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Citation: Chen, S.-Y.; Xu, C.-Y.;
Mazhar, M.S.; Naiker, M. Nutritional
Value and Therapeutic Benefits of
Dragon Fruit: A Comprehensive
Review with Implications for
Establishing Australian Industry
Standards. Molecules 2024,29, 5676.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules29235676
Academic Editor: Francesco
Cacciola
Received: 7 November 2024
Revised: 28 November 2024
Accepted: 28 November 2024
Published: 30 November 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Review
Nutritional Value and Therapeutic Benefits of Dragon Fruit:
A Comprehensive Review with Implications for Establishing
Australian Industry Standards
Si-Yuan Chen 1,* , Cheng-Yuan Xu 2, Muhammad Sohail Mazhar 2,3 and Mani Naiker 1,*
1School of Health, Medical & Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University Australia, Bruce Hwy,
North Rockhampton, QLD 4701, Australia
2Research Institute for Northern Agriculture, Charles Darwin University, Ellengowan Drive,
Brinkin, NT 0810, Australia; stephen.xu@cdu.edu.au (C.-Y.X.); muhammadsohail.mazhar@nt.gov.au (M.S.M.)
3Agriculture Branch, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Northern Territory Government,
Darwin, NT 0828, Australia
*Correspondence: s.chen3@cqu.edu.au (S.-Y.C.); m.naiker@cqu.edu.au (M.N.)
Abstract: Dragon fruit, which is native to northern South America and Mexico, has become a
significant crop in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including Vietnam, China, and
Australia. The fruit (Hylocereus spp.) is rich in various bioactive phytochemical compounds, including
phenolic acids, flavonoids, and pigments such as betalains and anthocyanins, which contribute to its
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-microbial properties. This comprehensive review introduces
the origin, classification, and global production of dragon fruit, with a particular focus on its bioactive
phytochemicals and therapeutic potential. Additionally, it critically evaluates the current industry
standards for fresh dragon fruit production across key producing countries. While these standards
primarily focus on quality, classification, and grading criteria, they lack focus on parameters related
to the fruit’s bioactive content. The absence of established quality standards for fresh produce in
the Australian dragon fruit industry presents a unique opportunity to develop guidelines that align
with both international benchmarks and the therapeutic potential of the fruit. By addressing this
gap, this review can potentially help Australia to position its dragon fruit industry to achieve greater
consistency, competitiveness, and consumer appeal. As the demand for functional foods continues
to rise, aligning Australian production practices with global standards becomes critical to meeting
domestic market expectations. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of dragon
fruit’s nutritional and therapeutic significance and highlights its potential role in establishing a robust
standard for the Australian dragon fruit industry. A review of global industry standards reveled
that Australian standard could incorporate classifications of dragon fruits, including external factors
like appearance, size, and defect tolerance. Future research is needed to prioritize understanding
of the impact of cultivation practices and environmental factors on the bioactive composition of
dragon fruit, enabling the development of best practices for growers. Additionally, further studies
are needed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of these bioactive properties through clinical trials,
particularly their potential in preventing chronic diseases. The advancement of analytical methods for
quantifying bioactive compounds will provide deeper insights into their health benefits and support
the establishment of bioactive-oriented industry standards. Moreover, investigations of post-harvest
handling and processing techniques could optimize the preservation of these valuable compounds,
enhancing dragon fruit’s role as a functional food.
Keywords: dragon fruit; nutritional value; therapeutic benefits; Australian market; industry standard
1. Introduction
Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.), commonly referred to as pitaya, originates from Mexico
and northern South America and has grown into a globally cultivated crop due to its
Molecules 2024,29, 5676. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235676 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/molecules
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 2 of 32
adaptability to tropical and subtropical climates [
1
]. Initially valued for its vibrant appear-
ance and exotic appeal, dragon fruit has gained significant attention for its rich contents
of bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenols, anthocyanins, and betalains,
which contribute to its health benefits. These bioactive compounds are known for their
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and anti-cancer properties, further elevating
dragon fruit’s value as a functional food [
2
]. The commercial cultivation of dragon fruit
has spread across key producing countries like Vietnam, China, and Indonesia, where
favorable climatic conditions support its growth and large-scale production [
3
]. In contrast,
Australia’s dragon fruit industry is relatively new, with potential for growth as interest in
this exotic fruit increases domestically. Dragon fruit thrives in regions with annual rainfall
between 25 and 50 inches and tolerates temperatures up to 40
◦
C, making it suitable for
cultivation in Australia’s subtropical regions, particularly in Queensland and the Northern
Territory [1].
