Indigenous Knowledge and Quantitative Analysis of Medicinal Plants Used to Remedy Respiratory Tract Disorders in Mid-Western Tanzania

Abstract

This study is aimed at documenting the indigenous knowledge and quantitative analysis of medicinal plants (MPs) used by traditional health practitioners (THPs) of Urambo District in mid-western Tanzania to manage respiratory tract disorders (RTDs). The ethnomedicinal data were collected using semistructured interviews with 55 THPs using a snowballing technique in the district. The data were analysed for indigenous knowledge among gender, age groups, education status, and experience. Family importance value (FIV), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (ICF), and Jaccard index (JI) were computed. A total of 42 MPs representing 28 families were recorded being used against RTDs in the district. Fabaceae was the dominant family in terms of species (16.7%) and FIV (84%). Decoction (51.0%) was the preferred technique for preparing remedies, while trees (61.9%) and leaves (38.1%) were the most utilised life form and plant parts, respectively. The RFC in the current study varied from 0.055 (Musa paradisiaca L.) to 0.655 (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and 0.073 (Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.) to 0.673 (Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich.), respectively. The highest ICF was recorded for cough (0.922). The JI ranged from 2.7 to 7.9. Among the documented MPs, 55% had least concern, 2% were endangered, 7% had data deficiency conservation status, and 36% had no record in the IUCN Red List. The study revealed that the district’s population depends on MPs for healthcare. Thus, conservation strategies are needed for the sustainable utilisation of the MPs. Importantly, the documented MPs hold immense potential in future pharmacological and phytochemical studies, offering hope for the development of new drugs for RTDs. Also, the study suggests the need for scientific validation of the MP’s efficacy and safety.

Full text

Research Article
Indigenous Knowledge and Quantitative Analysis of Medicinal
Plants Used to Remedy Respiratory Tract Disorders in
Mid-Western Tanzania
David Sylvester Kacholi and Halima Mvungi Amir
Department of Biological Sciences, Dar es Salaam University College of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, PO Box 2329, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania
Correspondence should be addressed to David Sylvester Kacholi; kacholi78@yahoo.com; david.kacholi@udsm.ac.tz
Received 5 December 2023; Revised 2 July 2024; Accepted 19 November 2024
Academic Editor: Minhui Li
Copyright © 2024 David Sylvester Kacholi and Halima Mvungi Amir. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
This study is aimed at documenting the indigenous knowledge and quantitative analysis of medicinal plants (MPs) used by
traditional health practitioners (THPs) of Urambo District in mid-western Tanzania to manage respiratory tract disorders
(RTDs). The ethnomedicinal data were collected using semistructured interviews with 55 THPs using a snowballing technique
in the district. The data were analysed for indigenous knowledge among gender, age groups, education status, and experience.
Family importance value (FIV), use value (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (ICF), and
Jaccard index (JI) were computed. A total of 42 MPs representing 28 families were recorded being used against RTDs in the
district. Fabaceae was the dominant family in terms of species (16.7%) and FIV (84%). Decoction (51.0%) was the preferred
technique for preparing remedies, while trees (61.9%) and leaves (38.1%) were the most utilised life form and plant parts,
respectively. The RFC in the current study varied from 0.055 (Musa paradisiaca L.) to 0.655 (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and
0.073 (Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.) to 0.673 (Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich.), respectively. The highest ICF
was recorded for cough (0.922). The JI ranged from 2.7 to 7.9. Among the documented MPs, 55% had least concern, 2% were
endangered, 7% had data deficiency conservation status, and 36% had no record in the IUCN Red List. The study revealed that
the district’s population depends on MPs for healthcare. Thus, conservation strategies are needed for the sustainable utilisation
of the MPs. Importantly, the documented MPs hold immense potential in future pharmacological and phytochemical studies,
offering hope for the development of new drugs for RTDs. Also, the study suggests the need for scientific validation of the
MP’sefficacy and safety.
Keywords: ethnobotany; ethnopharmacology; fidelity level; medicinal plants; respiratory infections
1. Introduction
Since time immemorial, plants have been used to remedy
various human and animal ailments, and they are consid-
ered vital in human healthcare [1]. Plants offer livelihood
benefits, including timber, firewood, food, fodder, medicine,
construction materials, and income [2, 3]. The medicinal
plant (MP) knowledge has advanced across nations, cultures,
and over time and space based on various medicinal systems.
Moreover, each cultural society has a consociate and experi-
ence specific to its antique, cultural, and even spatial envi-
ronment, representing an irreplaceable reservoir of skill
and substantial potential for yet unexplored use of natural
resources [4, 5].
Globally, respiratory tract disorders (RTDs) are a public
health concern and account for over 10 million deaths. The
most common RTDs include asthma, cough, flu, common
cold, bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
pneumonia, tuberculosis, acute respiratory infections, and
lung cancer [6, 7]. In Africa, particularly in Tanzania, cough,
flu, colds, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and HIV-related RTDs are
the most common respiratory conditions [8–10], whereby
between 2006 and 2015, about 13% of all mortality in the
country was due to RTDs [11]. Since 2020, the COVID-19
Wiley
BioMed Research International
Volume 2024, Article ID 8534815, 17 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/bmri/8534815

