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Antecedents of mentors’ interpersonal behaviors at work: A cross‐sectional study
Abstract
Building on the self‐determination theory and the work of Pelletier and their colleagues, we conducted a study to examine the antecedents of mentors’ interpersonal behaviors. The purpose of this study was to determine how influence from above (administrative, practice, and colleagues’ pressures) and influence from below (perception of mentees’ level of self‐determined motivation) were related to the mentors’ motivations for their work and the mentoring relationship, and how the mentors’ motivations were related to their interpersonal behaviors. In the present study ( N = 600), the results of a cross‐sectional design showed that mentors who perceived greater influence from above and lower influence from below were more non‐self‐determined toward their work and the mentoring relationship. In turn, the more non‐self‐determined they were, the more they were acting in a controlling manner with their mentees. Overall, our findings supported the independent and complementary role of influences from above and from below on mentors’ motivations and interpersonal behaviors.
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People’s motivational processes, well-being, and performance are likely to be facilitated through the support of others. Self-determination theory argues that interpersonal supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are crucial to achieve these outcomes. In the present study, we provide a comprehensive examination of this formulation based on a meta-analytic database consisting of 4,561 effect sizes from 881 independent samples (N = 443,556). Our results indicate that supports for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were strongly positively related with the satisfaction of these basic needs and strongly negatively related to their frustration. Interpersonal supports for basic needs were strongly positively related with subjective well-being and exhibited small to moderate positive associations with performance. Moderation analyses showed general stability of effects across cultures, although correlations of autonomy support to autonomous motivation weakened as a function of individualism. The opposite pattern was observed for the correlation between relatedness support and intrinsic motivation. Some effects also declined as a function of sample age and lag in measurements. We also find that competence- and relatedness-supportive behaviors explained incremental variance in basic need satisfaction even after controlling for the more established effects of autonomy support. In addition, lateral need supports explained incremental variance in basic need satisfaction after controlling for vertical sources of support. In sum, our results are consistent with the premise that to support optimal motivation, well-being, and performance, a broad set of behaviors that nurture all three basic needs, together with different sources of interpersonal support, should be considered to yield the most benefit.
The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation, Second Edition, addresses key advances made in the field since the previous edition, offering the latest insights from the top theorists and researchers of human motivation. The volume includes chapters on social learning theory, control theory, self-determination theory, terror management theory, and regulatory focus theory and also presents articles from leading scholars on phenomena such as ego depletion, choice, curiosity, flow, implicit motives, and personal interests. A special section dedicated to goal research highlights achievement goals, goal attainment, goal pursuit and unconscious goals, and the goal orientation process across adulthood. The volume sheds new light on the biological underpinnings of motivation, including chapters on neuropsychology and cardiovascular dynamics. This resource is also packed with practical research and guidance, with sections on relationships and applications in areas such as psychotherapy, education, physical activity, sport, and work. By providing reviews of the most advanced work by the very best scholars in this field, this volume represents an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature.
Using self-determination theory among a sample of student employees, the present cross-sectional study ( N = 358) examines how mentors’ interpersonal behaviors relate to both motivation at work and motivation for a mentoring relationship and how these two contexts of motivation can differentially relate to mentees’ work outcomes. Results revealed that mentors’ need-supportive interpersonal behaviors were associated with greater autonomous motivation at work and in the mentoring relationship and, in turn, to greater well-being and work engagement, and to lower turnover intentions. In contrast, need-thwarting interpersonal behaviors were associated with greater controlled motivation at work and in the mentoring relationship and, in turn, to lower well-being and work engagement, and to greater turnover intentions. Overall, this study illustrates the impact of the mentor–mentee relationship on motivation for work and for the mentoring relationship and provided support for the contribution of both motivational contexts in the work-related outcomes of employees in the workplace.
