations were analyzed using multiple
techniques. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and light optical mi-
croscopy (LOM) were employed to measure and analyze the built-up
edge (BUE) height, tool-chip contact length, and tool-chip contact area.
3. Measurement methods
3.1. Study of structure design
After laser texturing, a confocal microscope (VK-X1000, Keyence)
was used for texture analysis, specically examining the texture
appearance and depth, as illustrated in Fig. 5. The measured depth
values, derived from the average of ve randomly selected depth pro-
les across the textures, are presented in.
Table 5. From this table, it can be observed that the laser conditions
used led to similar depth values around the proposed 30
μ
m. The widths
of the line-based textures were approx. 0.040 mm, driven by the laser
spot diameter. The dimensions of the Snakeskin elements were (0.125
mm ×0.328 mm) and the dimple diameter was measured at 0.05 mm.
Table 3
Strategy and parameters of laser surface texturing.
Textures Texturing strategy Laser
uence
(J/cm
2
)
Pulse
overlap
No of
slices
Tractor tyre, Pangolin
scale, Armadillo shell,
Fish scale, Honeycomb,
Shark Skin & Grooves
Linear 10.6 80 % 60
Snakeskin Contour-based (8
contours with a
pitch of 0.0062
mm)
5.6 80 % 8
Dimples Contour-based (1
contour)
5.6 80 % 8
Fig. 4. Cryogenic experimental setup for face turning (a) machining process setup (b) LN
2
from both rake and ank nozzles of the tool holder (c) exit of the VIP
nozzle connected to the ex pipe (d) LN
2
tank connected to VIP, magnied view illustrates custom made safety xture for VIP.
Table 4
Machining parameters.
Cutting speed [m/min] 40
Feed rate [mm/rev] 0.3
Depth of cut [mm] 0.5
SCL [m] 17.5
Coolant condition Dry and Liquid nitrogen
Coolant pressure [bar] 20
Textures Non-textured plain tool
Tractor tyre
Pangolin scale
Armadillo shell
Fish scale
Honeycomb
Sharkskin
Snakeskin
Dimples
Grooves
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1010
3.2. Coefcients of friction and cutting forces
The pin-on-disc method was used as an independent and stand-
ardised measurement for the initial comparison of the friction behavior
(CoF) between all textured and plain surfaces on the tool. This helped to
understand how various structures inuence friction behavior without
the phenomena accompanying cutting (tool wear, adhesion, high tem-
perature, etc.). The P-o-D method with unidirectional linear movement
(in the chip-ow direction) of a ceramic pin (Si
3
N
4
; diameter: 5 mm) was
used. Linear motion of the pin over the carbide insert rake was per-
formed with a sliding distance directed by a relative movement speed of
2.13 mm/s and a total time of 10 s. The experiments were conducted at
room temperature (21 ◦C) in a dry environment to understand the in-
uence of texture without cryogenic cooling. Two load levels were
tested: 20 N and 100 N, resulting in contact pressures of 2021 and 3457
MPa, respectively. The coefcient of friction was computed based on the
measured signals.
During chip formation, the total cutting force components were
measured to determine the actual CoF that occurred during the chip
formation process. This assessment was conducted under dry conditions
using two samples: one with a plain surface and another with a Snake-
skin surface. Individual cutting force components were evaluated by
averaging the values within a force signal window from the 5th to 7th
second of the cut (see Fig. 6). The forces were measured using a dyna-
mometer and were transformed as follows: F(x) =F
c
, F(y) =F
p
, and F(z)
Fig. 5. (a) Measurements of the textured inserts (b) 3-D representation of the implemented texture (c and d) depth measurement prole.
Table 5
Results of texture depth measurements.
S.no Textures Measured depth (
μ
m)
1 Tractor tyre 28.92 ±1.44
2 Pangolin scale 30.07 ±1.57
3 Armadillo shell 27.14 ±1.35
4 Fish scale 28.62 ±1.43
5 Honeycomb 30.15 ±1.87
6 Sharkskin 27.51 ±1.36
7 Grooves 30.07 ±0.88
8 Snakeskin 28.32 ±1.89
9 Dimples 34.57 ±2.07
Fig. 6. An example of a plain tool is used to measure the raw signals of three total cutting force components.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1011
=F
f
.
Dry conditions were chosen to ensure environmental similarity with
the pin-on-disc measurement setup and the expectation of intensive BUE
creation. The Snakeskin surface was selected for comparison because it
had the highest ratio of A
o
/A
r
(area of the original surface to area of the
removed surface), indicating the potential for signicant differences in
frictional behavior during machining. Thus, it was expected that this
structure and working conditions would cause the greatest differences
from the plain tool - BUE height, TCC, and the real CoF. It is important to
note that this distinction is not derived solely from the P-o-D method.
Owing to the situation when only the nose radius was engaged in
cutting, the chip ow direction was expressed as perpendicular to the BC
line dened by the κ
r
angle, as shown in Fig. 7. Thus, the coordinate
system of the measured components was rotated by an angle δ in the
chip ow direction. Subsequently, the component F
″
can be expressed
step-by-step using Eqs. (2), (3), (4), and (5), based on theory [36,37].
where the F
p
and F
f
components are measured.
Fʹʹ =Fʹ•cosδ(3)
And,
δ=arctanFp
Ff
− (90 −κr)(4)
Hence,
Fʹʹ =
Fp2+Ff2
•cosarctanFp
Ff
− (90 −κr)(5)
Next, section A-A, by a plane in the chip ow direction, allows force
decomposition for friction and normal forces. The friction and normal
forces can be derived according to [36]; hence, they are dened by Eq.
(6) and Eq. (7). Eventually, the friction coefcient was expressed as the
ratio of the F
t
and F
n
forces using Eq. (8).
Ft=Fc•sinγo+Fʹʹ •cosγo(6)
Fn=Fc•cosγo−Fʹʹ •sinγo(7)
μ
=Ft
Fn
(8)
3.3. Built-up edge height
To investigate the built-up edge (BUE) height of the cutting tool, an
insert was positioned under a light optical microscope (LOM) in the
ank view before cleaning (following a surface cutting length of 17.5
m). Using measurement tools from the microscope, a line was delineated
on the cutting edge for reference purposes. The calculated length be-
tween the cutting edge and the peak of the BUE is shown in Fig. 8. All
cutting tools, including the repetitions, were measured after the
machining test for a constant SCL.
3.4. Tool–chip contact length and tool–chip contact area
A cleaned insert was positioned beneath the light optical microscope
(LOM) in the rake view to examine the wear area and contact length of
the chip on the tool. Initially, on the new cutting tool, lines were
inscribed on both cutting edges to create an intersection point. The angle
between the intersection lines was measured to correspond to the
rhombic 80◦insert geometry. Subsequently, a three-point circle was
constructed to create an insert nose radius of 0.8 mm, and a circle was
positioned tangentially to two lines at the cutting edge, as illustrated in
Fig. 9 (b). Finally, to validate the proposed method, a Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) model was constructed, and the distance between the
intersection point and a circle was measured to be 442
μ
m, as illustrated
in Fig. 9 (a). The measured distances between the intersection points and
circle of the new cutting tool and CAD model were also equal. Thus, the
cutting edge of the worn tool was recreated using this method, as shown
in Fig. 9 (c). The tool-chip contact length (TCC
length
) was measured by
drawing a line from the cutting edge until the end of the chip sliding
marks on the rake face by recreating the cutting edge using the proposed
method. The tool–chip contact area (TCC
area
) was measured by drawing,
using an area tool in LOM for the lost material volume of the cutting
edge, as shown in Fig. 9 (c).
4. Results and discussion
This section presents a discussion of the results obtained from the
friction coefcient, cutting force, and tool wear measurements. The
analysis is based on tool wear measurements conducted using a Light
Optical Microscope (LOM) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
4.1. Coefcient of friction
Fig. 10 presents the measured mean values of the coefcient of
friction (CoF) for a plain surface and all textures using the pin-on-disc (P-
o-D) methodology with two distinct loads (20 and 100 N), accompanied
by the standard deviations of the mean (error bars). The highest CoF was
observed for the honeycomb structure, particularly at a load of 20 N. The
Fig. 7. Force representation during oblique cutting within the nose radius.