pandemic has triggered a heave of RTDs and become the fore-
most cause of morbidity and mortality [7, 12]. In rural areas
like those of Urambo District, where modern health facilities
are scarce, RTDs are widespread and put a burden on the
locals’health and economy.
Nearly 80% of the human population in low- and
middle-income countries still depend on MPs for their pri-
mary healthcare [13, 14]. Contemporary health facilities
and associated services are habitually accessible only to a
few people as the amenities are either too expensive or few
health facilities are reachable for too many people [15]. Con-
sequently, MPs remain the source of therapeutic care in
most low- and middle-income countries [16]. In Tanzania,
about 80% of the population lives in rural settings where
modern health facilities are scarce; hence, they depend on
MPs for their primary healthcare needs. The limited access
to modern healthcare could result in suboptimal health
outcomes for individuals in the study area. Moreover, the
rampant usage of MPs by rural inhabitants could also be
associated with the accessibility, efficacy, cultural acceptability,
and affordability of the medication [17, 18]. Due to socioeco-
nomic realities and the absence of enough contemporary
health facilities, the locals in the rural areas of Urambo District
bank to MPs for their primary healthcare needs, including
management of RTDs.
Although previous studies have explored the MPs in
Urambo District over the last two decades [17, 19–21], little
is known about MPs used to remedy RTDs within the dis-
trict. Therefore, this study is aimed at documenting indige-
nous knowledge and quantitatively analyzing MPs used by
the local traditional health practitioners (THPs) in Urambo
District to treat RTDs. Moreover, the study checked the
conservation status (CS) of the recorded MPs in the Interna-
tional Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of
Threatened Species [22].
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area. This study was conducted in Urambo Dis-
trict, lying at latitude 04
°
41′to 05
°
44′S and longitude
31
°
51′to 32
°
26′E in the Tabora region, mid-western Tanza-
nia. The district is one of the seven districts in the Tabora
Region. It is bordered by the Uyui District in the east, Kaliua
District in the north, Mlele District in the southwest, and
Sikonge District in the southeast (Figure 1). Urambo District
lies 1000 and 1800 m above the mean sea level, covering an
area of 5416 km
2
. It has a population of 192,781 and an aver-
age household size of 5.9. The annual mean population
growth rate of the district is 2.9%. The area’s climate is
bimodal; the dry season lasts from May to October, and
the rainy season lasts from November to April. The mean
annual rainfall of the study area is 1370 mm [21]. Local
dwellers in the district, who are principally the Nyamwezi
tribe, rely solely on agriculture and livestock keeping for
their livelihood. The primary food and cash crops cultivated
in the district are rice and tobacco. The Nyamwezi are well-
known in the country for their traditional healing practices
[17, 21]; hence, the district’s choice was due to their excellent
conventional knowledge of MPs.
2.2. Ethnobotanical Data Collection. This ethnomedicinal
study of MPs for respiratory disorders was conducted from
August 2020 to March 2021 in Urambo District. A total of
55 THPs were involved in this study. A snowballing sam-
pling method was used to get the THPs in the communities,
where 17 THPs were from Utenge ward, 13 were from Itebu-
landa, 13 were from Kangeme, and 12 were from Nsenda
ward. The aim of the study was communicated to all THPs,
and verbal informed consent to participate in the study was
requested before the interview. The THPs who agreed to
participate were interviewed using a semistructured inter-
view and field walk (Figure 2). The dialogues with THPs
were done in Swahili. During the survey, demographic pro-
files of THPs (gender, age, education level, experience, and
residence) and MPs (plant name, treated ailment, plant parts
used, mode of preparation, and route of administration of
remedies) were gathered (Table 1). The identification of
MPs was done straight away in the area by a skilled and
qualified botanist, Mr. Shaaban Makaka. The MPs that could
not be identified in the field were collected and pressed for
further identification in the College Herbarium (DUCE
Herbarium). The collected MPs were identified, and their
scientific names were verified, following the Flora of East
Africa [23] and Plants of the World Online database
(https://powo.science.kew.org/).
2.3. Research Clearance and Ethical Approval. The office of
the Vice Chancellor of the University of Dar es Salaam pro-
vided research clearance and ethical approval to undertake
this study.
2.4. Quantitative Data Analysis
2.4.1. Demographic Profile and Indigenous Medicinal Knowledge.
The sociodemographic data were descriptively analysed for sig-
nificant differences within variables using one-way ANOVA
and independent t-test. All analyses were carried out using
Microsoft Excel 2010 and QED statistics software.
2.4.2. Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC). The RFC index
demonstrates the traditional importance of each MP in the
study area [24]. RFC value ranges from 0 (where no one cites
MP as useful) to 1 (when all informants cite an MP as
useful). The index does not consider the reports and was
computed as per the equation shown below.
RFC = FC
N0 < RFC < 1 1
where FC is the frequency of citation (the number of infor-
mants citing the use of a particular MP) and Nis the total
number of informants involved in the study.
2.4.3. Family Importance Value (FIV). The FIV is a quantita-
tive measure that analyses the importance of the botanical
family as per the informant. It was calculated using the fol-
lowing formula [25].
FIV = fc
N× 100 2
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where fc is the number of informants reporting the family
and Nis the total number of informants involved in the
study.
2.4.4. Use Value (UV). The UV is an index that shows the rel-
ative significance of the MPs used by the locals in the study
area. It is calculated using the formula shown below [26].
UV = ∑U
N3
where Uis the number of use reports cited by each informant
for a given MP and Nis the total number of informants.
2.4.5. Plant Part Value (PPV). The PPV index is used to
identify the most utilised plant part in a medicinal formula-
tion. The plant part with the highest PPV is the most
exploited by the locals for remedy formulation compared
to those with low values. The index was calculated using
the formula below [27].
PPV = ∑RU plant part
∑RU × 100 4
where RU plant part is the sum of uses cited per plant part and
RU is the number of use reports for all plants.
Nsenda
Ugalla
Uyumbu
Sikonge
Kangeme
Urambo
Utenge
Itebulanda
NsendaKasisi
Uyui
Kiloleni
Songambele
Uyogo
Kaliua
Vumilia
Urambo
Utundu Usisya
Ussoke
Kapilula
Imalamakoye
Urambo
Muungano
Ukondamoyo
0510
Mlele
Kilometers
N
Nzega
Tanzania
Urambo District
32°0'0''E32°20'0''E
32°0'0''E32°20'0''E
5°40'0''S5°20'0''S 5°0'0''S
5°40'0''S 5°20'0''S 5°0'0''S
Other districts
Urambo district
Ward boundary
Study village
Town
Railway
Road
Figure 1: Map showing the study areas and the setting of the district in Tanzania.
3BioMed Research International