According to the Self-Determination Theory, perceived job pressures can coerce professionals to develop more controlled motivations towards their work, and consequently increase the probability of using controlling motivational strategies. This study sought to analyze work-related motivations as mediators between two types of perceived job pressures: organizational constraints and perceptions of clients’ controlled motivation and the use of controlling motivational strategies by exercise professionals. Using a cross-sectional design, involving 366 exercise professionals (172 women), mediation paths were assessed following Preacher and Hayes statistical procedures. Models were adjusted for gender, work experience (years), and the internal tendency to feel events as pressuring. Organizational constraints were associated with lower autonomous motivation for work and the use of controlling strategies. Perceptions of clients’ controlled motivation were associated with work-related amotivation and the use of controlling strategies. Amotivation mediated the association between organizational constraints and controlling strategies. Overall, results support theoretical predictions and previous research, extending it to the exercise domain, highlighting the interplay between job pressures, work-related motivations, and the use of controlling strategies. The understanding of what influences exercise professionals’ motivation, and consequently the motivational strategies they use, is of paramount importance for exercise promotion and the benefit of those who seek their expert guidance.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a broad framework for understanding factors that facilitate or undermine intrinsic motivation, autonomous extrinsic motivation, and psychological wellness, all issues of direct relevance to educational settings. We review research from SDT showing that both intrinsic motivation and well-internalized (and thus autonomous) forms of extrinsic motivation predict an array of positive outcomes across varied educational levels and cultural contexts and are enhanced by supports for students’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Findings also show a dynamic link between teacher and student motivation, as teachers are themselves impacted and constrained by controlling mandates, institutional pressures, and leadership styles. Ironically, despite substantial evidence for the importance of psychological need satisfactions in learning contexts, many current educational policies and practices around the globe remain anchored in traditional motivational models that fail to support students’ and teachers’ needs, a knowledge versus policy gap we should aspire to close.
The aim of the present research is to examine the factor structure of the Interpersonal Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), and the Interpersonal Behavior Questionnaire Self (IBQ-Self), two scales developed for the purpose of measuring supportive and thwarting interpersonal behaviors. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the psychometric proprieties, the nomological validity with the basic needs’ satisfaction and frustration as well as the measurement invariance between gender, and differences across latent means. For the IBQ, 837 Portuguese gym members aged between 18 to 63 years old (M = 34.58; SD = 11.35) participated in this study. They had been practicing physical exercise for about 43.00 ± 37.00 months. For IBQ-Self, 612 trainers, with a professional experience that ranged from 12 to 492 months (M = 88.54; SD = 77.89), participated in this study. The analysis revealed that both scales had good fit, achieving convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, they show acceptable internal consistency and invariance between gender. Nomological validity displayed projected results, according to theoretical and empirical literature. Regarding analysis of the psychometric proprieties, IBQ and IBQ-Self can be applied to Portuguese exercisers and exercise physiologist to measure perceived behaviors from others and self-reported behaviors, respectively.
The primary purposes of this study were to (i) assess levels of different types of work motivation in a sample of UK hospitality workers and make a cross-cultural comparison with Chinese counterparts and (ii) identify how work motivation and shame-based attitudes towards mental health explain the variance in mental health problems in UK hospitality workers. One hundred three UK hospitality workers completed self-report measures, and correlation and multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify significant relationships. Findings demonstrate that internal and external motivation levels were higher in UK versus Chinese hospitality workers. Furthermore, external motivation was more significantly associated with shame and mental health problems compared to internal motivation. Motivation accounted for 34–50% of mental health problems. This is the first study to explore the relationship between motivation, shame, and mental health in UK hospitality workers. Findings suggest that augmenting internal motivation may be a novel means of addressing mental health problems in this worker population.
The purpose of this research was to explore the coach–athlete relationship through the lens of self-determination theory. Specifically, this study examined coaches’ (n = 53) reported supportive and thwarting interpersonal behaviors, as well as their female athletes’ (n = 250) perceptions of these behaviors. The first objective was to determine the rate at which coaches overreported (reported their own behavior more positively than their athletes), underreported (reported their own behavior more negatively than their athletes), or were in agreement with their athletes about their reported behaviors. The results suggested that approximately 30% of coaches may have overreported their behavior. The second objective was to explore how both coaches’ reports of their behaviors and athletes’ perceptions of these same behaviors affected athletes’ psychological needs in sport. Overall, the results found that when coaches and athletes were in agreement on supportive behaviors, it promoted need satisfaction, and for thwarting behaviors, it predicted need frustration. When exploring the effect of a disagreement, athletes with coaches who underreported experienced additional need satisfaction and less need frustration compared with athletes with coaches who overreported. Overall, this study was the first to explore how coaches’ reports of their behavior align with their athletes’ perceptions and determine how the dynamics of that relationship affect athletes’ psychological needs in sport.