Despite the growing global interest in dragon fruit as a functional food, research
on its bioactive properties and therapeutic benefits, particularly within the context of
Australian-grown varieties, remains sparse. This literature review seeks to address this gap
by consolidating existing knowledge on dragon fruit’s nutritional and bioactive compo-
sition, as well as its therapeutic potential and the status of global production standards.
Unlike major global producers, the Australian dragon fruit industry operates without
established quality benchmarks, limiting its ability to align with international frameworks
and meet the increasing demand for health-promoting produce. This review is novel in its
emphasis on the implications of these gaps for the Australian industry and the potential
to integrate bioactive-focused standards. By synthesizing existing findings, this work pro-
vides a foundation for the advancement of scientific understanding while supporting the
development of industry standards that enhance the competitiveness and sustainability of
Australian-grown dragon fruit. This comprehensive literature review explores the classifica-
tion and bioactive phytochemical composition of dragon fruit, emphasizing its nutritional
and therapeutic properties. Moreover, it highlights the global dragon fruit production
landscape and the current global industry standards for fresh produce, underscoring the
need for Australia’s emerging dragon fruit industry to align with international frameworks
and capitalize on its competitive advantages by potentially establishing classifications for
shape, size, defect tolerance, etc. This review aims to provide insights into the potential
of establishing robust industry standards in Australia to enhance the marketability and
sustainability of its dragon fruit production.
Published literature from the last two decades related to the cultivation, bioactive
phytochemicals, nutritional value, therapeutic potential, and global industry standards for
Hylocereus spp. (dragon fruit) was comprehensively reviewed. Relevant studies, includ-
ing original research articles, review papers, and cross-referenced citations, were identi-
fied through numerous databases from the ‘EBSCOhost’ host platform, such as PubMed,
SciFinder, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. Search terms included combina-
tions of (dragon fruit OR Hylocereus OR pitaya) AND (bioactive compounds, nutritional
value, antioxidants, phenolic acids, flavonoids, betalains, anthocyanins, antimicrobial,
anti-inflammatory, OR therapeutic properties). The inclusion criteria focused on articles
that discussed the bioactive and therapeutic properties of dragon fruit and global produc-
tion standards, with a specific emphasis on literature evaluating quality benchmarks in
Australia and other major producing regions. Global industry standards and Australian
dragon fruit market reports were sourced directly from government sites and horticultural
bodies such as AgriFutures Australia.
2. Dragon Fruit Origin and Classification
Dragon fruit, also commonly referred to as pitaya (most commonly of the genus
Hylocereus), belongs to the Cactaceae family, which comprises various cactus species. While
this fruit is originally native to the arid regions of Mexico and northern South America, its
commercial cultivation has spread widely beyond its native habitats. Nowadays, dragon
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 3 of 32
fruit is extensively grown in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including
countries such as Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Israel, Australia, etc., where it has
gradually become an important agricultural product [4].
The plant can thrive under specific environmental conditions, with ideal growth
occurring in areas that receive annual rainfall between 30 and 50 inches. It is also highly
tolerant of elevated temperatures, capable of withstanding heat up to 40
◦
C. As a member
of the cactus family, dragon fruit adapts well to arid to semi-arid environments, making it
particularly suited to regions with high light intensity and warm climates. However, while
dragon fruit can survive in dry conditions, it requires a reliable supply of water to reach
optimal growth. Additionally, the quality of the soil is a critical factor; the fruit flourishes
best in fertile, well-drained soils that allow its root system to develop and support the
plant’s growth. Thus, despite its cactus-like resilience to heat and light, adequate moisture
and soil fertility are essential for the production of high-quality fruit [
1
]. This adaptation to
diverse climates, coupled with its ability to thrive in a range of soil conditions, has made
dragon fruit a viable crop in many regions outside its native range, contributing to its rising
global popularity as both an agricultural product and a health-promoting fruit.