Fʹ=
Fp2+Ff2
(2)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1012
tractor tyre and pangolin scale demonstrated the most signicant
reduction in the CoF relative to the applied load. The maximum differ-
ence in the CoFs among the textures was 72 % at a load of 20 N (tractor
tyre versus honeycomb) and 77 % at 100 N (pangolin scale versus
honeycomb). The unmodied tool surfaces exhibited values comparable
to those of most textured surfaces. These surfaces demonstrated reduced
friction: tractor tyre at a load of 20 N; shark skin, sh scales, armadillo
shells, and pangolin scales at 100 N. The CoF was higher when a lower
load was applied, except for tractor tyres and groove textures. The
lowest CoF value was observed for the pangolin scale at 100 N. Mea-
surements using the pin-on-disc method indicated that the textured
structures provided a friction coefcient within a narrow range of
0.198–0.2515 for a load of 20 N and 0.176–0.215 for a load of 100 N,
which is similar to that of an unmodied surface.
In addition, a comprehensive analysis of the measured signals
revealed additional signicant differences. The plain tools generated
uniform and consistent signals, in contrast to the dispersed signals with
notable long-duration peaks and troughs throughout the duration for all
structured tools. This phenomenon can be attributed to dynamically
uctuating friction conditions, including the contact pressure, contact
area, and inuence of the sharp edges of the structure. Furthermore, the
textured structures exhibited a higher wear intensity than the plain tool.
To facilitate improved data reproduction, the percentage change in
CoF relative to the plain tool was calculated and is presented in Table 6.
The maximum enhancements in the friction properties were observed to
be 12.3 % and 10.2 % for 20 N and 100 N, respectively. Furthermore,
distinct friction behaviors were noted for different loads applied to the
same structure, exemplied by the pangolin scale. At 20 N, a deterio-
ration of approximately +11.6 % in the CoF was observed. Conversely,
at 100 N, an improvement of −10.2 % was achieved. The least favour-
able friction property in comparison with the plain tool was exhibited by
the honeycomb structure for both loads. It can be concluded that the pin-
on-disc method did not reveal any signicant or predictable friction
Fig. 8. BUE height measurement method.
Fig. 9. Illustration of the measurement method for TCC
length
and TCC
area
(a) on the rake face of a new cutting tool.
Fig. 10. COF for plain and textured surfaces and two different loads.
Table 6
Comparative CoF variation relative to an unmodied tool under 20 N and 100 N
load conditions.
S.no Texture Load
20 N 100 N
1 Tractor tyre −12.3 % +6.1 %
2 Pangolin scale +11.6 % −10.2 %
3 Armadillo shell +1.6 % −7.2 %
4 Fish scale +6.2 % −5.4 %
5 Honeycomb +20.2 % +9.7 %
6 Sharkskin +1.0 % −2.6 %
7 Snakeskin +2.5 % +1.8 %
8 Dimples +0.6 % +1.0 %
9 Grooves −1.4 % +10.6 %
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1013
behavior of the structured tool compared to the plain tool.
These results generally indicate the optimal friction conditions,
excluding material adhesion, minimal tool wear, high pin hardness, and
point contact. Each textured structure exhibited distinct behavior with
respect to the load (contact pressure) and demonstrated a relatively high
standard deviation of the CoF. Theoretically, textures capable of
reducing the coefcient of friction may decrease cutting forces by
reducing the contact length between the chip and tool interfaces, as
reported in [38]. In [28], the CoF of a carbide substrate was reduced by
15 % and 30 % through the application of dot and groove structures,
respectively. However, it is important to note that the contact conditions
during cutting differed from those in pin-on-disc (P-o-D) testing.
4.2. Cutting forces
The magnitude of the cutting force component is illustrated in Fig. 11
(a). The cutting force (Fc) exhibited the highest magnitude when the Al-
MMC material was machined at a low cut depth. However, the passive
force exhibited comparable values. In contrast, the feed force was
approximately 50 % of the cutting force. The results were consistent for
both the plain and structured tools. Nevertheless, the total cutting force
(F) and its components were marginally higher for the structured tool,
with increases of F =2.1 %, F
c
=1.5 %, and F
p
=2.0 %. The most
substantial increase, F
f
=5.5 %, was observed in comparison with the
other force components.
In the Snakeskin structure, which has the lowest area of residual/
contact surface, no signicant changes were observed in friction
behavior concerning both friction and normal forces under dry cutting
conditions (Fig. 11 (b)). Compared with the plain edge, both forces
exhibited only a marginal increase. This minor increase can be attrib-
uted to the lling of interstices with the workpiece material, a slightly
more pronounced built-up edge (BUE), and an extended tool-chip con-
tact length (TCC
length
). The anticipated function of the structure
(reduced contact area and enhanced coolant penetration) was signi-
cantly impeded in this instance owing to work material adhesion. Fric-
tion occurs at the interface of the chip and built-up edge (BUE) from the
same material. This phenomenon was observed for both structured and
plain tools. Consequently, no signicant differences were observed be-
tween the forces and friction phenomena. This observation was
corroborated by the BUE examination after the force measurements, as
illustrated in Fig. 12, captured by a light optical microscope (LOM). The
quantity of adhered material and the morphology of the BUE appeared
to be similar for both tools. Consequently, it can be concluded that the
rake structure has no direct impact on the adhesion of the Al-MMC-
machined material to the tool’s cutting edge and rake face when
subjected to dry cutting conditions. This assertion was further supported
by the negligible variation in the friction coefcient (0.825 for the plain
tool and 0.838 for the structured tool).
The force measurement showed that the coefcient of friction ob-
tained by the P-o-D method was signicantly lower than the real (in-
process) coefcient under the working conditions used. The stable value
of the friction coefcient in the cutting force measurement was signi-
cantly higher than that measured using the pin-on-disc method (approx.
0.83 vs. 0.2). A very similar difference was conrmed for the Honey-
comb and Armadillo shell structures. Tool wear, contact conditions, and
work-material adhesion are the main causes of these differences.
4.3. Tool wear on the rake face
4.3.1. Built-up edge height
Table 7 presents the measured values with standard deviations for
tool wear across all textured conditions. These results are analyzed in
the subsequent sections. During the machining of Al-MMCs at a low
speed of 40 m/min, a stable built-up edge (BUE) forms on the cutting
tools at specic heights. These BUE height measurements are illustrated
with standard deviation bars in Fig. 13. First, a comparison was con-
ducted between a plain tool and textured tools under dry conditions; the
built-up edge (BUE) height increased in most of the textures, except for
grooves, which exhibited a reduction in BUE height (see Table 8).
Subsequently, all dry-condition tools were compared with cryo-
condition tools, and a decrease in the BUE height was observed for
certain textured tools. In this case, the honeycomb structure demon-
strated the most favourable performance, whereas the maximum BUE
height was observed in groove-textured tools relative to all other tools
(see Table 9). Generally, the BUE height does not correlate with the
other evaluated contact parameters (coefcient of friction and tool-chip
contact). Most textured structures function as platforms for the
enhanced xation of the soft matrix material to the tool. The indented
surface and phenomenon of lling the structure with soft work material
compensated for the reduced contact surface of the rake face with the
chip.
The accumulation of workpiece material against the rake face of the
cutting tool tip results in the formation of a metal weld peak. In the case
of the cryogenic coolant, the formation of built-up edge (BUE) height
was reduced in certain textures owing to the adhered material under-
going low-temperature and high-pressure cooling, which diminished
metal welding at the cutting tooltip. Conversely, some textures exhibited
an increase in BUE height. However, no effect of the cryocoolant on the
BUE height was observed for the plain tool. The variations in BUE height
were attributed to the texture topography design. Although Table 2
Fig. 11. Cutting force components for plain and structured inserts: (a) cutting, feed, passive, and total cutting forces; (b) friction and normal forces.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1014
illustrates the concept and physical behavior of texture, the BUE results
presented an ambiguous situation in which it was not possible to discern
which characteristics of the structured tool contributed to this behavior.