2.4.6. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) Ratio. The ICF is
the most preferred quantitative method for identifying the
potentially effective MP in a specific ailment category. Before
computing the ICF, ailment categories were formed. Usually,
the ICF values range from 0.00 to 1.00. The high ICF values
imply that MPs are more pharmacologically active than
those with low ICF values [28]. The index was calculated
using the following formula:
ICF = Nur −Nt
Nur −15
where Nur is the number of use reports for a particular
ailment category and Ntis the total number of MPs cited
by informants in the ailment category.
2.4.7. Jaccard Index (JI). The JI was computed to compare
the similarity of MPs between data from the present study
and ethnomedicinal studies on RTDs already published in
other African countries. This index is based on the presence
or absence of species on each list and was calculated as
follows [29]:
JI = c
a+b+c× 100 6
where ais the total number of MPs of the present study, bis
the total number of MPs of another ethnomedicinal study,
and cis the number of MPs common to both studies.
2.4.8. CS. The CS of the reported MPs growing in the wild
was assessed. The data was documented for different conser-
vation attributes following the IUCN. The recorded MPs
were categorised based on the IUCN Red List categories
and Criteria 2022 [22].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Demographic Profile and Indigenous Knowledge. Among
55 interviewed THPs, 81.8% were males, and 18.2% were
females (Table 2). Statistical analysis revealed no difference
between genders regarding MPs knowledge (t=1761,
p=0084). The present finding indicated that the belief that
females know more MPs because they are homemakers and
are responsible for the family’s health or men know more
due to time spent dealing with natural resources cannot per-
manently be generalised as both have the same rich ethnome-
dicinal knowledge and no gender-based pattern of expertise.
A similar observation was also reported in Brazil [30].
In terms of age, most THPs were of the age group of
21–40 years (47.3%), followed by the age group 41–60 years
(34.5%), while the remaining two age groups (<20 years and
(a) (b)
Figure 2: (a) Interview with traditional health practitioners and (b) conducting a field walk.
Table 1: A questionnaire used during ethnobotanical data
collection in Urambo District.
Parameter Information
Informants ID
Particulars
Gender (male/female)
Age (years)
Education level
Experience (years)
Residence/location
Source of traditional healing practice
Questions
Which plants have you used for respiratory
disorders? (Local name)
Which ailment does each plant treat?
Which plant part do you use for remedy
formulation? (Root, leaf, bark, etc.)
How is it used? (Fresh or dried)
How do you prepare the remedies?
(Infusion, topical, decoction, tea, etc.)
How is each remedy administered?
(Oral, topical, etc.)
Where do you collect medicinal plant resources?
(Wild or cultivated areas)
4 BioMed Research International