Hylocereus spp. consists of several species, each displaying unique physical character-
istics in terms of size, weight, and appearance (Figure 1). Hylocereus undatus (H. undatus)
is one of the largest species in the group, with fruits ranging from 15 to 22 cm in length
and weighing between 300 and 800 g. It is distinguished by its red peel contrasted with
white flesh, giving it a visually appealing look [
5
]. This species is widely recognized in the
dragon fruit market due to its large size and striking coloration. Another notable species
is Hylocereus polyrhizus (H. polyrhizus), which produces smaller fruits, typically measuring
10 to 12 cm
in length and weighing 130 to 350 g. The peel of H. polyrhizus is red, and its
flesh is also red, differentiating it from the white-fleshed H. undatus. The presence of green
at the top of the fruit remains a shared feature within the Hylocereus genus, contributing to
its overall aesthetic appeal [5].
Hylocereus purpusii is similar in size to H. polyrhizus, with fruits ranging from
10 to 15 cm
in length and weighing between 150 and 400 g. This species is unique for its light- or dark-
red peel, with its red flesh creating a harmonious color scheme. Like other species in the
genus, the green-tipped top adds visual consistency across the different types of Hylocereus
fruit. Hylocereus costaricensis (H. costaricensis) is slightly larger and heavier, measuring
10 to 15 cm in length and weighing between 250 and 600 g. The peel is a vibrant red,
while the flesh has a striking red–purple hue, making it distinct from the other red-fleshed
varieties. The deeper color of the flesh further distinguishes H. costaricensis and adds to its
visual and commercial appeal. Smaller species within the genus include Hylocereus trigonus
(H. trigonus) and Hylocereus megalanthus (H. megalanthus), both of which produce fruits
between 7 and 9 cm in length and weighing 120 to 250 g. Despite their similar sizes,
these two species differ significantly in appearance. H. trigonus has white flesh, offering a
contrast to the more commonly red-fleshed species, while H. megalanthus is recognizable
by its yellow peel and white flesh, a combination that sets it apart visually from the other
species in the Hylocereus genus [6].
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 4 of 32
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 34
Figure 1. Different Hylocereus species [6]. (A) Hylocereus polyrhizus, (B) Hylocereu. undatus, (C) Hylo-
cereus costaricensis, (D) Hylocereus megalanthus, (E) Selenicereus megalanthus (without spines), (F) Sele-
nicereus megalanthus (with spines), (G) Hylocereus purpusii, and (H) Hylocereus trigonus.
Hylocereus purpusii is similar in size to H. polyrhizus, with fruits ranging from 10 to 15
cm in length and weighing between 150 and 400 g. This species is unique for its light- or
dark-red peel, with its red flesh creating a harmonious color scheme. Like other species in
the genus, the green-tipped top adds visual consistency across the different types of Hy-
locereus fruit. Hylocereus costaricensis (H. costaricensis) is slightly larger and heavier, meas-
uring 10 to 15 cm in length and weighing between 250 and 600 g. The peel is a vibrant red,
while the flesh has a striking red–purple hue, making it distinct from the other red-fleshed
varieties. The deeper color of the flesh further distinguishes H. costaricensis and adds to its
visual and commercial appeal. Smaller species within the genus include Hylocereus
trigonus (H. trigonus) and Hylocereus megalanthus (H. megalanthus), both of which produce
fruits between 7 and 9 cm in length and weighing 120 to 250 g. Despite their similar sizes,
these two species differ significantly in appearance. H. trigonus has white flesh, offering a
contrast to the more commonly red-fleshed species, while H. megalanthus is recognizable
by its yellow peel and white flesh, a combination that sets it apart visually from the other
species in the Hylocereus genus [6].
Figure 1. Different Hylocereus species [
6
]. (A)Hylocereus polyrhizus, (B)Hylocereu. undatus,
(C)Hylocereus costaricensis, (D)Hylocereus megalanthus, (E)Selenicereus megalanthus (without spines),
(F)Selenicereus megalanthus (with spines), (G)Hylocereus purpusii, and (H)Hylocereus trigonus.