The most commonly used method to test an indirect effect is to divide the estimate of the indirect effect by its standard error and compare the resulting z statistic with a critical value from the standard normal distribution. Confidence limits for the indirect effect are also typically based on critical values from the standard normal distribution. This article uses a simulation study to demonstrate that confidence limits are imbalanced because the distribution of the indirect effect is normal only in special cases. Two alternatives for improving the performance of confidence limits for the indirect effect are evaluated: (a) a method based on the distribution of the product of two normal random variables, and (b) resampling methods. In Study 1, confidence limits based on the distribution of the product are more accurate than methods based on an assumed normal distribution but confidence limits are still imbalanced. Study 2 demonstrates that more accurate confidence limits are obtained using resampling methods, with the bias-corrected bootstrap the best method overall.
The present study longitudinally explored sports coaches' psychological well-being (positive affect and integration of coaching with one's sense of self) and ill-being (negative affect and devaluation of coaching) as predictors of their perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles towards individuals under their instruction. Participants were 195 sport coaches who completed questionnaire measures at three time points across an eleven-month period. Controlling for social desirability, multilevel analyses revealed that within-person increases and individual differences in positive affect and integration were positively associated with autonomy support. Conversely, within-person increases and individual differences in negative affect, but not devaluation, were associated with increased use of interpersonal control. The indicators of well-being did not predict interpersonal control and the indicators of ill-being did not predict autonomy support. In their entirety, the present findings suggest that autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles have unique correlates, and affective determinants may play a particularly central role in controlling interpersonal styles. Supporting the psychological health of coaches may lead them to create an adaptive interpersonal environment for their athletes.
The present study investigated whether satisfaction and frustration of the psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence, as identified within Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT; Deci and Ryan, Psychol Inquiry 11:227-268, 2000; Ryan and Deci, Psychol Inquiry 11:319-338, 2000), contributes to participants' well-being and ill-being, regardless of their cultural background and interpersonal differences in need strength, as indexed by either need valuation (i.e., the stated importance of the need to the person) or need desire (i.e., the desire to get a need met). In Study 1, involving late adolescents from Belgium and China (total N = 685; Mean age = 17 years), autonomy and competence satisfaction had unique associations with well-being and individual differences in need valuation did not moderate these associations. Study 2 involved participants from four culturally diverse nations (Belgium, China, USA, and Peru; total N = 1,051; Mean age = 20 years). Results provided evidence for the measurement equivalence of an adapted scale tapping into both need satisfaction and need frustration. Satisfaction of each of the three needs was found to contribute uniquely to the prediction of well-being, whereas frustration of each of the three needs contributed uniquely to the prediction of ill-being. Consistent with Study 1, the effects of need satisfaction and need frustration were found to be equivalent across the four countries and were not moderated by individual differences in the desire for need satisfaction. These findings underscore BPNT's universality claim, which states that the satisfaction of basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence represent essential nutrients for optimal functioning across cultures and across individual differences in need strength.
Humans have a potential for growth, integration, and well-being, while also being vulnerable to defensiveness, aggression, and ill-being. Self-determination theory (R. M. Ryan & E. L. Deci, 2000, Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being, American Psychologist, Vol. 55, pp. 68–78) argues that satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness both fosters immediate well-being and strengthens inner resources contributing to subsequent resilience, whereas need frustration evokes ill-being and increased vulnerabilities for defensiveness and psychopathology. We briefly review recent research indicating how contextual need support and the experience of need satisfaction promote well-being and different growth manifestations (e.g., intrinsic motivation, internalization), as well as a rapidly growing body of work relating need thwarting and need frustration to ill-being, pursuit of need substitutes, and various forms of maladaptive functioning. Finally, we discuss research on differences in autonomous self-regulation and mindfulness, which serve as factors of resilience.