The BUE was formed owing to the low cutting speeds, high feed rates,
large depth of cut, and work hardenability of the machined workpiece
material. Similar observations during the machining of Al-MMCs and
aluminum alloys have been reported by various researchers [39–43].
The adherence of the built-up edge (BUE) comprising the workpiece
material was the primary concern at low speeds and high feed rates
under experimental conditions. Their ndings indicated that higher
cutting speeds achieved anti-adhesive properties in the cutting tool,
resulting in improved machining performance.
4.3.2. Tool–chip contact length and area
The interaction between the cutting tool and chip on the rake face in
the secondary shear zone signicantly inuences tool wear and chip
formation. As the chip traverses the tool rake surface, a substantial
friction force develops owing to the high stress and strain, resulting in an
increase in the tool-chip contact surface area and tool wear rates,
consequently leading to heat generation. However, the tool-chip contact
Fig. 12. Cutting tool deformation comparison at the end of cutting force measurement machining tests: (a) new tool, (b) plain tool, and (c) snake-skin textured tool.
Table 7
Measurement values with standard deviations of the tool wear.
Textures BUE height ±SD
(mm)
TCC
length
±SD
(mm)
TCC
area
±SD
(mm
2
)
Dry Cryo Dry Cryo Dry Cryo
Plain tool 0.13 ±
0.02
0.13 ±
0.01
1.17 ±
0.10
0.94 ±
0.02
0.12 ±
0.01
0.10 ±
0.02
Tractor tyre 0.21 ±
0.13
0.15 ±
0.01
1.01 ±
0.08
0.99 ±
0.09
0.10 ±
0.01
0.10 ±
0.02
Pangolin
scale
0.16 ±
0.04
0.13 ±
0.01
1.17 ±
0.09
1.08 ±
0.08
0.11 ±
0.01
0.11 ±
0.02
Armadillo
shell
0.18 ±
0.03
0.16 ±
0.00
1.14 ±
0.08
1.01 ±
0.02
0.13 ±
0.01
0.09 ±
0.02
Fish scale 0.15 ±
0.03
0.19 ±
0.09
1.13 ±
0.01
1.00 ±
0.12
0.13 ±
0.02
0.10 ±
0.01
Honeycomb 0.23 ±
0.08
0.14 ±
0.02
1.12 ±
0.02
0.99 ±
0.02
0.11 ±
0.01
0.11 ±
0.02
Sharkskin 0.15 ±
0.02
0.19 ±
0.07
1.07 ±
0.08
1.16 ±
0.07
0.11 ±
0.01
0.11 ±
0.01
Snakeskin 0.19 ±
0.08
0.19 ±
0.06
1.21 ±
0.15
0.94 ±
0.09
0.12 ±
0.03
0.09 ±
0.03
Dimples 0.18 ±
0.04
0.19 ±
0.06
1.05 ±
0.04
0.93 ±
0.02
0.11 ±
0.01
0.09 ±
0.01
Grooves 0.11 ±
0.02
0.18 ±
0.06
1.15 ±
0.07
1.12 ±
0.08
0.10 ±
0.01
0.09 ±
0.02
Fig. 13. BUE height measurements between Plain vs Texture tools in both Dry
and Cryo conditions.
Table 8
Comparison of tool wear conditions: BUE height, TCC
length
, and TCC
area
between
plain and textured tools under dry conditions.
Textures BUE height TCC
length
TCC
area
Tractor tyre ↑59 % ↓14 % ↓17 %
Pangolin scale ↑22 % 0 % ↓8 %
Armadillo shell ↑38 % ↓3 % ↑11 %
Fish scale ↑14 % ↓4 % ↑8 %
Honeycomb ↑71 % ↓4 % ↓2 %
Sharkskin ↑14 % ↓9 % ↓8 %
Snakeskin ↑47 % ↑4 % ↑6 %
Dimples ↑37 % ↓10 % ↓5 %
Grooves ↓16 % ↓2 % ↓12 %
Table 9
Comparison of tool wear conditions: BUE height, TCC
length
, and TCC
area
between
cryogenic and dry conditions in textured tools.
Textures BUE height TCC
length
TCC
area
Plain tool ↓1 % ↓19 % ↓13 %
Tractor tyre ↓28 % ↓1 % ↑3 %
Pangolin scale ↓19 % ↓8 % ↑1 %
Armadillo shell ↓12 % ↓11 % ↓29 %
Fish scale ↑25 % ↓11 % ↓22 %
Honeycomb ↓38 % ↓12 % ↓7 %
Shark skin ↑26 % ↑9 % ↑3 %
Snakeskin ↓3 % ↓23 % ↓27 %
Dimples ↑5 % ↓11 % ↓15 %
Grooves ↑61 % ↓3 % ↓9 %
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1015
length (TCC
length
), as shown in Fig. 14, was measured to understand the
inuence of various textures on the rake face of the cutting tool. There
were minor scratches, and nine measurements were taken after retracing
the cutting edge to avoid minor scratch marks. The mean TCC
length
,
measured and calculated, along with the standard deviation, was
derived from 27 measurements (nine measurements per cutting insert,
repeated three times). The TCC
length
measurements for all tools are
graphically presented in Fig. 15, along with their corresponding stan-
dard deviations. The results compared plain and textured tools under
dry conditions. They indicated that most textured tools exhibited minor
improvements, whereas certain tools demonstrated notable results such
as tractor tyres, shark skin, and dimple textures (Table 8). Using cryo-
genic coolant resulted in a decrease in TCC
length
for all tools, but the
snakeskin and plain tools showed a greater decrease in TCC
length
than
the other tools (Table 9). This phenomenon is attributed to the effects of
texture and cryogenic processes, which reduce the sliding of a chip on
the rake face and result in the formation of thinner chips, consequently
leading to a decrease in the chip contact length on the tool.
The tool-chip contact area was measured for ten distinct tools and
their replicates, as illustrated in Fig. 15 and Table 8. Under dry condi-
tions, the plain tools exhibited superior performance compared to the
tools with tractor tire and groove designs (Table 8). However, all the
tools demonstrated a signicant reduction in the TCC
area
under cryo-
genic cooling conditions. Among the textured tools, the armadillo shell,
snakeskin, sh scale, and dimple textures exhibited notable improve-
ments (Table 9). Nevertheless, the results varied owing to the differen-
tial effects of each texture. Comparable ndings at the tool-chip contact
interface, where structures on the cutting tool resulted in a decrease in
the coefcient of friction (COF) at the tool-chip interface, have been
reported by various researchers [6,7,21,41]. In addition, Li et al. [11],
S´
anchez et al. [9], Li et al. [10], Fang and Obikawa [6], and You et al. [7]
reported a reduction in friction, which directly inuenced the contact
between the tool and chips, leading to a decrease in wear and the for-
mation of longer chips.
4.3.3. Insight and summary of texture inuence on rake face tool wears
In general, cryogenic coolants like liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) offer high
heat-removal capacity due to the substantial temperature gradient they
create when they expand from liquid to gas at the cutting zone. This
rapid cooling effect is particularly effective at dissipating heat generated
from friction and plastic deformation, thereby reducing thermal stress
on both the tool and the workpiece [29].
Surface texturing on the tool plays a critical role in enhancing the
penetration of LN
2
into the tool-chip and tool-workpiece interfaces.
Microstructures or textures on the tool surface act as channels or res-
ervoirs for the cryogenic coolant, promoting more effective inltration
of LN
2
directly into the cutting zone. This increases cooling efciency at
the rake face and clearance face, where intense heat and friction typi-
cally occur. As a result, the chip formation process is modied, with
reductions in friction and adhesion, which in turn affect the micro-
structural integrity of the chip and the surface nish of the workpiece.
The increased surface area created by micro-textures further facili-
tates heat removal, allowing for more extensive and uniform cooling
compared to conventional, untextured tools. This not only helps in
dissipating heat more effectively but also reduces the thermal load on
the tool, minimizing wear mechanisms like diffusion and thermal soft-
ening that would otherwise accelerate tool degradation [44].
Moreover, past studies (See Appendix A) have shown that the
application of appropriate surface texture can enhance coolant retention
and ow in the sliding regions during machining with conventional
coolants. We observed a similar, if not more noticeable, effect when LN
2
was used as a cryogenic coolant in our study. The micro-textures
enhance LN
2
to inltrate closer in secondary shear zone inuence
temperatures on the cutting zone and thereby inuencing tribological
conditions.