3. Global Dragon Fruit Production
Major dragon fruit production regions are shown in Figure 2. These regions in-
clude China, Japan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Vietnam, Australia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka,
India, Thailand, South Africa, Spain, and the USA. Research on global dragon fruit pro-
duction from 2017–2018 shows that Vietnam leads the world in dragon fruit production,
with an impressive cultivation area of over 55,000 hectares and a total output of over
1,000,000 metric tons
. Its productivity, ranging from 22 to 35 metric tons per hectare, high-
lights Vietnam’s favorable growing conditions [
6
]. As a result, Vietnam dominates the
global market in terms of both volume and productivity, capitalizing on its large-scale
operations. China follows closely, with 40,000 hectares of land dedicated to dragon fruit
farming, yielding 700,000 metric tons. China’s productivity rate of 17.5 metric tons per
hectare is slightly lower than Vietnam’s but still reflects a strong level of production effi-
ciency [
7
]. Indonesia, despite having a smaller production area of around 8500 hectares,
impressively produces over 200,000 metric tons of dragon fruit, with a productivity rate
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 5 of 32
of 23.6 metric tons per hectare [
7
]. In contrast, Thailand operates on a more modest scale,
with a cultivation area of nearly 3500 hectares and a total production of 26,000 metric
tons. Its productivity, at 7.5 metric tons per hectare, is one of the lowest among the ma-
jor producers [
7
]. Taiwan’s dragon fruit industry is relatively small, with a cultivation
area close to 2500 hectares and an annual production of 49,000 metric tons. Although
Taiwan’s production volume is lower than that of countries like Vietnam and Indonesia,
its focus on maximizing yields (19.7 metric tons per hectare) from smaller areas, which
ensures that its dragon fruit industry remains competitive [
7
]. Malaysia and the Philippines
have cultivation areas of 680 hectares and 485 hectares, respectively. Malaysia produces
7820 metric tons
, with a productivity of 11.5 metric tons per hectare, while the Philippines
yields 6062 metric tons, with productivity ranging between 10 and 15 metric tons per hectare.
Cambodia and India, with relatively small cultivation areas, produce
4840 metric tons
and
4200 metric tons
annually, respectively. Cambodia’s productivity stands at
11 metric tons
per hectare, while India’s ranges from 8.0 to 10.5 metric tons per hectare, suggesting that
both countries could benefit from improved farming practices to boost their output [7].
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 34
3. Global Dragon Fruit Production
Major dragon fruit production regions are shown in Figure 2. These regions include
China, Japan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Vietnam, Australia, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India,
Thailand, South Africa, Spain, and the USA. Research on global dragon fruit production
from 2017–2018 shows that Vietnam leads the world in dragon fruit production, with an
impressive cultivation area of over 55,000 hectares and a total output of over 1,000,000
metric tons. Its productivity, ranging from 22 to 35 metric tons per hectare, highlights Vi-
etnam’s favorable growing conditions [6]. As a result, Vietnam dominates the global mar-
ket in terms of both volume and productivity, capitalizing on its large-scale operations.
China follows closely, with 40,000 hectares of land dedicated to dragon fruit farming,
yielding 700,000 metric tons. China’s productivity rate of 17.5 metric tons per hectare is
slightly lower than Vietnam’s but still reflects a strong level of production efficiency [7].
Indonesia, despite having a smaller production area of around 8500 hectares, impressively
produces over 200,000 metric tons of dragon fruit, with a productivity rate of 23.6 metric
tons per hectare [7]. In contrast, Thailand operates on a more modest scale, with a cultiva-
tion area of nearly 3500 hectares and a total production of 26,000 metric tons. Its produc-
tivity, at 7.5 metric tons per hectare, is one of the lowest among the major producers [7].
Taiwan’s dragon fruit industry is relatively small, with a cultivation area close to 2500
hectares and an annual production of 49,000 metric tons. Although Taiwan’s production
volume is lower than that of countries like Vietnam and Indonesia, its focus on maximiz-
ing yields (19.7 metric tons per hectare) from smaller areas, which ensures that its dragon
fruit industry remains competitive [7]. Malaysia and the Philippines have cultivation areas
of 680 hectares and 485 hectares, respectively. Malaysia produces 7820 metric tons, with a
productivity of 11.5 metric tons per hectare, while the Philippines yields 6062 metric tons,
with productivity ranging between 10 and 15 metric tons per hectare. Cambodia and India,
with relatively small cultivation areas, produce 4840 metric tons and 4200 metric tons an-
nually, respectively. Cambodia’s productivity stands at 11 metric tons per hectare, while
India’s ranges from 8.0 to 10.5 metric tons per hectare, suggesting that both countries
could benefit from improved farming practices to boost their output [7].