>60 years) constituted 18.2% (Table 2). The findings showed
that older generations had significantly higher ethnomedic-
inal knowledge than the younger generations (p≤0 001).
The older generation has accrued more ethnomedicinal
knowledge through serving in the field and interacting with
Mother Nature longer than the younger informants. Similar
results were reported in other ethnomedicinal studies con-
ducted within the country [31] and from other countries
[32]. The lower ethnomedicinal knowledge exhibited by
younger generations may be attributed to urbanization, mod-
ernization, and a shift towards Western medicine, highlight-
ing a potential loss of cultural heritage [33, 34]. Similarly, the
decline of ethnomedicinal knowledge among younger gener-
ations has been reported in other countries like Mozambique
[35] and Indonesia [36], where the young are more interested
in contemporary medicine than traditional remedies. The
finding communicates that conventional medicinal knowl-
edge is in peril, as oral transmission from the older to the
more youthful generation is no longer reliable. Thus, record-
ing and archiving MPs of significant use for treating ailments
is paramount.
Regarding education level, 80% of the THPs had primary
education, followed by illiteracy (12.7%), secondary education
(5.5%), and tertiary education (1.8%) (Table 2). The statistical
difference between education level and ethnomedicinal
knowledge was significant (p≤0 001), indicating that MPs’
knowledge and use decline with increasing education level.
The current findings agree with a similar study conducted in
Morocco, Rif [27], and Nigeria [32].
In terms of healing experience, most THPs had 5–10
years (40%) in the sector, and the THPs with greater than
15 years revealed to have significantly higher knowledge of
MPs, followed by those with 11–15 years, 5–10 years, and
lastly THPs with less than 5 years (Table 2). The findings
suggest that the THPs who have worked for a long time in
the sector have accumulated more experience and knowl-
edge in utilising the MPs. Furthermore, the acquisition of
MPs knowledge was primarily acquired from close family
members (67.3%), herbalists (23.6%), and divine and super-
natural powers (9.1%), similar to an ethnomedicinal study
from Kenya [37].
3.2. MP Diversity. A total of 42 MPs belonging to 40 genera
of 28 botanical families were documented with traditional
medicinal uses against RTDs (Table 3). The most encoun-
tered botanical families were Fabaceae (7 species, 16.7%);
Myrtaceae (3 species, 7.1%); and Apocinaceae, Euphorbia-
ceae, Loganiaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Rubiaceae, and Rutaceae
(with 2 species, 4.8% each), while the remaining 20 families
were each represented by one species. The findings concern-
ing the prevalence of the utilisation of family Fabaceae in the
district agreed with other ethnobotanical studies conducted
in the district [21, 23] and other parts of the country [38].
The dominance of the Fabaceae in ethnomedicinal use
against respiratory ailments was also reported in Ethiopia
[39], Kenya [40], Zimbabwe [41], and South Africa [42].
The use of MPs to manage disorders that belong to regis-
tered families could be influenced by the culture and avail-
ability of MPs in a geographical setting [43]. Moreover, it
could probably be due to an extensive range of distribution,
as well as the production of potential secondary metabolites
with effective antimicrobial activities against RTDs.
3.3. Therapeutic Significance. According to the current
survey, 10 RTDs were reported by the THPs being com-
monly treated by MPs (Figure 3). The most reported RTDs
regarding MPs were cough (29 species, 69.0%), followed by
asthma (10 species, 23.8%), colds (9 species, 21.4%), and
flu (8 species, 19.0%). The remaining RTDs were treated
with less than six MPs. Similar studies in Pakistan [25],
Palestine [44], Ethiopia [39], and Kenya [40] reported
cough, asthma, and colds being the common RTDs treated
Table 2: Demographic profile of THPs and their indigenous knowledge.
Parameter Category THPs Percentage (%) Mean MPs ±SD pvalue
Gender Male 45 81.8 73±060.084
Female 10 18.2 69±04
Age groups (years)
<20 3 5.5 59±080.001
21–40 26 47.3 61±05
41–60 19 34.5 88±07
>60 7 12.7 93±03
Educational level
Illiterate 7 12.7 89±070.001
Primary 44 80.0 77±04
Secondary 3 5.5 59±03
Tertiary 1 1.8 31±06
Experience (years)
<5 10 18.2 37±090.001
5.0–10 22 40.0 66±06
11.0–15 11 20.0 85±03
>15 12 21.8 10 6±08
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Table 3: Medicinal plants used for respiratory tract disorders in Urambo District.
Scientific name Local name OG LF PU So Ailment cured Preparation and administration RFC UV FIV CS
Amaranthaceae 20
Chenopodium opulifolium
Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch & Ziz
(UR39)
Mwoshafedha N H L W Influenza, cold Decoction drunk, steam inhalation 0.200 0.182 —
Anacardiaceae 15
Mangifera indica L. (UR26) Mwembe I T Se, L C Coughs, colds,
asthma Decoction drunk 0.145 0.291 DD
Annonaceae 24
Hexalobus monopetalus
(A.Rich.) Engl. & Diels
(UR19)
Mkuwa N T L W Colds, coughs,
bronchitis Decoction drunk 0.236 0.382 LC
Apocynaceae 33
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
(Müll.Arg.) Pichon (UR32) Msongati N S R W
Chronic coughs,
pneumonia,
tuberculosis
Concoction drunk 0.109 0.164 LC
Strophanthus eminii Asch. ex
Pax. (UR27) Mvelevele N T R W Influenza, coughs Decoction drunk 0.218 0.418 —
Asphodelaceae 38
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (UR29) Mlovera I H Wh W
COVID-19, sore
throat, coughs,
asthma
Peeled leaves are eaten to relieve sore throat and cough.
Infusion is drunk for asthma 0.382 0.255 —
Asteraceae 13
Ageratum conyzoides L.
(UR07) Msendawazi I H R, F W Asthma, coughs,
colds
Infusion of powdered roots is drunk for asthma.
Flowerheads mixed with Ocimum tenuiflorum are used for
coughs and cold
0.127 0.182 LC
Caricaceae 11
Carica papaya L. (UR37) Mpapai I T L, F C COVID-19,
bronchitis
Decoction of young leaves drunk for treating COVID-19.
Infusion of flowers is drunk for bronchitis 0.109 0.145 DD
Combretaceae 9
Combretum pisoniiflorum
(Klotzsch) Engl. (UR31) Mlama N T B W Asthma Crush when mixed with salt 0.091 0.091 —
Cucurbitaceae 26
Momordica charantia L.
(UR25) Umotomoto N H L W, C Asthma,
tuberculosis Decoction drunk 0.255 0.382 —
Euphorbiaceae 40
Ricinus communis L. (UR34) Mnyonyo I S L, R W Coughs Decoction drunk 0.255 0.236 —
Spirostachys africana Sond.
(UR04) Mtomboti N T B W Influenza Chew and swallow the juice 0.145 0.145 LC
6 BioMed Research International