We investigated the role of three beliefs in predicting teachers’ motivating style toward students—namely, how effective, how normative, and how easy-to-implement autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching were each believed to be. We further examined national collectivism–individualism as a predictor of individual teachers’ motivating style and beliefs about motivating style, as we expected that a collectivistic perspective would tend teachers toward the controlling style and toward positive beliefs about that style. Participants were 815 full-time PreK-12 public school teachers from eight different nations that varied in collectivism–individualism. All three teacher beliefs explained independent and substantial variance in teachers’ self-described motivating styles. Believed effectiveness was a particularly strong predictor of self-described motivating style. Collectivism–individualism predicted which teachers were most likely to self-describe a controlling motivating style, and a mediation analysis showed that teachers in collectivistic nations self-described a controlling style because they believed it to be culturally normative classroom practice. These findings enhance the literature on the antecedents of teachers’ motivating styles by showing that teacher beliefs strongly predict motivating style, and that culture informs one of these beliefs—namely, normalcy.
In this review and critique of mentoring theory and research, the authors identify persistent problems in the development of mentoring theory. Their conceptual analysis highlights these problems with a “thought experiment” illustrating the inability of mentoring theory and research to resolve certain fundamental issues, the resolution of which is a prerequisite for the advancement of explanatory theory. They conclude with ideas about demarcating “mentoring” from the sometimes confounding concepts “training” or “socialization.” Absent an ability to distinguish mentoring from related activities, progress in explanatory theory will remain impeded.
The chapter outlines a general model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the Hierarchical model. This model serves two objectives. First, the model provides a framework to organize the literature on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as to identify the psychological mechanisms underlying motivational changes. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation represents a substantial portion of people's experiences when involved in activities. Furthermore, conceptual and methodological advances are presented supporting a multidimensional approach to the study of motivational phenomena. Such an approach has been found useful—for instance, for distinguishing nonintrinsic but internalized motivational forces that promote adaptive consequences such as persisting at difficult tasks from other internalized forces that compromise adaptive adjustment. A second objective of the hierarchical model is to lead to novel and testable hypotheses. Moreover, other aspects of the model also appear as prime candidates for future research. Such a model serves to integrate the literature and points toward new research. It is within such a contextually situated perspective that the model shows its greatest promise of usefulness.
Objectives:
Drawing from self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002, Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic-dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.), we examined how individuals' psychological needs, motivation, and behaviours (i.e., physical activity and eating) associated with weight management could be predicted by perceptions of their important others' supportive and controlling behaviours.
Methods:
Using a cross-sectional survey design, 235 participants (mean age = 27.39 years, SD = 8.96 years) completed an online questionnaire.
Results:
Statistical analyses showed that when important others were perceived to be more supportive, participants reported higher levels of more optimal forms of motivation for weight management, which in turn predicted more physical activity and healthy eating behaviours. In contrast, when important others were perceived to be controlling, participants reported higher levels of less optimal forms of motivation, which in turn predicted less physical activity and healthy eating behaviours, as well as more unhealthy eating behaviours. Significant indirect effects were also found from perceived support and control from important others to physical activity and eating behaviours, all in the expected directions.
Conclusions:
The findings support the importance of important others providing support and refraining from controlling behaviours in order to facilitate motivation and behaviours conducive to successful weight management.
Statement of contribution:
What is already known on this subject? Autonomy support is related to basic need satisfaction and autonomous motivation in the context of weight management. In turn, these variables are related to adaptive outcomes for weight management. What does this study add? Measurement of perceived controlling behaviours by important others. Measurement of perceived need thwarting. Structural model on how important others affect weight management behaviours of the individual.
