Innovative Nanoparticle Synthesis and Multifaceted Applications in Medicine and Cancer Therapy

Abstract

Nanotechnology has far-reaching implications and applications in multiple fields. The biomedical and health sectors can use nanotechnology concepts for medication delivery and treatment. Under controlled conditions, it can target and initiate administering drugs and several other therapeutic agents. Since cancer is the largest cause of death worldwide, prompt diagnosis and effective anticancer treatments are crucial. In this particular context, nanotechnology reduces side effects and directs drug delivery to specifically target cancer cells, providing unique benefits for cancer therapy. In the present thorough review, the most noteworthy new findings for 2010–2023 were compiled, which address the development and use of nanosystems for cancer treatment. Nanoparticles allow precise and controlled release of therapeutic substances at specific action locations, enabling targeted medication delivery. Size, shape, surface, charge, and loading methods impact its efficiency. Researchers have made advancements in encapsulating drugs into nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions, including paclitaxel and fisetin, and are currently testing their suitability in ongoing clinical trials. The purpose of this review is to serve as a continuous path toward recognizing the extraordinary potential of various nanoparticles in cancer therapies.

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Journal of Clinical and Nursing Research, 2024, Volume 8, Issue 11
hp://ojs.bbwpublisher.com/index.php/JCNR
Online ISSN: 2208-3693
Print ISSN: 2208-3685
Innovative Nanoparticle Synthesis and
Multifaceted Applications in Medicine and
Cancer Therapy
Zartasha Aftab1*, Syed Muhammad Ahmad Bukhari1, Muhammad Abubakar2, Hafiz Muhammad
Sultan1, Muhammad Zubair1, Maysoon Ahmed Abou El Niaaj3
1The Institute of Biological Science, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology,
Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan
2Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Medical College, Tianjin University, Tianjin
300072, China
3Department of Internal Medicine, Medcare Hospitals and Medical Center, United Arab Emirates
*Corresponding author: Zartasha Aftab, zartashaaftab429@gmail.com
Copyright: © 2024 Author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY 4.0), permitting distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is cited.
Abstract: Nanotechnology has far-reaching implications and applications in multiple fields. The biomedical and health
sectors can use nanotechnology concepts for medication delivery and treatment. Under controlled conditions, it can target
and initiate administering drugs and several other therapeutic agents. Since cancer is the largest cause of death worldwide,
prompt diagnosis and effective anticancer treatments are crucial. In this particular context, nanotechnology reduces side
effects and directs drug delivery to specifically target cancer cells, providing unique benefits for cancer therapy. In the
present thorough review, the most noteworthy new findings for 2010–2023 were compiled, which address the development
and use of nanosystems for cancer treatment. Nanoparticles allow precise and controlled release of therapeutic substances
at specific action locations, enabling targeted medication delivery. Size, shape, surface, charge, and loading methods
impact its efficiency. Researchers have made advancements in encapsulating drugs into nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions,
including paclitaxel and fisetin, and are currently testing their suitability in ongoing clinical trials. The purpose of
this review is to serve as a continuous path toward recognizing the extraordinary potential of various nanoparticles in
cancer therapies.
Keywords: Nanoparticles; Anticancer; Drug delivery; Therapeutics; Medicine
Online publication: November 26, 2024
1. Introduction
According to the 2022 cancer statistics, cancer is one of the major causes of death worldwide [1]. When treating