This investigation into the effects of cryogenic cooling and tool
texturing provides foundational insight, revealing BUE height increased
with textured tools compared to plain tools under dry conditions
(Table 8). Conversely, the TCC
length
and TCC
area
decreased under the
Fig. 14. Results from LOM micrographs of TCC
length
measurements.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1016
majority of cutting conditions. This phenomenon may be attributed to
the increased BUE height concentrated on the cutting edge, which
potentially functions as a chip breaker. Consequently, this led to reduced
contact between the chip and rake face.
Furthermore, a combination of textured and cryogenic cooling
(Table 9) demonstrates that the built-up edge (BUE) height decreased in
the majority of textured tools when cryogenic coolant was used,
compared to dry-textured tools. This phenomenon is attributed to the
focused coolant at the cutting edge with pressure (20 bar), which in-
hibits or reduces the formation of the BUE height in proximity to the
cutting edge. Consequently, it enhances coolant accessibility in
conjunction with textured tools to diminish the tool-chip contact (TCC)
length and area. For instance, groove texture design can function as a
channel for coolant penetration. Under dry conditions, textured designs
facilitate the reduction of the tool-chip contact area, while with cryo-
genic cooling, both plain and textured tools exhibited decreased TCC
areas owing to improved coolant accessibility.
5. Conclusions
This study assessed the viability of laser-textured biomimetic designs
for cutting tools, while concurrently investigating the inuence of laser-
textured tools in combination with cryogenic cooling using liquid ni-
trogen (LN
2
) on the tool-chip interface, built-up edge (BUE) formation,
and friction behavior during the machining process of Al-MMC. The
main ndings of this experimental investigation are summarised below.
•Femtosecond lasers facilitate the production of precise and accurate
biomimetic surfaces near the rake face edge without compromising
the structural stability of the cutting tool.
•The coefcient of friction (CoF) of the tool was evaluated using the
pin-on-disc method with a ceramic pin, and no discernible difference
was identied between the plain and textured tools. Similarly, no
notable distinction was observed between the textured tools, and the
impact of pin load remained undetermined.
•The CoF determined in the dry machining tests using the force sen-
sors was greater than that obtained using the pin-on-disc method.
This disparity is attributed to the strong adhesion of the workpiece
material.
•A study on the cutting forces concerning the use of textured and dry
tools demonstrated an insignicant effect on the aggregate cutting
force of the measured parts. Nevertheless, the feed force of the
textured cutting tool was greater than that of the untextured tool.
•The cryogenic cooling plain tool displayed a decrease in the BUE
height, TCC length, and TCC area compared to dry conditions.
•Textured tools under dry conditions exhibited an increase in BUE
height and acted as a chip breaker, which led to a reduction in
TCC
length
and TCC
area
compared to the dry plain tools.
•Most textured tools with cryogenic cooling lowered the BUE height,
TCC
length
, and TCC
area
compared to the corresponding dry-textured
conditions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Nageswaran Tamil Alagan: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Methodology, Funding
acquisition, Conceptualization. Nikhil Teja Sajja: Methodology,
Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Pavel Zeman: Writing –
review & editing, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptual-
ization. Tomas Primus: Visualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Kalle Falk: Visuali-
zation, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding
acquisition. Samuel A. Awe: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
Resources, Formal analysis.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
We would like to acknowledge project NexT-LighT (DNR: 2020-
04292) with support from the strategic innovation program LIGHTer, a
joint venture between Vinnova, Formas, and the Swedish Energy
Agency. CryoMach (DNR: 2018-03332) with equipment support, Vin-
nova (Swedish Government Agency for Innovation Systems), and Eureka
SMART Advanced Manufacturing. We extend our thanks to Mr. Niklas
Ehrlin and Ms. Pernilla Lundberg, Air Liquide, Sweden, for support with
liquid nitrogen, and Prof. Tomas Beno, University West, for tractor
design inspiration. A special thanks goes to Andreas Gustafsson at Uni-
versity West for helping with experiments.
Fig. 15. Tool-chip contact length and tool-chip contact area measurement.
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1017
Appendix A. (State-of-the-art)
In nature, all physical structure interactions between an object and another object or medium result in contact between the two surfaces at different
levels (nano, micro, and macro). The most common textures can be seen with the naked eye depending on the conditions, but in some situations at the
micro- or nano-level, higher magnication and resolution are needed to see the contact between the surfaces [7]. For example, swimsuits are made up
of shark skin texture, which contains several overlapping scales called dermal denticles. The denticle function interrupts the formation of turbulent
ow, which leads to an increased speed of water against fouling and reduces drag. Another example is high-speed trains entering a tunnel to improve
the loud sonic boom created by compressed air. The beak of a kingsher (long tapered nose) shape helps air ow easily over the train. In this study, the
research interest is to apply biomimetic surface textures on the rake face of the cutting tool with a combination of cryogenic liquid nitrogen coolant
during the machining of Al-MMC material.
In Table 10, state-of-the-art surface texturing on cutting tools and cryogenic coolants are investigated and tabulated based on the years, cutting tool,
workpiece material, cutting conditions, texture techniques, and coolant conditions, followed by evaluation/ndings.
Table 10
Insight into surface texturing research of various recent studies from 2011 to 2024.
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
2011 Enomoto &
Sugihara [45]
Al-Alloy (A5052), Cemented carbide K10
(SEKN42M), f
n
– 0.12 mm/rev, a
p
– 3 mm, v
c
– 380 m/min, cutting length – 180 m * 10
passes.
Grooves parallel to main cutting-edge texture
using Ti: sapphire based laser system –
femtosecond with the wavelength – 800 nm,
frequency – 1 kHz, pulse width – 150 fs, pulse
energy – 300
μ
j. Depth – 100-150
μ
m, distance
from rake face - 700 nm.
The micro-texture on the rake face signicantly
decreased chip adhesion under wet conditions.
In conventional tools, chips severely adhered to
the cutting tool under dry conditions.
Improving cutting tool maintenance on the tool
can achieve better anti-adhesion properties in
Al-Alloy using texture on the rake face.
2012 Sugihara et al.
[16].
Al-Alloy (A5052), Cemented carbide K10
(SEKN42M),
f
n
– 0.12 mm/rev,
a
p
– 3 mm,
v
c
– 380 m/min.
Parallel and perpendicular grooves texture using
Ti: sapphire based laser system – femtosecond
with the wavelength – 800 nm, frequency – 1
kHz, pulse width – 150 fs, pulse energy – 300
μ
j.
Depth – 5
μ
m, width of concave – 20, 50, 100
μ
m,
width of convex – 20, 50, 100
μ
m.
JIS A1 emulsion with supply rate – 12.6 l/min.
The texture tool was ineffective in improving
anti-adhesiveness under dry conditions and not
sufciently promoted under wet conditions due
to texture without DLC lm.
Grooves parallel to the main cutting edge show
excellent anti-adhesive properties under wet
conditions because the rake face correlates with
the texture width of the convex area.
Micro stripe grooves with a depth of – 5
μ
m,
width of a convex area of - 20
μ
m, and width of a
concave area of – 50
μ
m had the best-improved
anti-adhesions properties.
2012 Enomoto et al.
[46].
Carbon steel S53C, Cemented carbide K10
(SEKN42MT),
f
n
– 0.2 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 200 m/min.
Parallel and perpendicular grooves texture using
Ti: sapphire based laser system – femtosecond
with the wavelength – 800 nm, frequency – 1
kHz, pulse width – 150 fs, pulse energy – 300
μ
j.
Depth – 5
μ
m, width of concave – 20, 50
μ
m,
distance from cutting edge – 20, 50
μ
m.
Emulsion at 12.6 l/min.
Micro grooves with depth – 100–150 nm and
apart from cutting edge – 700 nm do not
improve the wear resistance.
Micro stripe grooves with depth – 20
μ
m, width –
20
μ
m, apart from cutting edge – 20
μ
m, and
TiAlN coated tool shows signicant
improvement in wear resistance and lubrication.