Table 3: Continued.
Scientific name Local name OG LF PU So Ailment cured Preparation and administration RFC UV FIV CS
Fabaceae 84
Cassia abbreviata Oliv.
(UR35) Muzoka N T B W Pneumonia Decoction drunk 0.527 0.309 LC
Delonix elata (L.) Gamble
(UR17) Mutangala N S R W, C Coughs, asthma Decoction drunk 0.200 0.327 LC
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)
Wight & Arn. (UR38) Mkulagembe N S L W, C Coughs Infusion drunk 0.073 0.073 LC
Entada abyssinica Steud. ex
A.Rich. (UR33) Mfutwamila N S B W, C Colds, coughs Decoction drunk 0.527 0.673 LC
Erythrina abyssinica Lam.
(UR24) Mlinzi N T B, R W, C Asthma Decoction of pounded parts drunk 0.091 0.091 LC
Piliostigma thonningii
(Schumach.) Milne-Redh.
(UR18)
Mkindwambogo I T Fr W Coughs Chew and swallow the juice 0.091 0.109 —
Vachellia nilotica (L.)
P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.
(UR30)
Mdubilo N T B W Asthma, coughs Decoction drunk 0.182 0.309 LC
Lamiaceae 18
Clerodendrum myricoides
(Hochst.) R.Br. ex Vatke.
(UR36)
Mpugambu N T R W Asthma, coughs Powdering of roots 0.182 0.200 EN
Loganiaceae 46
Strychnos mitis S.Moore
(UR15) Mwangajini N T L W Whooping coughs Decoction drunk 0.291 0.291 —
Strychnos potatorum L.f.
(UR13) Mgwegwe N T R, L,
Se W Coughs, bronchitis, Decoction of roots and leaves treated coughs, while that of
seed is drunk for bronchitis 0.200 0.364 —
Meliaceae 24
Trichilia emetica Vahl
(UR05) Mtimaji N T R, B W, C Pneumonia, colds Decoction drunk 0.236 0.236 LC
Menispermaceae 36
Cissampelos pareira L.
(UR11) Mkulawanti N H Rh W Coughs Decoction drunk 0.364 0.273 —
Moraceae 16
Ficus thonningii Blume
(UR03) Mlundalunda N T L W, C Colds, sore throat,
tuberculosis Decoction drunk 0.164 0.455 LC
Musaceae 6
Musa paradisiaca L. (UR09) Mgomba I H L C Colds, bronchitis Dried leaves made into syrup and drunk 0.055 0.109 —
7BioMed Research International

Table 3: Continued.
Scientific name Local name OG LF PU So Ailment cured Preparation and administration RFC UV FIV CS
Myrtaceae 62
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
(UR20) Mkalatusi I T L W, C
COVID-19,
bronchial
complaints
Steam inhalation 0.309 0.509 LC
Psidium guajava L. (UR28) Mpera I T L C Coughs, influenza Infusion drunk 0.127 0.255 LC
Syzygium aromaticum (L.)
Merr. & L.M.Perry (UR21) Mkarafuu I T S C Coughs, influenza Powdering then mix with tea 0.327 0.655 —
Olacaceae 33
Ximenia caffra Sond. (UR01) Mtundadamu N T L, R W, C Coughs, tonsillitis Extracts of leaves are gargled for soothing tonsillitis. Infusion
of roots combined with leaves is drunk for coughs 0.327 0.564 LC
Oleaceae 13
Schrebera trichoclada Welw.
(UR41) Mputika N T L W Coughs, influenza Chew and swallow the juice 0.127 0.218 LC
Pedaliaceae 15
Sesamum angolense Welw.
(UR23) Mulendagwawima N H R W, C Coughs, colds Infusion drunk 0.145 0.273 —
Phyllanthaceae 44
Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.)
Baill. (UR40) Mtemela N T R W Coughs Infusion drunk 0.291 0.218 LC
Phyllanthus amarus
Schumach. & Thonn. (UR16) Mbondo I H Wh W, C Coughs Decoction combined with honey is drunk 0.164 0.164 —
Rhamnaceae 15
Ziziphus mucronata Willd.
(UR14) Kagowole N T B W, C Coughs Infusion drunk 0.145 0.091 LC
Rubiaceae 35
Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel.
ex G.Don) Benth. (UR22) Msasambeke N T R W, C Coughs, influenza Concoction drunk 0.109 0.182 LC
Vangueria infausta Burch.
(UR12) Mfulara N S R W, C Pneumonia, coughs Warm decoction drunk 0.273 0.545 LC
Rutaceae 47
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.)
Swingle (UR08) Mndimu I T L C Asthma Decoction mixed with honey and egg, then drunk 0.345 0.218 LC
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f
(UR10) Mlimao I T Fr C Coughs, cold Decoct, then mix with Allium sativum 0.473 0.309 LC
Sapindaceae 22
Zanha africana (Radlk.)
Exell. (UR02) Mkalya N T R, B W Colds, tonsillitis Decoction of roots drunk while the powder of bark is used as
snuff0.218 0.491 —
8 BioMed Research International