Figure 2. Map of major dragon fruit production regions [8].
There is very limited literature on the Australian dragon fruit market, and it is still
in its infancy, particularly when compared to larger global producers like Vietnam, China,
and Indonesia. According to data from 2012–2015, Australia only produces 750 tons of
fruit annually. As Australia’s dragon fruit industry is relatively new, there is significant
potential for domestic growth. With increased investment in research and the expansion of
cultivation areas, Australia could enhance its productivity and meet rising local demand.
The country’s emphasis on sustainable farming practices and adherence to strict food safety
standards gives it a competitive advantage, particularly in markets that prioritize ethically
grown, premium-quality produce.
4. Nutritional Value
4.1. Chemical Composition
Red-fleshed (H. polyrhizus) and white-fleshed (H. undatus) dragon fruits are the cul-
tivars found the most in the Australian industry, and as such, only these two species are
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 6 of 32
discussed in this section. Due to the absence of literature on phytochemical concentrations
and proximate analysis specific to Australian-grown dragon fruit, this review focuses on
global data to provide a general understanding. Most of the nutrients present in H. undatus
and H. polyrhizus are recorded at higher levels than those in popular tropical fruits, includ-
ing jack fruit, pineapple, and mango (Table 1) [
9
–
20
]. It is worth noting that this Table 1
serves as a general comparison, as these values are highly influenced by factors such as
geographical location, cultivation practices, and testing methodology [14].
Table 1. Nutritional composition and recommended daily intake of dragon fruit (Hylocereous spp.)
compared with other popular tropical fruits in Australia.
Composition H. undatus
H. polyrhizus
Jack Fruit Pineapple Mango Banana RDI *
Protein (g) 0.5 1.1 1.9 0.6 0.4 1.1 64
Fat (g) 0.1 0.9 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.2
Carbohydrate (g) 9.5 11.2 25.4 11.8 15.0 22.8 -
Energy (KJ) 130 283 410 188.3 795 89 -
Fiber (g) 0.3 0.9 1.5 1.4 1.1 2.6 30
Total sugars (g) 8.6 9.2 20.6 8.3 13.7 12.2 -
Calcium (mg) 6.0 10.2 37.0 13 16 5 1000
Magnesium (mg) 26.6 38.9 27 12 19 27 420
Potassium (mg) 399.5 328.4 407 125 211 358 3800
Iron (mg) 0.4 3.4 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.3 8
Phosphorus (mg) 19 36.1 41.0 9 18 22 1000
Sodium (mg) 3.3 8.9 41.0 1 3 1 920
Vitamin B1(µg) 2.2 2.4 90 78 40 80 1200
Vitamin B2(µg) 2.0 1.3 400 29 70 2720 1300
Vitamin B3(µg) 10.6 12.6 4000 106 1310 665 16,000
Vitamin C (mg) 5.6 4.4 10 16.9 92.8 8.7 45
References [9,14,17,18] [9,13,14,18] [12,20] [15] [16] [10,19] [11]
Note: Results are expressed per 100 g fresh weight. Nutritional values may differ due to different geographical
location, growing practices, and testing methodology. *: Recommended daily intake.
The carbohydrate content in dragon fruit is similar to that of pineapple but lower
when compared to other fruits, including banana, mango, and jack fruit. As a result, dragon
fruit contains fewer calories, making it a suitable option for individuals aiming to lose
weight [
9
]. Due to its relatively low sugar levels, dragon fruit is also considered a low-GI
(glycemic index) fruit, beneficial for individuals with diabetes [
21
]. The main sugar present
in dragon fruit is glucose (6 g/100 g), followed by fructose, and it also contains sorbitol,
which contributes to its sweet flavor [
14
]. Additionally, dragon fruit is rich in vital minerals
such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, phosphorus, and sodium, all of which offer
significant health benefits. These minerals play crucial roles in strengthening bones and
teeth, regulating blood pressure and blood sugar, and aiding in the synthesis of essential
amino acids [22].