2012 Jianxin et al. [47]. 45# steel (carbon steel, Chinese standard
GB699–88). Tungsten carbide cutting tools
(ISO SNGN150608),
F
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 60-300 m/min.
Textures are elliptical groves (STT-1), grooves on
its rake face parallel to the main edge (STT2),
and linear groves (STT-3).
Solid lubricants as molybdenum disulphide,
(MoS2), (average diameter of 2
μ
m) were lled
into the textured micro-holes to form the self-
lubricated tools.
Width – 50
μ
m,
depth – 200
μ
m.
Compared to non-textured tools, 5–15 % of
cutting temperature is reduced at vc >120 m/
min.
STT-1 tool shows the lowest temperature and 10
% reduction in friction coefcient.
The friction coefcient, temperature, and
cutting forces at the tool-chip interface were
reduced on the rake-face textured tools
compared to conventional tools.
STT-1 textured tool has better-improved cutting
performance.
2012 Wu et al. [48]. Ti alloy balls, Cemented carbide, Friction
wear test.
Micro groove and hole texture using Nd: YAG
laser with wavelength – 1064 nm, frequency – 2
kHz, speed – 10 mm/s, pulse width – 20 ns.
Depth – 100
μ
m, width – 50
μ
m, area densities –
25&, 20 %,16.7 % and spacing – 200, 250, 300
μ
m.
Molybdenum disulfate solid lubricant.
Texture tool with solid lubrication reduces the
friction coefcient. For hole - 15–20 % and
groove – 30–35 % compared to untextured tool.
Low adhesion is found on textured tools
compared to untextured ones. Adhesion is the
only wear from on cemented carbide tools.
2013 Da silva et al. [49]. AISI 1050 steel, Cemented carbide (SPMR
120308),
f
n
– 2.5 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 350 m/min.
Parallel & perpendicular groove texture using
Nd: YAG laser with frequency – 10 kHz, pulse –
100 ns, focus beam diameter – 100
μ
m.
Width – 0.1 mm, space – 0.15 mm. Flood cooling
(abrasive concentration) with ow rate – 4.2 l/
mm.
Texture perpendicular grooves to the chip
movement are more effective in improving tool
life than parallel grooves.
Cutting tool edges after machining shows
scratches on the rake and ank faces of the tool
indicating abrasive wear on the machining tool.
2015 Fatima et al. [8]. AISI/SAE 4140,
Cemented carbide (TCMW 16 T308 5015),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2.5 mm
v
c
– 283, 628 m/min.
Snakeskin texture using Ti: sapphire
femtosecond laser with a wavelength - of 800
nm, repetition – of 1 kHz, pulse width – 1 mJ,
spot size – 30
μ
m, scanning speed – 10 mm/s.
Width – 50
μ
m, space – 100
μ
m, length – 200
μ
m
texture distance from cutting edge – 150
μ
m.
Dry machining.
Nature-inspired texture has retained wear
resistance and reduced the cutting forces.
The cutting tool ank face was structured with
scales of the snakeskin showing a reduction in
cutting forces, tool wear, adhesion, compression
ratio, temperature, and tool-chip contact length
compared to the unstructured and conventional
structure.
(continued on next page)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1018
Table 10 (continued )
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
An increase in cutting speed shows better results
in all aspects.
2015 Ma et al. [50]. Ti-6Al-4 V, Cemented carbide,
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 100 m/min, length of cut - 3 mm.
Micro grooves texture using 3D simulation.
Edge distance – 40–120
μ
m, groove width –
40–120
μ
m, width to depth ratio – 1–16
μ
m.
Micro grooves on the rake face are effective in
reducing cutting forces which leads to improved
friction behavior at the tool-chip interface.
The optimal cutting-edge distance and width-to-
depth ratio values is 70–90
μ
m and 10–16
μ
m.
2016 Xing et al. [51]. Al-Alloy (6061), Cemented carbide
(TNG432 K420),
f
n
– 0.05 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 54.9–439.2 m/min.
Line, rectangle, and hole texture using Nd: YVO4
laser with a wavelength – 532 nm, and pulse
duration – 8 ps.
Density – 20 %, depth – 10
μ
m, width – 20, 30
μ
m, diameter - 50
μ
m, length – 100
μ
m, X-space –
100, 150, Y - spacing – 100
μ
m. Texture distance
from cutting edge - 200
μ
m.
Textured tools improve the cutting performance
compared to conventional tools.
At low cutting speeds, the lubricity at the tool-
chip interface is effective.
Rectangular texture shows the most
improvement in cutting performance at low
cutting speeds among all textures.
Textured tool reduces the friction coefcient,
surface roughness and cutting forces. Mainly,
improves the anti-adhesion property.
2017 Dinesh et al. [22]. ZK60 Mg alloy, Uncoated tungsten carbide
(SNMA 120408),
f
n
– 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 mm/rev,
v
c
– 120, 180 m/min.
Grooves with perpendicular, parallel texture
using Nd-YAG solid-state nanosecond.
Peak width – 160
μ
m, height – 85
μ
m, groove
width – 120
μ
m.
Liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) is used as coolant with a
ow rate – 0.2–0.3 l/min.
Textured tools reduce the tool-chip interface by
minimizing frictional effects.
Capillary action and micro-pool lubrication
effect of textured tools improves machinability.
Material adhesion is reduced in the textured
tools compared.
parallel textured tool shows the best
performance compared to the perpendicular
texture tool because of smooth chip ow
enhanced by the liquid nitrogen.
2017 Sugihara et al.
[52].
Medium carbon steel, Cemented carbide
(ISO P10),
f
n
– 0.20 mm/rev, a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 200 m/min, cutting length – 300 m.
Micro groove and dimple texture using a
femtosecond laser with the wavelength – 515
nm, frequency – 400 kHz, pulse width – 190 fs.
Dimensions are designed by varying occupancy
area and diameter.
Emulsion coolant with ow rate – 12.6 l/min.
Dimples on the rake face of the cutting tool
reduce the crater wear in wet conditions and
even in dry conditions.
Wear resistance of rake textured has a strong
correlation between the ratio of convex and
concave area.
Micro dimples exhibit the best performance
under severe lubrication.
2017 Fang and obikawa
[53].
Alloy 718, PVD coated insert (CNMG
120408 & S05),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 120 m/min.
Parallel, perpendicular, cross-hatch groves, pit,
and dot texture using laser irradiation.
Fin height – 10
μ
m, n width – 20
μ
m, depth –
10, 20
μ
m space – 50
μ
m, texture distance from
cutting edge – 0.3 mm.
High-pressure jet cooling - 13 MPa, ow rate –
9.21 l/min. ow speed – 70 m/s
10
μ
m deep pit array shows the best
performance that reduces the maximum width of
ank wear by 50 % and cutting-edge recession
by 80 % compared to the non-patterned tool.
Micro-textured tool cooling ability was
inuenced by the height and array of pin-type
micro pits and micro ns.
2018 Pang et al. [54]. AISI 1045 steel, Cemented carbide (YT15,
ISO P10),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 80–160 m/min.
Conical micro-grooves texture using YLP-F10
laser with wavelength – 1.06
μ
m, frequency – 20
kHz, spot size – 0.015 mm, pulse width – 100 ns,
scanning speed - <9000.
Depth – 25
μ
m, width – 5
μ
m, length – 5
μ
m,
texture distance from cutting edge – 150
μ
m.
Water - miscible – 80 l/min.
Conical textured tool on rake face effectively
improves inltration of cutting uid at the tool-
chip interface which leads to a reduction in
adhesion. Hence, friction coefcient cutting
forces and tool wear decrease effectively over
non-textured tools.
Improvement in the cutting performance of tools
and tool-chip interface over conventional tools is
due to an increase in the conical angle of
microgrooves.
2018 Karthikeyan et al.
[55].
Al-Alloy (AA2025), Tungsten carbide
(TNMA 160408),
f
n
– 0.08, 1, 1.2 mm/rev,
a
p
- 0.5 mm
v
c
– 40, 60, 80 m/min.
Microchannel texture using Nd-YAG laser at a
cutting speed – of 50 mm/s, wavelength – of
1064 nm, and spot diameter – of 7 m.