Table 3: Continued.
Scientific name Local name OG LF PU So Ailment cured Preparation and administration RFC UV FIV CS
Solanaceae 9
Solanum incanum L. (UR42) Ndulele N H R W, C Coughs, sore throat Chew or swallow the sap 0.091 0.127 LC
Zingiberaceae 66
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
(UR06) Tangawizi I H Wh C
Coughs, influenza,
cold, throat
infection
Decoction drunk 0.655 0.618 DD
Note: Bold numbers represent dominance in terms of FIV, RFC, and UV.
Abbreviations: B, bark; C, cultivated; CS, conservation status; DD, data deficient; EN, endangered; F, flower; FIV, family importance value; Fr, fruit; H, herb; I, introduced; L, leaf; LC, least concern; LF, life form; N,
native; OG, origin; PU, parts used; R, root; RFC, relative frequency of citation; Rh, rhizome; S, shrub; Se, seed; So, source; T, tree; UV, use value; W, wild; Wh, whole plant.
9BioMed Research International

by many MPs, showing their prevalence as RTDs across
many realms. The wealth of traditional remedies could also
be associated with the prevalence of the disorders.
3.4. Origin and Life Forms. In the present survey, 66.7% of
the MPs were native to Tanzania, and 33.3% were intro-
duced from elsewhere. Among the reported MPs, tree
(61.9%) was the most used life form, followed by herbs
(23.8%) and shrubs (14.3%) (Figure 4). The frequent use of
trees for medicinal purposes was also reported in other
ethnobotanical studies within the country [17, 45]. Still, the
current finding differs from other studies in Pakistan [25]
and Ethiopia [39], which reported herbs to be dominant in
treating respiratory disorders. The wide use of trees by the
THPs in the district is due to their dominance and availability
throughout the year compared to other life forms, which are
affected by seasonality [46]. Moreover, the frequency of tree
use indicates that the local THPs have rich indigenous knowl-
edge of using the life form for respiratory disorders.
3.5. Sources of MPs. About 45.2% of the MPs were exclu-
sively collected from the wild, 35.7% were from both wild
and cultivation, and 19.1% were solely gathered from cultiva-
tion (Figure 4). Similarly, some ethnomedicinal studies in
Tanzania [17, 38, 45] and other African countries [39, 40,
47] showed that most MPs are soured from wild environ-
ments. The high utilisation of MPs in wild environments is
described by the fact that MPs that grow in the wild are
believed to be rich in bioactive compounds [48]. Overharvest-
ing of wild MPs for medicinal purposes can lead to depletion
of natural resources and threaten biodiversity, especially, if
proper conservation measures are not implemented.
3.6. Plant Parts Used for Remedy Formulation. The PPV
index helps understand the principal MP part used com-
monly for medicinal formulations in a local area. In this
study, leaves were the most preferred plant part with a
PPV of 38.1%, followed by roots (35.7%); bark (21.4%);
whole plant (7.1%); fruits, flowers, and seeds (each with
4.8%); and rhizome (2.4%) (Figure 5). Likewise, studies con-
ducted in different parts of the world [39, 42] showed leaves
to be the commonly preferred MP part for managing RTDs.
The preference for leaves could be related to their availability
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tonsillitis
Tuberculosis
Sore throat
COVID-19
Pneumonia
Bronchitis
Flu
Colds
Asthma
Coughs
Number of medicinal plants
Respiratory disorders
Figure 3: Number of medicinal plants for each respiratory tract disorder.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Native
Introduced
Tree
Herb
Shrub
Wild
Wild & cultivated
Cultivated
Origin Life forms Source of MPs
Number of medicinal
plants
Figure 4: Origin, life form, and sources of medicinal plants.
10 BioMed Research International