Dragon fruit is also a valuable source of vitamins, including thiamine (vitamin B1,
2.4
µ
g/100 g), riboflavin (vitamin B2, 2.0
µ
g/100 g), niacin (vitamin B3, 12.6
µ
g/100 g), and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C, 5.6
µ
g/100 g) [
9
]. With a high moisture content of over 85%, the
fruit’s flesh is juicy and hydrating [
23
]. Its pH ranges from 4.5 to 5.0, classifying dragon
fruit as a low-acid fruit, with malic acid being the predominant acid [
14
]. Table 1also shows
that H. undatus has lower amounts of fat, carbohydrates, energy, and total sugars than
H. polyrhizus, making it a better choice among these two species for weight management
and individuals with diabetes [
9
,
21
]. However, the red-fleshed dragon fruit is richer in fiber
and minerals such as magnesium, phosphorus, and iron. In contrast, the white-fleshed
dragon fruit has higher protein and potassium levels. H. undatus and H. polyrhizus contain
comparable amounts of vitamins B1, B2, and B3 and vitamin C.
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 7 of 32
4.2. Bioactive Phytochemicals in Dragon Fruit
Phytochemicals, naturally occurring secondary metabolites found in various plant
parts, are increasingly recognized for their significant bioactive properties and health
benefits [
24
]. Recent studies have shown that dragon fruit is abundant in several important
phytochemicals, including phenolic acids; flavonoids; and pigments such as carotenoids,
betalains, anthocyanins, etc. These compounds are found in the flesh, seeds, and discarded
peels of dragon fruit, which makes it a versatile source of bioactive components [
25
].
As detailed in Table 2,Hylocereus species, including H. undatus and H. polyrhizus, are
particularly noted for their phytochemical richness, contributing to both their nutritional
and medicinal value.
Among the most prominent phytochemicals in dragon fruit are hydroxybenzoic acids
such as gallic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, and salicylic acid. Gallic acids, which can be
found in the flesh, peel, and seeds, are well-known for their antioxidant, anti-obesity, and
anti-diabetic properties [
26
–
29
]. Vanillic acid, which is present in the flesh and peel, exhibits
antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-atherogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects [
29
–
33
]. Syringic
acid, also found across the flesh, peel, and seeds, demonstrates antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-cancer, and anti-diabetic potential [
34
,
35
]. Salicylic acid, although found only in the
flesh, is primarily recognized for its antioxidant activity [9].
Dragon fruit is also a rich source of hydroxycinnamic acids, which include p-coumaric
acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and sinapic acid. These compounds are highly valued
for their antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties. P-coumaric acid, found in the flesh,
has demonstrated both antioxidant and anti-diabetic activities [
31
,
36
,
37
]. Caffeic acid,
present in the flesh and peel, is primarily known for its antioxidant function [
26
,
29
,
36
].
Chlorogenic acid, located in the flesh, also contributes to anti-inflammatory and anti-
diabetic effects [
9
,
38
], while sinapic acid, found in the flesh and seeds, further enhances
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory responses [9,39].
Flavonoids are another key group of bioactive compounds in dragon fruit, includ-
ing quercetin, catechin, rutin, phloridzin, and hesperidin. These flavonoids are abun-
dant in the flesh, peel, and seeds and are recognized for their antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
and anti-inflammatory properties. Quercetin, which is present in the flesh and peel of
both H. polyrhizus and H. undatus, is known for its strong anti-inflammatory and antiox-
idant effects [
40
–
43
]. Catechin, also a potent antioxidant, has been detected in the flesh
and
peel [9,44]
. Rutin, which is present in the flesh and seeds, has been linked to anti-
inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-diabetic effects [
40
,
44
,
45
]. Phloridzin and hesperidin,
found in both the flesh and peel, contribute additional antioxidant and anti-diabetic prop-
erties, with hesperidin also displaying anti-cancer potential [46–49].
Carotenoids, particularly lycopene and
β
-carotene, are prominent in H. polyrhizus.
Lycopene is known for its antioxidant and anti-cancer properties, while
β
-carotene of-
fers antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects [
50
,
51
]. Additionally,
anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-
glucoside are vital components of dragon fruit, particularly in H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus. These anthocyanins found in the flesh and peel exhibit potent antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory activities [
40
,
52
]. Lastly, betalains, which include betacyanin and be-
tanin, are primarily concentrated in the flesh and peel of H. polyrhizus. Betacyanin is known
for its extensive therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and
anti-inflammatory effects [
53
–
58
]. Betanin, which is well-known for its antioxidant and
anti-microbial activities, is also present in the flesh and peel [55,56].