Width – 55
μ
m.
After texture 2–5
μ
m micro-sized graphite
particles are used as solid lubrication.
COF between workpiece material and texture
graphite-lled inserts reduced by 12 % and 90 %
compared with the untextured insert and
textured insert.
Microtextured tools signicantly improved the
anti-adhesion properties at the tool-chip
interface. Ra value lowered by 27 % compared to
untextured at 0.12 mm/rev and 80 m/min.
Improvement in anti-adhesion properties of tool
by micro-sized graphite powder solid
lubrication. Ra value was reduced by 40 % and
20 % compared to untextured and textured tools
at higher feed rates and cutting speeds.
2018 Lian et al. [56]. TC4 titanium alloy balls, Cemented carbide
disc (YS8),
Pin on disc test
Linear velocity – 30 m/min,
load – 10 N,
time – 80s.
Grooves, grids, and holes are textured using a
high energy density laser beam with power – 30
W, frequency – 20-200 kHz, marking speed –
100-2000 mm/s, wavelength – 1064 nm, focal
length – 389 nm.
Width – 100
μ
m, diameter – 100
μ
m.
Numerical simulation shows that the wear depth
of the hole textured disc was the smallest among
the three different discs.
Spacing has the most effect of parameters on the
Coefcient of friction followed by the diameter
and depth.
Spacing has the most effect of parameters on
wear followed by depth and diameter.
2019 Mishra et al. [31]. Ti-6Al-4 V, Tungsten carbide tool,
f
n
– 0.12 mm/rev,
Microhole texture using Nanosecond laser micro-
machining system.
Diameter – 60
μ
m, pitch – 100
μ
m, texture
FE simulations predicted that no reduction in
cutting forces has been observed for plain and
textured tools under cryogenic and dry cutting at
(continued on next page)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1019
Table 10 (continued )
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
a
p
- 1 mm
v
c
– 70, 100, 130 m/min.
distance from cutting edge - 150
μ
m.
Liquid nitrogen (LN
2
) was used as a coolant with
pressure - 350 kPa, nozzle dia – 2 mm.
varying cutting speeds.
Simulation shows a reduction in crater, ank,
and microscopic tool wear for textured tools
under cryogenic cooling compared to dry.
2019 Tamil Alagan et al.
[44].
Alloy 718, Uncoated carbide insert (RCMX
120400),
f
n
– 0.3 mm/rev,
a
p
– 1 mm,
v
c
– 60 m/min
SCL – 60 m.
Dimple, pyramid texture using pulsed Nd-YAG
laser with the wavelength – 1064 nm, pulse
duration – 120 ns, spot size – 100, 40
μ
m,
frequency – 2.5 kHz, engraving time – 10 ms,
output power – 15, 20 W.
Pitch distance – 0.25 mm, space – 0.25 mm,
depth – 0.1 mm, texture distance from cutting
edge – 0.1 mm.
High-pressure cooling with rake pressure – 16
MPa, ank pressure – 8 MPa.
Crater and notch wear was not observed on
cutting tools
The textured tool did not inuence the tool-chip
contact area.
Textures are lled on Gen 0 and Gen I +inserts.
However, this behavior did not negatively
inuence the cutting process.
Gen I +insert shows better wear resistance. 30
% tool life increased compared to regular tools.
2019 Sun et al. [57]. Al-Alloy,
Cemented carbide (YG8),
f
n
– 200 mm/min,
a
p
– 3 mm,
v
c
– 380 m/min.
Groove’s texture using a femtosecond laser with
wavelength – 800 nm, frequency – 1 kHz, power
– 20 mW, pulse – 120 fs, scanning speed – 100-
500 mm/s. Depth – 4–30
μ
m, width – 40
μ
m,
space – 60
μ
m.
Adhesion area decreases with a decrease in
micro groove depth.
Depth has more inuence on the anti-adhesion
property. The function of shallow grooves does
not work.
Results show that a decrease in depth, chip
thickness, and chip curl radius led to improved
friction coefcient and shear angle.
2019 Li et al. [12]. AISI 316 L (substrate),
AISI 1045 (steel ball),
Sol-gel ZrO
2
/WS
2
coating.
Friction test: load – 7 N, stroke – 5 mm.
Biomimetic shark skin structure using pulsed Q
Nd: YAG laser with wavelength – 1064 nm, spot
size – 30
μ
m, pulse width – 10 ns, power – 4 W,
scanning speed – 100 mm/s.
Lower friction coefcients, abrasive, and
adhesion wear were observed when the
biomimetic shark structure was applied to the
coatings.
Compared to pure ZrO
2
coating, ZrO
2
/WS
2
coating shows a low friction coefcient under
dry conditions.
2019 Palanisamy et al.
[58].
Stainless steel 17–4 PH, Cemented carbide
(CNMA 120408),
f
n
– 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 mm,
v
c
– 100, 150, 200 m/min.
Groove’s texture parallel to chip ow on rake
face using wire EDM.
Textured cutting tools are treated at a
temperature of −196 ◦C for 24 h and tempered at
200 ◦C for 2 h.
Surface roughness shows the most inuence on
cutting speed, an increase in a
p
led to
deteriorated Ra.
Cutting speed and depth of cut had a greater
inuence on the tangential forces inducing
vibration.
Cryo-treated textured tools lowered vibration,
tangential force and surface roughness for the
machining speed conditions.
2019 Tong et al. [59]. Ti-6Al-4 V, Cemented carbide (YG8),
Friction, wear testing: speed – 180-3600 r/
min,
axial force – 50–100 N,
friction sensor load – 500 N.
Micro pits texture using bre laser with
wavelength – 1064 nm, scanning speed - <7000
mm/s, frequency – 20-80 kHz, power – 50 W,
repetition – 0.003.
Parameters are varied with laser power,
scanning speed, texture diameter, and spacing.
Wear and friction properties of textured surfaces
are showing better performance at p =40 W, v
=150 mm/s, D =60 m, and L =250
μ
m.
For textured tools, friction wear was reduced by
38.4 % compared to the smooth surface.
2019 Li et al. [13]. 316 L Stainless steel (electrosurgical blade),
friction test: force – 10 N,
speed – 10 r/min.
Adhesion test:
speed–1000 mm/min,
depth–12 mm, temperature – 250 ◦C.
Biomimetic Pangolin scales texture using SPI-
100C laser with wavelength – 1064 nm,
frequency – 1000 Hz, marking speed – 0.5–5
mm/s, pulse width – 500
μ
m.
Texture diameter – 200
μ
m.
The biomimetic pangolin texture scale transfers
the wettability of the 316 L SS from the
hydrophilicity effect to the hydrophobic effect.
This hydrophobic effect reduces the friction
coefcient by 14.9 % on average.
Biomimetic scale texture signicantly reduces
the adhesion of soft tissue by 16.5 % on average.
2020 Sanchez et al.
[11].
AISI 52100 steel, Cemented carbide,
Tribological test:
load – 10 N,
velocity – 0.5 m/s, time (s)/distance (m) –
500/250.
Biomimetic Vipera Ammodytes texture using the
photochemical machining process. Dimensions
are varied: Minor & major axis, space, height.
Texture surfaces reduce the friction coefcient
compared to non-textured surfaces. It is possible
to reduce 30 % COF with textures.
The length of the n inuences the COF values.
Long ns show less COF.
Abrasion wear is observed with the detached
particles.
2020 You et al. [9]. Ti-6Al-4 V, Cemented carbide (YS8),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.3 mm,
v
c
– 20-100 m/min.
Biomimetic dung beetle texture using IPG laser
with power – 30 W, frequency – 20 kHz,
wavelength – 1064 nm, pulse time – 100 ns, spot
size – 31.5
μ
m.
Convex: ratio – 1, 0.5, angle – 45, 90, spacing –
0.5, 1.
The bionic texture surface shows a signicant
increase under dry cutting.
Bionic tools decrease the cutting forces, and
thrust forces, and improve cutting performance.
The bionic texture surface signicantly
decreases the friction coefcient at the tool-chip
interface at 60 m/min cutting speed under dry
conditions.