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a cancer patient, chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery are the traditional therapeutic choices [2]. The disease
damages the patient’s fitness, which deteriorates with each therapy intervention over time, thereby determining
the optimal course of action [3]. Other factors include the location and stage of the malignancy [3]. While there
is a possibility of serious problems and an increased risk of dying from other diseases, these treatments can
lower cancer mortality and recurrence rates. For a long time, radiotherapy has been a vital tool in the fight
against cancer because it may be able to cure the disease, reduce symptoms, and increase survival [4]. However,
radiation therapy also carries significant adverse consequences. Radiation therapy not only targets the tumour
cells but also damages the surrounding normal tissue [5]. Chemotherapy is possible to treat cancer with a wide
range of pharmacological classes, but doing so may have unfavorable side effects, including autoimmune-like
conditions and potentially fatal adverse events brought on by the reactivation of cellular immunity [6].
Numerous scientific disciplines have made significant efforts to mitigate the aforementioned issues by
investigating alternatives that avoid the toxicity and adverse effects of traditional medicines. Most of these
novel strategies, like using inorganic nanoparticles with altered surfaces to combat cancer, are still undergoing
extensive study [7]. However, research has demonstrated that they possess significant side effects. Radiation and
chemotherapy have two primary drawbacks: their high toxicity to surrounding healthy cells, tissues, and organs,
which can result in drug resistance during treatment, and their lack of specificity, which results in insufficient
drug delivery at the targeted site [8]. To address these issues, the scientific community looks to nanotechnology,
which has the potential to improve medicine delivery to target areas while also boosting efficacy and lowering
adverse effects [9]. As a result, nanoparticles’ large specific surface areas give them useful properties, such as the
ability to become bio-functionalized and a useful interface that helps the nanoparticles interact with the tissues
around them [10].
Scientists are creating many products that involve the manufacturing of nanoparticles or their use, and
because of their potential efficacy and the need for fewer medications, nanomedicine is becoming a more
popular study subject [11]. As a result, the application of nanoparticles in this situation may also help to augment,
stimulate, or improve the efficacy of medication therapy at a lower cost. Nanoparticles have brought about a
paradigm shift in the field of oncological therapy medication delivery [12]. Scientists have successfully solved
problems related to drug solubility and systemic toxicity [13]. This has led to the development of several drug
delivery systems based on nanoparticles that are now moving through different stages of clinical research. The
intentional incorporation of nanoparticles has greatly enhanced the integration of imaging technologies into the
fields of cancer diagnosis and treatment monitoring [14]. When sparingly loaded with imaging moieties like gold
nanoparticles and quantum dots, these small structures can follow the spread of therapeutic agents in real time
and instantly visualize neoplastic tumors [15].
The field of nanoparticle research has paid significant attention to the emerging field of “theranostics,”
an inventive idea that combines therapeutic and diagnostic functions [16]. Scientists have cleverly engineered
some nanoparticles to fulfill two functions: they can carry drugs and provide useful imaging capabilities
simultaneously. Clinical trials are currently thoroughly investigating this dual purpose to enhance the accuracy
and effectiveness of cancer therapies [17]. Researchers have skillfully applied magnetics nanoparticles in
hyperthermia therapy, using alternating magnetic fields to create controlled hyperthermic effects within cancer
cells [18]. Researchers have conducted clinical trials for specific cancers to assess the therapeutic potential and
viability of this approach [19].
In addition, nanoparticles have shown enormous promise in increasing the susceptibility of cancer cells

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to radiation therapy [20]. Nanoparticles present the alluring possibility of delivering treatments with unmatched
specificity in the field of precision oncology [21]. Adding ligands to nanoparticles that are specifically made to
target cancer cells makes treatments much more effective overall and lowers the damage to healthy tissues [22]. This
paper provides a brief overview of the use of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles typically have dimensions ranging from
1 to 100 nm and exhibit features that are highly dependent on surface area and size. Conversely, researchers have
spent more time studying different polymeric nanoparticles and nanoliposomes [23], which are well-known drug
carriers, about cancer treatments. On the other hand, researchers have studied different polymeric nanoparticles
and nanoliposomes well-known drug carriers for cancer treatments for a longer period [24].
Despite numerous attempts, it is challenging to classify nanoparticles systematically due to their variety
of forms. Therefore, nanoparticles can be categorized based on their form, average size, chemical makeup, and
manufacturing method, among other factors [25]. Nanoparticles’ high surface area-to-volume ratios are useful
in a variety of applications mediated by surface phenomena [26]. When using nanoparticles for medication
administration, for instance, specific surface area and surface functionalization are crucial factors to consider [27].
Their larger surface area allows for the attachment of more anticancer drugs, enhancing their effectiveness as
drug delivery vectors. Due to their nanometric size, which allows them to pass across blood-brain barriers,
nanoparticles can penetrate pores and aid in the development of more potent treatments for neurological
diseases and brain tumours [28].
One of the many benefits of developing therapeutics at the nanoscale is that nanoparticles can solve
anticancer medication solubility and stability issues [29]. Putting a drug that does not dissolve well in a
hydrophilic nanocarrier can help it get to where it needs to go and be used [30]. This is because water solubility
limits bioavailability and slows down the development of new drugs. Nanocarriers or synthetic chemicals
must encapsulate antineoplastic medicines to prevent the excretion or breakdown of anticancer compounds [31].
Additionally, nanotechnology can selectively reroute chemicals to cancer cells or enhance drug penetration and
redirection because of its physicochemical characteristics [32]. Anticancer medicines employ both active and
passive targeting strategies in their rerouting [33]. Furthermore, the quick cargo release of nanocarriers makes
nanomedicine treatment stimuli-sensitive. A pH-independent medication can be catenated like doxorubicin
into pH-sensitive nanoparticles to enhance cellular absorption and intracellular release. Ultimately, directed
nanomedicine treatments decrease the tumor’s resistance to anticancer medications [34]. Targeted input and
multidrug-resistant adenosine triphosphate outflow pump-driven excretion generally reduce non-specificity [35].
Nanomedicine can slow down the rate at which a drug moves through the body, making it easier for stimulus-
responsive drugs to get into the body and block the drug’s endocytic input [36].
2. Synthesis of nanoparticle
A variety of techniques can synthesize nanoparticles (NPs), broadly categorized into two classes: the bottom-up
approach and the top-down approach.
2.1. Bottom-up synthesis
Bigger molecules undergo a destructive process to break down into smaller components, which then
transform into the appropriate nanoparticles [25]. Various decomposition techniques, such as chemical vapour
deposition (CVD), physical vapour deposition (PVD), and grinding and milling, are examples of this