When teachers are more supportive of autonomy and less controlling, students demonstrate higher levels of intrinsic motivation and self-determination. The purpose of this study was to examine social-contextual conditions that led teachers (
N=254) who taught classes from Grades 1 to 12 to be more autonomy supportive versus controlling with their students. Using structural equation modeling, the authors observed that the more teachers perceive pressure from above (they have to comply with a curriculum, with colleagues, and with performance standards) and pressure from below (they perceived their students to be nonself-determined), the less they are self-determined toward teaching. In turn, the less they are self-determined toward teaching, the more they become controlling with students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Proposes a cross-cultural validation methodology that allows for the validation of French versions of English psychological scales. The 7 basic steps in the method are described: (1) preparation of a preliminary French version; (2) evaluation and modification of the preliminary version; (3) evaluation of the experimental French version in a pretest; (4) evaluation of content and concomitant validity; (5) evaluation of reliability; (6) evaluation of construct validity; and (7) preparation of norms for the French version. Examples of each step are presented. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Numerous studies have documented that when supervisors are more supportive of autonomy and less controlling, subordinates demonstrate higher levels of intrinsic motivation. The present research examined the role of supervisors' beliefs about a subordinate's intrinsic or extrinsic motivation in explaining this relation. A teaching paradigm was used in which participants were assigned the role of supervisors or subordinates. Supervisors were given no information regarding the subordinate, told that the subordinate was extrinsically motivated, or told that the subordinate was intrinsically motivated. Results revealed that subordinates who were believed to be intrinsically motivated perceived their supervisor as being significantly more supportive of autonomy, reported significantly more intrinsic interest, and spent significantly more time on the task during the free-choice period than subordinates whose supervisors believed them to be extrinsically motivated. Theoretical implications of the behavioral confirmation process for social perception and intrinsic motivation research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study had 2 major objectives. The 1st was to investigate the validity of a motivational model of couple happiness based on self-determination theory. The 2nd objective was to test the postulated simplex structure and the generalizability of the 6 forms of motivation proposed by this theory. Both members of 63 couples individually completed the Couple Motivation Questionnaire as well as measures of perceived couples' adaptive behaviors and of dyadic happiness. Results revealed that the proposed model of couple happiness was supported through significant path analyses explaining 61% and 55% of the variance of men's and women's relationship happiness, respectively. Empirical support was also provided for the postulated simplex structure. Results highlight the importance of autonomy-driven processes as opposed to controlling and amotivated processes in the development and maintenance of the quality of couples' relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Embedded in the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) framework, we obtained self-report data from 418 paid and voluntary coaches from a variety of sports and competitive levels with the aim of exploring potential antecedents of coaches' perceived autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors. Controlling for socially desirable responses, structural equation modeling revealed that greater job security and opportunities for professional development, and lower work-life conflict were associated with psychological need satisfaction, which, in turn, was related to an adaptive process of psychological well-being and perceived autonomy support toward athletes. In contrast, higher work-life conflict and fewer opportunities for development were associated with a distinct maladaptive process of thwarted psychological needs, psychological ill-being, and perceived controlling interpersonal behavior. The results highlight how the coaching context may impact upon coaches' psychological health and their interpersonal behavior toward athletes. Moreover, evidence is provided for the independence of adaptive and maladaptive processes within the self-determination theory paradigm.
La théorie de l'autodétermination est de nature empirique et concerne la motivation, le développement et le bien-être de l'être humain. Elle porte davantage sur les types de motivation que sur son ampleur et elle cible en particulier la motivation autonome, la motivation basée sur le contrôlé (extrinsèque) et le manque de motivation en tant qu'indicateurs prévisionnels des résultats en matière de performance ainsi que de rapports et de bien-être humains. La théorie touche aussi les conditions sociales qui sont favorables ou non à ces types de motivation, en suggérant puis en concluant que les diverses façons dont les besoins psychologiques fondamentaux en matière d'autonomie, de compétence et de rapprochement sont soutenus ou non affectent tant le type que l'ampleur de la motivation. La théorie de l'autodétermination examine aussi les objectifs et les aspirations de vie des gens, en comparant les éléments différentiels entre les objectifs de vie intrinsèques et extrinsèques par rapport à la performance et à la santé psychologique. Dans notre introduction, nous abordons aussi brièvement l'évolution récente de la théorie de l'autodétermination concernant la conscience et la vitalité, et nous soulignons l'applicabilité de la théorie de l'autodétermination au sein de domaines appliqués, dont le travail, les rapports humains, le parentage, l'éducation, les environnements virtuels, le sport, la durabilité, les soins de santé et la psychothérapie.
ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to provide an in-depth analysis of how the Physical Education (PE) teaching context influences teachers' motivational strategies towards students.DesignQualitative semi-structured interviewsMethodsUsing Self-determination theory (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Psychological Enquiry, 11, 227-268) as a guiding framework, semi-structured interviews of 22 PE teachers were examined using categorical content analysis.ResultsThe teachers perceived that an emphasis on student assessment and the time constraints associated with PE lessons often compelled them to use teaching strategies which conflicted with their beliefs about the most appropriate ways to motivate students. The teachers' own performance evaluations and pressure to conform to other teachers' methods also influenced the teachers' motivational strategies, but these influences were often congruent with their teaching beliefs. Additionally, the teachers discussed how perceived cultural norms associated with the teacher-student relationship impacted upon their chosen motivational strategies. These cultural norms were reported by different teachers as either in line, or in conflict with their teaching beliefs. Finally, the influence of the teachers' perceptions of their students helped produce strategies that were congruent with their beliefs, but often different to empirically suggested strategies.ConclusionsIt is important that teacher beliefs are targeted in education programs and that the teaching context aid in facilitating adaptive motivational strategies.
Most empirical tests of mediation utilize cross-sectional data despite the fact that mediation consists of causal processes that unfold over time. The authors considered the possibility that longitudinal mediation might occur under either of two different models of change: (a) an autoregressive model or (b) a random effects model. For both models, the authors demonstrated that cross-sectional approaches to mediation typically generate substantially biased estimates of longitudinal parameters even under the ideal conditions when mediation is complete. In longitudinal models where variable M completely mediates the effect of X on Y, cross-sectional estimates of the direct effect of X on Y, the indirect effect of X on Y through M, and the proportion of the total effect mediated by M are often highly misleading.
Research in self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002) has shown that satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs in sport contexts is associated with enhanced engagement, performance, and well-being. This article outlines the initial development of a multidimensional measure designed to assess psychological need thwarting, an under-studied area of conceptual and practical importance. Study 1 generated a pool of items designed to tap the negative experiential state that occurs when athletes perceive their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness to be actively undermined. Study 2 tested the factorial structure of the questionnaire using confirmatory factor analysis. The supported model comprised 3 factors, which represented the hypothesized interrelated dimensions of need thwarting. The model was refined and cross-validated using an independent sample in Study 3. Overall, the psychological need thwarting scale (PNTS) demonstrated good content, factorial, and predictive validity, as well as internal consistency and invariance across gender, sport type, competitive level, and competitive experience. The conceptualization of psychological need thwarting is discussed, and suggestions are made regarding the use of the PNTS in research pertaining to the darker side of sport participation.
Previous studies in both educational and sport settings have examined the relationship between teachers' and coaches' expectations and behaviors towards students and athletes. The purpose of the present study was to extend this line of research by examining the effects of teachers' expectations about students' motivation on the frequency of controlling and autonomy-supportive behaviors. Following the assessment of teachers' expectations about students' motivation and the assessment of students self-determined motivation at the end of the first lesson, the interactions between PE teachers from 9 classes and 172 students were videotaped and systematically coded during the 6 following gymnastics courses. Analyses revealed that (1) teachers' expectations were not related to students' initial self-determined motivation, (2) overall teachers interacted less frequently with students that they expected to be more motivated, and (3) teachers were much more controlling with students that they believed to be not motivated. The results are discussed in terms of the consequences of this differentiated treatment for students' autonomous motivation.