2020 Zheng et al. [60]. Ti-6Al-4 V, Cemented carbide (YG8),
f
n
– 0.2 mm/rev,
a
p
- 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 mm
v
c
– 22.7, 47.7, 71.9, 90.4 m/min.
Cutting time – 160 s.
Grooves with Line, sinusoidal, and rhombic
textures using YLPN-1-100-200-R laser with a
wavelength – 1064 nm, frequency – 20 kHz,
power – 40 W, pulse width – 20 ns, scanning
speed – 100 mm/s, and repetitions – 200.
Width – 159.599
μ
m, depth – 14.59
μ
m.
ZJ-846 concentrated cutting uid was used as a
coolant.
Compared to the three texture tools, sinusoidal
texture shows the best cutting performance,
followed by line and rhombic textured tools.
Cutting forces are reduced by 30.97 % using the
texture tools and chip morphology is better than
non-textured tools.
For non-textured tools, adhesive wear is more on
the rake face whereas in the texture tools, it is
low.
(continued on next page)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1020
Table 10 (continued )
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
The sinusoidal textured tool shows the best anti-
adhesive effect among all tools.
2020 Cui et al. [10]. AISI 52100 steel, ceramic tool,
f
n
– 0.12 mm/rev,
a
p
– 1 mm,
v
c
– 62 m/min.
Red swamp craysh texture using laser surface
texturing - YLP20 with the wavelength – 1064
nm, power – 3 W, frequency – 3 kHz, scanning
speed – 60 mm/s, pulse – 100 ns.
The biomimetic ceramic tool exhibits the best
performance when the laser angle is – 60◦and
the number of scans – 3.
Optimum laser parameters can balance tool
load, fracture toughness and initial integrated
damage.
2020 Zhang et al. [61]. AISI 1045 steel, Cemented carbide (YT15
uncoated),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 120 m/min.
Micro pits texture using YLP-F10 Laser with
wavelength – 1.06
μ
m, power – 1-10 W,
frequency – 20-100 kHz, scanning speed – 270
mm/s.
Dimensions are varied in depth, diameter,
occupancy area, scanning speed, texture time
and power.
Water miscible uid with ow rate – 10 l/min.
Results show that texture in certain places can
effectively reduce the tool-chip interface,
friction coefcient, wear, and cutting forces.
Texture effectively reduces the BUE with lower
cutting temperature and wear behavior.
Texture parameters can improve the lubrication
performance and maintain insert strength.
2020 Sivaiah et al. [62] AISI 52100 steel, Tungsten carbide
(SNMA1201083015),
f
n
– 0.11–0.19 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.1–0.9 mm,
v
c
– 110–286 m/min.
Grooves perpendicular to main cutting-edge
texture using bre laser technique with power –
100 W, marking speed – 100 mm/s, pulse
repetition – 20 kHz. Width – 50
μ
m, depth – 20
μ
m, space – 40
μ
m.
MQL with ow rate 80 ml/h, nozzle diameter – 1
mm, wet cooling with ow rate – 6 l/min.
Textured tools with MQL cooling signicantly
reduce ank wear – by 40 %, cutting
temperature – by 25 %, and Ra – by 42 %
compared to conventional tools with wet
cooling.
Surface roughness reduces with the rise in
cutting speed with all tools under cooling
conditions.
An increase in feed and depth of cut has an
increased impact on surface roughness.
2021 Sharma et al. [63]. Tungsten carbide (SNMA HK1500).
Design and fabrication.
Biomimetic honeycomb micro-texture using a
femtosecond laser with varied parameters such
as power, pulse width, feed rate, and gap from
the insert cutting edge.
Depth of cut – 0.0186 mm, space – 0.03 mm,
width – 57.7
μ
m, depth – 18.6
μ
m, texture
distance from cutting edge – 0.06 mm.
Maximum and average groove depth inside the
honeycomb is up to 36.14
μ
m and 18.6
μ
m by
not damaging the surface.
The average width of texture is 57.7
μ
m which
helps in reducing tool-chip contact surface that
helps in the formation of discontinuous chips.
2021 Devraj et al. [18]. Al-MMC (Al 6061 +SiC), Tungsten carbide
(CNMA 120408),
f
n
– 0.1 mm/rev,
a
p
- 0.75 mm
v
c
– 120 m/min.
Micro hole texture using MLS F20 with power -
20 W, frequency – 20 kHz, marking speed – 100
mm/s.
The texture layout was based on the L9 Taguchi
orthogonal array in three levels hole diameter,
hole depth, and pitch between holes.
Tungsten disulde (WS
2
) is used as solid
lubrication.
Hole diameter inuences localized stress and
chip breakability.
It shows 19 %, 21 % and 23 % reduction in
power consumption, Ra, and Vb.
Hole depth inuences the coefcient of friction.
It shows a 6 % reduction in power consumption
and surface roughness and a 7 % reduction in
ank wear.
Pitch distance inuences lubrication and chip
breakability but has very little effect.
2022 Rajurkar A &
Chinchanikar, S
[64].
Inconel 718,
Tungsten carbide WC (CNMG120408MS),
f
n
– 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.2, 0.5, 0.8 mm,
v
c
– 30, 65, 100 m/min.
Micro-dimple and micro-channels (parallel to
the side cutting edge) texture using Nufern laser-
induced with the wavelength – 1068 nm, Watt
pulse – 30, Frequency – 30–100 kHz, Focal
length – 75 mm, pulse width – 100 ns, M
2
Value –
<1.5, Beam prole – Gaussian.
Diameter – 80
μ
m (Micro-dimple),
Width – 80
μ
m (Micro-channel), Depth – 70
μ
m,
Pitch – 190
μ
m, Offset distance from cutting edge
– 100
μ
m.
Micro-channel textured tools extended tool life
by 60 % compared to micro-dimple tools at
lower cutting speeds. At higher speeds, both
tools showed no major difference in tool life. The
primary wear mechanisms were adhesion and
abrasion, with minor notch wear.
Both micro-textured tools showed similar
surface roughness, inuenced by the feed and
depth of cut at a cutting speed of 65 m/min.
SEM analysis revealed adhesion and abrasion as
the main wear mechanisms, with a small
contribution from notch wear.
Chips from micro-dimple tools were more
segmented than those from micro-channel tools.
Better chip morphology and machining
performance were seen at 65 m/min, 0.2 mm/
rev feed, and 0.5 mm depth of cut with micro-
channel tools.
2022 Bibeye et al. [65]. Ti-6Al-4V alloy,
Tool: TNMG 160408 MS with coating AlTiN,
f
n
– 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5, 0.75, 1 mm,
v
c
– 60, 70, 80 m/min.
Dimple texture using Lee laser system,
wavelength – 1064 nm Power – 12 W, Frequency
– 2.56 kHz, Pulse duration – 2 ms.
Diameter – 40
μ
m,
Pitch – 100
μ
m, Offset distance from cutting edge
– 150
μ
m
Textured tools reduced cutting forces by 4 %–23
% compared to non-textured tools. Tool-chip
interface temperature dropped by 4 %–20 %
with textured tools versus non-textured ones.
Textured tools produced smaller, curled chips
due to lower friction and shorter tool-chip
contact.
The textures cut the tool-chip contact length by
15 %, helping form smaller diameter chips.
Textured tools had a 60 % longer tool life than
commercial tools.
Lower temperature at the tool-chip interface
improved heat transfer, extending tool life.
2022 Rajan Priya &
Somashekhar [66].
Martensitic AISI 420 steel, Uncoated carbide
(SNMA 120408),
Bio-inspired crescent texture on rake and ank
face using Meera Laser with the wavelength –
The bio-inspired textured tool outperformed the
conventional tool by reducing chip-tool contact
(continued on next page)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1021
Table 10 (continued )
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
f
n
– 0.14 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.30 mm,
v
c
– 315 m/min.
1045 nm, Pulse width – 100 ns, spot size – 30
μ
m,
repetition rate – 20 kHz, Pulse energy – 2.7 mJ,
Scanning speed 120 mm/s.
Radius of crescent texture, r (
μ
m) – 50/100/150,
Center distance of crescent, a (
μ
m) – 40/60/80,
Edge distance (
μ
m) – 150/200/250, Depth (
μ
m)
– 45/65/90.
area, ank wear, cutting forces, and chip
reduction coefcient.