and ease of harvest compared to other plant parts and the
preparation and synthesis of abundant bioactive ingredients,
which are pharmacologically active against various disorders
[49, 50]. Moreover, it could be attributed to their renewal
potential and collection that does not jeopardise the exis-
tence of parent MPs over a period.
3.7. Modes of Preparation and Routes of Administration of
Remedies. The RTD remedies are prepared depending on
the MP life form and the part used. Most traditional recipes
are formulated with or without a subsidiary substance. In the
present study, decoction (51.0%) and infusion (20.0%) were
the commonly preferred methods for preparing remedies
against RTDs. Other forms accounted for 29.0% (Figure 6).
The decoction involves boiling MP material in water to
speed up the extraction of the required bioactive constitu-
ents [51], but it also detoxifies and sterilises the used plant
materials. Water is the commonly used solvent because it
is affordable and more efficient for extracting soluble metab-
olites than other solvents [23]. Moreover, additives like
sugar, honey, milk, and butter are used to intensify the
efficacy and potency of the medicines, making the medica-
tion tasty and evading any intestinal disquiet [52]. Most
RTDs (95.2%) were administered orally, while 4.0% were
through steam inhalation. The mode of administration
depends on the physical condition of the patient and the
stage of the ailment. Comparable findings have also been
reported in similar ethnomedicinal studies on RTDs con-
ducted elsewhere [25, 44].
3.8. Quantitative Analysis of Ethnorespiratory Information
3.8.1. FIV. To evaluate the most significant plant families in
the study area, the FIV was computed as per Equation (2),
and each family’s values are presented in Table 3. The FIV
ranged from 5% to 84%. Fabaceae displayed the supreme
FIV (84%), followed by Zingiberaceae (66%) and Myrtaceae
(62%). The dominance of Fabaceae could be attributed to its
Leaf, 38.1
Root, 35.7
Bark, 21.4
Whole plant,
7.1
Fruit, 4.8
Flowers, 4.8
Seed, 4.8
Rhizome, 2.4
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 5: Radar diagram showing plant part values (PPVs) for each medicinal plant part.
Peeling Crushing
2% Steam
inhalation
4%
Powdering
7%
Chewin
g
9%
Infusion
20%
Decoction
51%
Concoction
5%
Figure 6: Modes of preparation used in the formulation of remedies.
11BioMed Research International

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 7: Some medicinal plants used by THPs in treating respiratory transmitted disorders in Urambo District: (a) Zingiber officinale,
(b) Aloe vera, (c) Syzygium aromaticum, (d) Ageratum conyzoides, (e) Carica papaya, and (f) Citrus limon.
12 BioMed Research International