The diverse array of phytochemicals found in dragon fruit, including hydroxybenzoic
acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains, plays
a crucial role in promoting various health benefits. These bioactive phytochemicals, dis-
tributed across the fruit’s flesh, peel, and seeds, underscore the potential of dragon fruit as
a functional food with significant health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects.
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 8 of 32
Table 2. Bioactive phytochemicals isolated from dragon fruit (H. polyrhizus and H. undatus) and their
health benefits.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Hydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34
Carotenoids, particularly lycopene and β-carotene, are prominent in H. polyrhizus.
Lycopene is known for its antioxidant and anti-cancer properties, while β-carotene offers
antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects [50,51]. Additionally, an-
thocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-
glucoside are vital components of dragon fruit, particularly in H. polyrhizus and H. un-
datus. These anthocyanins found in the flesh and peel exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities [40,52]. Lastly, betalains, which include betacyanin and betanin,
are primarily concentrated in the flesh and peel of H. polyrhizus. Betacyanin is known for
its extensive therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and
anti-inflammatory effects [53–58]. Betanin, which is well-known for its antioxidant and
anti-microbial activities, is also present in the flesh and peel [55,56].
The diverse array of phytochemicals found in dragon fruit, including hydroxyben-
zoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains,
plays a crucial role in promoting various health benefits. These bioactive phytochemicals,
distributed across the fruit’s flesh, peel, and seeds, underscore the potential of dragon fruit
as a functional food with significant health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflamma-
tory, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects.
Tab le 2. Bioactive phytochemicals isolated from dragon fruit (H. polyrhizus and H. undatus) and their
health benefits.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Hydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-obesity,
and anti-diabetes effects [26–29,37]
Vanillic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
anti-atherogenic, and anti-
inflammatory effects
[29–33]
Syringic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-cancer, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[34,35]
Salicylic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant effects [9]
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus
Flesh, peel,
and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-obesity,
and anti-diabetes effects [26–29,37]
Vanillic acid
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34
Carotenoids, particularly lycopene and β-carotene, are prominent in H. polyrhizus.
Lycopene is known for its antioxidant and anti-cancer properties, while β-carotene offers
antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects [50,51]. Additionally, an-
thocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-
glucoside are vital components of dragon fruit, particularly in H. polyrhizus and H. un-
datus. These anthocyanins found in the flesh and peel exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities [40,52]. Lastly, betalains, which include betacyanin and betanin,
are primarily concentrated in the flesh and peel of H. polyrhizus. Betacyanin is known for
its extensive therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and
anti-inflammatory effects [53–58]. Betanin, which is well-known for its antioxidant and
anti-microbial activities, is also present in the flesh and peel [55,56].
The diverse array of phytochemicals found in dragon fruit, including hydroxyben-
zoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains,
plays a crucial role in promoting various health benefits. These bioactive phytochemicals,
distributed across the fruit’s flesh, peel, and seeds, underscore the potential of dragon fruit
as a functional food with significant health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflamma-
tory, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects.
Tab le 2. Bioactive phytochemicals isolated from dragon fruit (H. polyrhizus and H. undatus) and their
health benefits.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Hydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-obesity,
and anti-diabetes effects [26–29,37]
Vanillic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
anti-atherogenic, and anti-
inflammatory effects
[29–33]
Syringic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-cancer, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[34,35]
Salicylic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant effects [9]
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
anti-atherogenic, and
anti-inflammatory effects
[29–33]
Syringic acid
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34
Carotenoids, particularly lycopene and β-carotene, are prominent in H. polyrhizus.
Lycopene is known for its antioxidant and anti-cancer properties, while β-carotene offers
antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects [50,51]. Additionally, an-
thocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-
glucoside are vital components of dragon fruit, particularly in H. polyrhizus and H. un-
datus. These anthocyanins found in the flesh and peel exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities [40,52]. Lastly, betalains, which include betacyanin and betanin,
are primarily concentrated in the flesh and peel of H. polyrhizus. Betacyanin is known for
its extensive therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and
anti-inflammatory effects [53–58]. Betanin, which is well-known for its antioxidant and
anti-microbial activities, is also present in the flesh and peel [55,56].