Increasing crescent texture radius from 50
μ
m to
150
μ
m reduced cutting forces, chip-tool contact
area, and chip reduction coefcient.
Varying crescent texture center distance from
40
μ
m to 80
μ
m minimized cutting forces, chip-
tool contact area, and chip reduction coefcient.
Increasing crescent texture depth from 45
μ
m to
90
μ
m led to higher cutting forces, larger chip-
tool contact area, and more ank wear.
2023 Jiachun Li &
Zhongfei Zou [67].
Inconel 718, Cemented carbide tool (OCT,
MCT) with TiAlN coating,
f
n
– 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 mm,
v
c
– 35, 50, 65, 80 m/min.
Micro-groove texture (MCT),
Length – 1.6 mm,
Width – 1.3 mm,
Depth – 0.12 mm.
Cutting forces and temperature with micro-
grooves were lower than with conventional
tools, reducing cutting force by up to 30 %.
Micro-grooves improved energy generation and
distribution, using less energy under
recommended cutting parameters.
Micro-groove tools had 23 % longer life and
better wear resistance compared to conventional
tools.
2023 Rajan Priya &
Somashekhar [68].
AISI 420 steel, Uncoated carbide (SNMA
120408),
f
n
– 0.14 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.20 mm,
v
c
– 315 m/min.
Bio-inspired crescent, dimple, micro-groove
(perpendicular to cutting edge) texture on the
rake and ank face using Meera Laser with the
wavelength – 1045 nm, Pulse width – 100 ns,
spot size – 30
μ
m, repetition rate – 20 kHz, Pulse
energy – 2.7 mJ, Scanning speed – 120 mm/s.
Bio-inspired crescent:
Radius – 100
μ
m, Center distance – 40
μ
m, Depth
– 48
μ
m, Pitch – 250
μ
m.
Dimple:
Diameter – 100
μ
m, Depth – 70
μ
m, Pitch – 200
μ
m.
Micro-groove:
Width – 100
μ
m, Depth – 40
μ
m, Pitch – 200
μ
m.
Cutting forces and temperature with micro-
grooves were lower than with conventional
tools, reducing cutting force by up to 30 %.
Micro-grooves improved energy generation and
distribution, using less energy under
recommended cutting parameters.
Micro-groove tools had 23 % longer life and
better wear resistance compared to conventional
tools.
2024 Bharath &
Venkatesan [69].
Inconel 713C, Uncoated WC (CNMA120408
K68),
f
n
– 0.1, 0.2 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 75, 150 m/min.
Honeycomb, dimple, broken parallel texture
using bre optic laser technology with power –
90 W,
Spot diameter – 35
μ
m, Wavelength – 2200 nm,
Pulse width – 50
μ
m, Frequency – 80 Hz,
Scanning speed – 250 mm/s, Making time – 3,
Focal length – 193 mm, Gaussian beam prole.
Pitch distance – 250
μ
m, Diameter – 100
μ
m
(Dimple & Honeycomb), Width – 80
μ
m
(rectangular), Depth – 45
μ
m, Offset distance
from cutting edge – 300
μ
m, Texture area – 4.5
mm
2
.
Dry textured, solid-lubricant texture (graphene
impregnated or dispersed on textured inserts)
The honeycomb-textured tool (T2) showed the
lowest cutting temperature in the machining
zone under both dry and graphene lubricant
conditions compared to other tools.
The honeycomb texture reduced cutting force by
34.6 % in dry conditions and 39.4 % with solid
lubricant, outperforming dimple and broken-
parallel textures at high cutting speeds and feed
rates.
Surface roughness decreased the most with the
honeycomb texture, showing reductions of 23.7
% in dry conditions and 22.4 % with graphene
compared to other tools.
The honeycomb texture increased the shear
angle by 7.45 % (dry) and 6.5 % (graphene),
while lowering the friction coefcient by 25.8 %
and 27 %, and reducing cutting forces by 29.3 %
and 33.33 % compared to the dimple tool.
The honeycomb (T2) and broken-parallel (T3)
tools reduced tool ank wear by 30.5 %, 26.3 %,
11.9 %, and 18.1 %, respectively, compared to
the dimple tool (T1) at high cutting speeds.
2023 Salman Khani
[70].
Aluminum 7075 alloy,
Cemented carbide CNMA120408,
f
n
– 0.14 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.75 mm,
v
c
– 33, 47, 66 m/min.
Micro-grooves
Linear (perpendicular and parallel to the chip
ow direction), Circular, linear cross-hatch
textures using Nd:YAG laser with wavelength –
1064 nm, Repetition rate – 20 kHz, Pulse
direction – 10 ns, Maximum power output – 30
W.
Depth – 10
μ
m, Width – 50
μ
m, Spacing – 150
μ
m.
Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube nanoparticles.
CNT-enriched nanouid signicantly reduced
cutting force, surface roughness, and the built-
up edge size.
The Perpendicular texture showed the best
performance in lowering surface roughness.
Surface textures reduced friction and built-up
edge height, with the Perpendicular texture
showing the highest reduction of 50 %,
compared to non-textured tools.
Increasing CNT nanoparticle concentration (1–3
%) in the cutting uid with Perpendicular
textured tools decreased cutting force by 21–32
%, reduced built-up edge size by 22–37 %, and
lowered surface roughness by 15–19 %.
2024 Gaurav &
Chandrakanth
[71].
Ti6Al4V, WC tool TCMW 16 T3 04 H13A,
f
n
– 0.3 mm/rev,
a
p
– 0.5 mm,
v
c
– 110 m/min.
Micro-holes texture using Nd-YAG with
Wavelength – 1070 nm, Spot diameter - 45
μ
m,
Feed rate – 80 mm/min, Power – 150 W, Stand-
off distance – 0.2 mm, Pulse width – 0.5 ms.
Diameter – 305
μ
m.
Pitch distance – 98
μ
m, Height – 20
μ
m.
The textured tool greatly reduced the sticking
contact area at the chip/tool interface.
Textured tools showed a signicant reduction in
Titanium adhesion under all machining
conditions.
Flank wear was lower in textured tools
(continued on next page)
N. Tamil Alagan et al.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 133 (2025) 1005–1024
1022
Table 10 (continued )
Year Authors Workpiece/cutting tool/process conditions Texture/coolant conditions Evaluation/ndings
Dry, Compressed air (Pressurized air at 5 bars;
Nozzle dia: 2 mm), MQL (Synthetic oil, Flow
rate: 10 ml/h), Wet Emulsion (Flow rate: 15 ml/
h)
compared to plain tools in compressed air, MQL,
and wet conditions.
Feed forces improved noticeably with textured
tools in both dry and wet conditions.
Cutting forces were higher in MQL and wet
conditions for both textured and plain tools.
Textured tools improved the average surface
roughness in all machining conditions.
2024 Gaurav et al. [72]. Ti6Al4V, WC tool TCMW 16 T3 04 H13A,
f
n
– 0.2 mm/rev,
a
p
– 2 mm,
v
c
– 110 m/min.
Micro-pillar texture using Nd-YAG with
Wavelength – 1070 nm, Spot diameter - 45
μ
m,
Feed rate – 80 mm/min, Power – 150 W, Stand-
off distance – 0.2 mm, Pulse width – 0.5 ms.
Diameter – 302
μ
m, Pitch – 412
μ
m, Depth – 8,
15, 30, 55, 80
μ
m.
Textured tools reduce sticking, performing best
with texture depths of 8 to 30
μ
m. Depths over
55
μ
m performed worse than plain tools.
Titanium adhesion at the rake interface
signicantly decreased with texture depths of 8,
15, and 30
μ
m, reducing the seizure zone.
Cutting edges stayed sharper longer with
shallow texture depths (8 to 30
μ
m) compared to
deeper textures (55, 80
μ
m).
Lower texture depths improved feed forces,
showing better friction at the chip-tool interface.
The 15
μ
m textured tool reduced forces by 54 %
compared to a plain tool.
Textures of 15 and 30
μ
m produced shorter,
curled chips, disrupting chip ow more
effectively.
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