richness in terms of MPs in the area, as it is foremost in most
lowland areas in the country [53], and familiarity of the
family in ethnomedicine. Moreover, the finding shows the
importance of individual MPs in the area and the popularity
of a plant family, which could be associated with MPs’avail-
ability and their connection with traditional remedies [54].
Additionally, the low FIVs exhibited by some families, such
as Musaceae (5%) and Solanaceae (7%), could signify less
availability of the MP species in the area and less familiarity
among locals about managing RTDs [55].
3.8.2. RFC. The RFC is used to assess frequently utilised MPs
for managing different ailments by the locals in an area. The
RFC in the current study varied from 0.055 to 0.655. The
MPs with the highest RFC were Z. officinale (0.655),
followed by E. abyssinica and Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (with
0.527 each), and Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f (0.473). The MPs
with higher RFC values indicate that they are very familiar
to the majority of THPs in treating RTDs [56]. Hence, they
must be further pharmacologically and phytochemically
investigated to recognise their bioactive ingredients for treat-
ing RTDs.
3.8.3. UV. The UV index demonstrates the comparative
importance of useful MPs. The information offered by the
UV index is essential for ethnomedicinal research as it shows
the utmost harvesting pressure and provides a new avenue
for drug discovery. The UV could efficiently assess the most
useful MPs or group of MPs to a specific society group and
consider potential uses within the group [57]. The present
study revealed that UV varied to overcome coughs and
colds. E. abyssinica had a higher UV (0.673), followed by
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry (0.655) and
Z. officinale (0.618). The findings show that the THPs have
good indigenous knowledge of the ethno MPs and practices.
The MPs with high UV must be further examined for phyto-
chemical and pharmacological to diagnose their bioactive
elements that can be used to develop modern drugs [58].
Likewise, these MPs should be prioritised for conservation
as their preferential consumption may compromise their
survival due to overharvesting.
Extracts of stem bark and roots of E. abyssinica are
reported to treat respiratory bacterial infections due to the
passion of quercitrin, a glycoside moulded from the flavo-
noid quercetin and rhamnose, with an MIC of 3.12 μg/mL
against Salmonella typhimurium [59]. Z. officinale is a popu-
lar MP used against RTDs in different parts of the globe,
such as in Indonesia [57], Ethiopia [60], and Nigeria [61].
The MP is well known for the possession of abundant active
constituents, such as phenolic compounds (gingerols, sho-
gaols, and paradols) and terpene compounds (β-bisabolene,
α-farnesene, α-curcumene, zingiberene, and β-sesquiphellan-
drene) [62]. Other MPs reported in this study but reported
elsewhere for RTDs include C. abbreviata in Tanzania [59];
Ageratum conyzoides L. in Indonesia [57]; Mangifera indica
L., Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle in Pakistan [25];
and Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) R.Br. ex Vatke.,
Psidium guajava L., Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Solanum inca-
num L., C. limon,andC. aurantifolia in Ethiopia [60]. Some
MPs used for treating RTDs are shown in Figure 7.
3.8.4. ICF. All MPs used for managing RTDs were grouped
into 10 ailment categories (Table 4). The ICF values ranged
from 0.714 to 0.992. The high pervasiveness of the ailments
above may echo the poor socioeconomic and hygienic con-
ditions of the deprived people. The findings agree with other
ethnomedicinal studies conducted in Ethiopia [60]. The
highest ICF was recorded for cough (0.922), followed by
flu (0.919) and asthma (0.910). The lowest ICF was recorded
for tuberculosis (0.714). The higher ICF value suggests a
high degree of agreement among THPs and the usage of
diverse MPs for the management of a particular ailment,
while the low ICF value is vice versa. Furthermore, low
ICF may signal the presence of fewer incidences of a specific
category of illness in the study area or designate less reliability
of the informer’s knowledge [49]. High ICF values could also
be related to the high UV of MPs for a particular ailment
category [63]. Thus, MPs with multiple uses in managing var-
ious ailments are believed to be effective medicine.
3.8.5. Comparative Study of MPs Used for RTDs. A compar-
ative analysis of MPs used for managing RTDs in Urambo
District and seven African countries was conducted. The JI
index ranged from 2.7 to 7.9 (Table 5). The high degree of
similarity (JI = 7 9) was with the studies from the Maritime
region in Togo [64], followed by Osun State in Nigeria
[65]; Maputaland in South Africa [66]; and Kamuli, Kisoro,
and Nakapiripirit districts in Uganda [16] with JI values of
7.9, 5.8, 5.3, and 5.1, respectively. The lowest similarity index
was with Oum Rbai in Morocco, with a JI value of 2.7
(Table 5). Among the common MPs, six, namely, Carica
papaya L., C. aurantifolia,C. limon,Z. officinale,E. globulus,
and A. conyzoides, had a higher citation frequency among
the compared studies.
3.8.6. CS. The unwarranted collection of MPs for timber,
fodder, fuelwood, food, and other commercial manipula-
tions has provided them with countless amounts of vulnera-
bility [29]. The CS of all documented MPs was verified using
the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2022). In
Table 4: Informant consensus factor for each ailment type.
Ailment
type
Number of use
reports (Nur)
Number of
species (Nt)
Informant
consensus factor
(ICF)
Coughs 361 29 0.922
Flu 87 8 0.919
Asthma 101 10 0.910
Pneumonia 28 4 0.889
Colds 71 9 0.886
Sore throat 18 3 0.882
Tonsillitis 9 2 0.875
COVID-19 17 3 0.875
Bronchitis 33 5 0.875
Tuberculosis 8 3 0.714
Note: Bold numbers represent RTDs with highest ICF.
13BioMed Research International

total, 36% (15 MPs) of the documented MPs had no record
in the IUCN list. In comparison, 55% (23 MPs) were found
to have the least concern (LC) CS (Table 3), which endorses
an adequately stable population for the MPs at the global
level. Additionally, one species (2%), namely, C. myricoides,
was found to have an Endangered status, and three MPs
(7%), namely, Z. officinale,M. indica, and C. papaya were
found to have data deficiency status (Figure 8). From the
above observations, this study believes that the conservation
of the MPs should be fortified, and the CS of the MPs that
have no records should be assessed.
4. Conclusion
This study revealed that the THPs in Urambo District are
rich in indigenous knowledge and that a diversity of MPs
is used to manage RTDs. The frequently treated RTDs were
cough, asthma, colds, and flu. The older generation is
revealed to possess an immense traditional knowledge of
MPs compared to the younger generation. Thus, the tradi-
tional healing practice and its knowledge transfer in the
district are at risk and require immediate conservancy before
its extinction. This study offers baseline information to phar-
macologists and phytochemists for the development of new
drugs. This work can indeed be used to promote cultural
conservation, MP conservation, and sustainable practices
in the district, country, and globally. Moreover, this study
suggests the need for scientific validation of MP efficacy
and safety because relying solely on anecdotal evidence
without rigorous scientific studies can lead to ineffective
treatments or even harm to patients.
Data Availability Statement
The arithmetical information used to support the findings of
this study is available from the corresponding author upon
request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Author Contributions
D.S.K. conceptualised the study. H.M.A. conducted the field-
work, collected the data, and conducted the herbarium work.
D.S.K. and H.M.A. wrote the manuscript and approved the
final version for submission.
Funding
This study was supported by the Dar es Salaam University
College of Education through Grant Number DUCE-20030.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to all THPs who participated in
this study for sharing their knowledge of MPs and for
making this study possible. Moreover, the authors thank all
various stakeholders, who, in one way or another, made this
study successful.
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