The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes' motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches' personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes' behaviour and motivation influence coaches' behaviours. Also, coaches' behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes' needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes' intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches' autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes' intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.
Meta-analysis was used to review and synthesize existing empirical research concerning the career benefits associated with mentoring for the protégé. Both objective (e.g., compensation) and subjective (e.g., career satisfaction) career outcomes were examined. Comparisons of mentored versus nonmemored groups were included, along with relationships between mentoring provided and outcomes. The findings were generally supportive of the benefits associated with mentoring, but effect sizes associated with objective outcomes were small. There was also some indication that the outcomes studied differed in the magnitude of their relationship with the type of mentoring provided (i.e. career or psychosocial).
Workplace mentoring relationships have been advanced as critical to employee development. However, mentoring research has tended to find small to moderate effects of mentoring on protégé and mentor outcomes and considerable heterogeneity in effect sizes. These findings underscore the need to better understand the psychology of mentoring relationships in order to maximize the benefits of mentoring for mentors, protégés, and organizations. In this article, after briefly reviewing established research on workplace mentoring relationships, we introduce five relationship science theories from outside organizational psychology and organizational behavior that provide new insight into the psychology of workplace mentoring: attachment theory, interdependence theory, self-expansion theory, Rhodes’ model of formal youth mentoring, and the working alliance. We then discuss several unique features of workplace mentoring that should be considered when applying these relationship science theories and introduce provocative ideas for future research. We conclude by discussing practical implications for mentors, protégés, and organizations.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 7 is January 21, 2020. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
Full-text available from http://www.annualreviews.org/eprint/NJC5SS7KBMEBJ4C2PPKF/full/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044924
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
The objectives of the present studies were to design and validate the Interpersonal Behaviours Questionnaire (IBQ and IBQ-Self). The IBQ assesses perceptions of interpersonal behaviours of others according to Self-Determination Theory in the context of autonomy-supportive, competence-supportive, and relatedness-supportive behaviours , as well as autonomy-thwarting, competence-thwarting, and relatedness-thwarting behaviours, while the IBQ-Self assesses an individual's own report of these behaviours. In Study 1, participants reported on the in-terpersonal behaviours of people in their lives. Through a series of confirmatory factor analyses, a six-factor, 24-item scale structure was determined. Results supported the validity of the scale and correlation analyses suggested that the subscales were related to basic need satisfaction. In Study 2, the psychometric properties of the scale were re-evaluated and the scale was tested for gender invariance. The results suggested that the scale structure held and that it was invariant across genders. Finally, in Study 3, the psychometric properties of the IBQ-Self were evaluated using a student sample reporting on their behaviours when they interact with other people. The results supported that the IBQ-Self factor structure held and was invariant for men and women. Overall, the results of all three studies supported the validity of the IBQ and the IBQ-Self.
Establishing and maintaining close relationships are among the most important and autonomously pursued aspects of people’s lives. This chapter reviews the motivational dynamics of close relationships using Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT), a mini-theory within Self-Determination Theory. RMT posits a basic psychological need for relatedness that mobilizes people to pursue relationships, yet not all relationships are of high quality and satisfy the relatedness need. Even among warm relationships only those in which both partners experience autonomy and provide autonomy support to the other are deeply satisfying of the need for relatedness and are experienced as being of high quality. In contrast, control, objectification, and contingent regard thwart not only the autonomy need but also the relatedness need resulting in poor quality relationships. Need supports predict better dyadic functioning, more trust and volitional reliance, and greater wellness, and mutuality of need supports yields the most positive relationship outcomes.
We examine relations between perceived organisational autonomy support and different types of work motivation and well-being outcomes in 266 teachers from two government schools in China. We hypothesised that greater autonomy support would be associated with more autonomous forms of employee motivation, and that teacher motivation would in turn mediate the effects of autonomy support on indicators of work well-being (i.e., job satisfaction, work stress and physical ill symptoms). Results generally supported the hypothesised relations between perceived autonomy support and SDT's five types of motivations. Findings also showed that perceived autonomy support predicted job satisfaction directly and indirectly through the mediating roles of intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and external regulation. Perceived autonomy support predicted work stress directly and indirectly through the mediating roles of external regulation and amotivation. Autonomy support also predicted illness symptoms via the mediating roles of intrinsic motivation, introjected regulation and amotivation. The current findings highlight how perceived organisational support for autonomy relates to motivational differences in a Chinese work context, and the potential relevance of autonomy support for employee well-being.