The diverse array of phytochemicals found in dragon fruit, including hydroxyben-
zoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains,
plays a crucial role in promoting various health benefits. These bioactive phytochemicals,
distributed across the fruit’s flesh, peel, and seeds, underscore the potential of dragon fruit
as a functional food with significant health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflamma-
tory, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects.
Tab le 2. Bioactive phytochemicals isolated from dragon fruit (H. polyrhizus and H. undatus) and their
health benefits.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Hydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-obesity,
and anti-diabetes effects [26–29,37]
Vanillic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
anti-atherogenic, and anti-
inflammatory effects
[29–33]
Syringic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-cancer, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[34,35]
Salicylic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant effects [9]
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus
Flesh, peel,
and seeds
Antioxidant,
anti-microbial, anti-cancer,
anti-inflammatory, and
anti-diabetes effects
[34,35]
Salicylic acid
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 34
Carotenoids, particularly lycopene and β-carotene, are prominent in H. polyrhizus.
Lycopene is known for its antioxidant and anti-cancer properties, while β-carotene offers
antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects [50,51]. Additionally, an-
thocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, and pelargonidin-3-
glucoside are vital components of dragon fruit, particularly in H. polyrhizus and H. un-
datus. These anthocyanins found in the flesh and peel exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activities [40,52]. Lastly, betalains, which include betacyanin and betanin,
are primarily concentrated in the flesh and peel of H. polyrhizus. Betacyanin is known for
its extensive therapeutic properties, such as antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-viral, and
anti-inflammatory effects [53–58]. Betanin, which is well-known for its antioxidant and
anti-microbial activities, is also present in the flesh and peel [55,56].
The diverse array of phytochemicals found in dragon fruit, including hydroxyben-
zoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains,
plays a crucial role in promoting various health benefits. These bioactive phytochemicals,
distributed across the fruit’s flesh, peel, and seeds, underscore the potential of dragon fruit
as a functional food with significant health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflamma-
tory, anti-diabetic, and cardiovascular protective effects.
Tab le 2. Bioactive phytochemicals isolated from dragon fruit (H. polyrhizus and H. undatus) and their
health benefits.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Hydroxybenzoic acids
Gallic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-obesity,
and anti-diabetes effects [26–29,37]
Vanillic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
anti-atherogenic, and anti-
inflammatory effects
[29–33]
Syringic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus
Flesh, peel, and
seeds
Antioxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-cancer, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[34,35]
Salicylic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant effects [9]
Hydroxycinnamic
acids
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant effects [9]
Hydroxycinnamic acids
p-Coumaric acid
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p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and
anti-diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
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p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 34
p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and
anti-diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
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p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids
(Non-pigment)
Quercetin
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p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-
inflammatory capacities
[40–43]
Molecules 2024,29, 5676 9 of 32
Table 2. Cont.
Phytochemical Structure Varieties Parts Health Benefits References
Catechin
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p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
Molecules 2024, 29, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 34
p-Coumaric acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant and anti-
diabetes effects [32,34,36]
Caffeic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [28,29,34]
Chlorogenic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[9,38]
Sinapic acid
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [9,39]
Flavonoids (Non-
pigment)
Quercetin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-inflammatory
capacities
[40–43]
Catechin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant effects [9,44]
Rutin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-
diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and seeds
Antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and
anti-diabetes effects
[43,45,59]
Phloridzin
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Betalains
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and
anti-diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Betalains
H. polyrhizus and
H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and
anti-cancer effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Betalains
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Betalains
H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-
cardiovascular potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Betalains
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including
H. undatus)
Antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
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Phloridzin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh and peel Antioxidant, and anti-
diabetes effects [48,49]
Hesperidin
H. polyrhizus
and H. undatus Flesh Antioxidant and anti-cancer
effects [46–48]
Carotenoids
Lycopene
H. polyrhizus Flesh Antioxidant, anti-cancer
and anti-diabetes effects [50]
β-carotene H. polyrhizus Flesh
Antioxidant, anti-diabetes,
and anti-cardiovascular
potential
[50,51]
Anthocyanins
Cyanidin-3-glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Delphinidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects [43,52]
Pelargonidin-3-
glucoside
H. polyrhizus
Flesh and peel
(including H.
undatus)
Antioxidant and anti-
inflamm