Autonomy and controlling support are generally viewed as being on the two extreme ends of a continuum and have been found to be negatively correlated with one another. Recent research and anecdotal evidence hint that controlling guidance (such as exemplified by “tiger parenting”) may not always be perceived and received negatively. We proposed that power distance moderates the endorsement of controlling strategies. We expected and found that in two studies, participants from Malaysia, a high power distance culture, perceived controlling strategies more positively than North Americans, and their endorsement of autonomy support was positively correlated with their endorsement of controlling support. There was no difference between North Americans and Malaysians in their endorsement of autonomy supportive strategies. The latter result supports self-determination theory’s contention that autonomy is universally important. The results suggest that for individuals who value power distance, autonomy and controlling practices are not necessarily seen as opposed, rather just alternate methods of providing support or guidance. In addition, we tested this hypothesis using power distance on an individual level in both cultures and again found the power distance influenced the endorsement of controlling strategies. This study highlights cross cultural and individual differences in acceptance and perceived benefits of controlling support.
Reports an error in "Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale: Its value for organizational psychology research" by Maxime A. Tremblay, Céline M. Blanchard, Sara Taylor, Luc G. Pelletier and Martin Villeneuve (Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 2009[Oct], Vol 41[4], 213-226). In this article, line 2 of the second table was missing from the printed article. The correct table is reprinted in this correction. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-18333-004.) The Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS) is an 18-item measure of work motivation theoretically grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The purpose of the present research was twofold. First, the applicability of the WEIMS in different work environments was evaluated. Second, its factorial structure and psychometric properties were assessed. Two samples of workers (military: N = 465; civilians: N = 192) voluntarily completed questionnaires. Using the WEIMS’s 3 indexes (work self-determination index, work self-determined and nonself-determined motivation, respectively), results of regression analyses were supportive of its ability to predict positive and negative criteria in the workplace. Results also showed the adequacy of both its construct validity and internal consistency. Its factorial structure was also invariant across samples. Finally, its quasi-simplex pattern and relationships with psychological correlates further supported the self-determination continuum. Overall, these findings provide evidence for the applicability as well as the reliability and validity of the WEIMS in organisational settings. Results are discussed in regard to the applicability of self-determination theory to the workplace. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A common concern when faced with multivariate data with missing values is whether the missing data are missing completely at random (MCAR); that is, whether missingness depends on the variables in the data set. One way of assessing this is to compare the means of recorded values of each variable between groups defined by whether other variables in the data set are missing or not. Although informative, this procedure yields potentially many correlated statistics for testing MCAR, resulting in multiple-comparison problems. This article proposes a single global test statistic for MCAR that uses all of the available data. The asymptotic null distribution is given, and the small-sample null distribution is derived for multivariate normal data with a monotone pattern of missing data. The test reduces to a standard t test when the data are bivariate with missing data confined to a single variable. A limited simulation study of empirical sizes for the test applied to normal and nonnormal data suggests that the test is conservative for small samples.
Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.
The study of mentoring has generally been conducted within disciplinary silos with a specific type of mentoring relationship as a focus. The purpose of this article is to quantitatively review the three major areas of mentoring research (youth, academic, workplace) to determine the overall effect size associated with mentoring outcomes for protégés. We also explored whether the relationship between mentoring and protégé outcomes varied by the type of mentoring relationship (youth, academic, workplace). Results demonstrate that mentoring is associated with a wide range of favorable behavioral, attitudinal, health-related, relational, motivational, and career outcomes, although the effect size is generally small. Some differences were also found across type of mentoring. Generally, larger effect sizes were detected for academic and workplace mentoring compared to youth mentoring. Implications for future research, theory, and applied practice are provided.