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method. For instance, a study employed the milling process to synthesize coconut shell (CS) nanoparticles.
Ceramic balls and a planetary mill were used to finely grind raw CS particles for varying durations. Through
a variety of characterization methods, the study examined ways the milling duration affected the total size
of the nanoparticles. The Scherer equation revealed that the nanoparticles’ crystallite size decreased as the
milling duration increased [37]. Furthermore, the brownish colour diminished with every hour because of the
nanoparticles’ decreasing size. SEM data supported the X-ray pattern, indicating a reduction in particle size
over time [38]. Another work used a top-down destructive method to create spherical magnetite nanoparticles
from natural iron oxide (Fe2O3) ore. When organic oleic acid was present, the particles produced ranged in size
from approximately 20 to 50 nm [39].
A straightforward top-down method synthesizes colloidal carbon into spherical particles with a controllable
size [40]. This method was based on the steady chemical adsorption of Polyoxometalates (POM) on the carbon
interfacial surface [41]. This made the carbon black stick together into smaller, spherical particles that were
evenly distributed in size and could spread out easily [42]. Micrographs showed that as the sonication period
increased, the size of the carbon particles shrank. Transition-metal dichalcogenide nanodots (TMD-NDs) were
synthesized from their bulk crystals using a top-down mix of grinding and sonication procedures [43]. Nearly all
TMD-NDs found with diameters less than 10 nm exhibit excellent dispersion due to their limited size range.
2.2. Top-down synthesis
This method, often known as the “building up” method, entails creating nanoparticles from comparatively
simpler materials. This strategy includes techniques for sedimentation and reduction, as well as sol-gel, green
synthesis, spinning, and biological synthesis, to synthesize TiO2 anatase nanoparticles containing graphene
domains [44]. They used precursors for titanium isopropoxide and alizarin to create a photoactive composite,
which catalyzed the breakdown of methylene blue [45]. Alizarin was selected because of its potent ability to
bind TiO2 via its axial hydroxyl terminal groups. According to the SEM results, the size of the nanoparticles
increases as the temperature rises. A top-down laser irradiation method to successfully make well-uniform
spherical Au nanosheets with monocrystalline structures. Recently, the solvent-exchange approach produced
limit-sized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) nanoparticles for medical cancer medication administration [46].
Nucleation represents the bottom-up approach in this strategy, whereas growth represents the top-up method [47].
Researchers have synthesized monodispersed and spherical bismuth (Bi) nanoparticles using both top-down
and bottom-up methods, with outstanding colloidal characteristics [48]. The top-down approach transformed
bismuth into a molten form and then emulsified it within cooked diethylene glycol to make the nanoparticles,
while the bottom-up approach boiled bismuth acetate within ethylene glycol [48]. The nanoparticles produced by
the two techniques ranged in size from 100 nm to 500 nm. Numerous researchers are drawing attention to the
feasibility and less harmful nature of green and biogenic bottom-up synthesis methods [49]. These procedures
are both economical and environmentally benign, as they create nanoparticles using biological systems such as
plant extracts, bacteria, yeast, fungi, aloe vera, tamarind, and even human cells. Researchers have synthesized
gold nanoparticles from the biomass of wheat and oat, using microorganisms and plant extracts as reducing
agents.

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Figure 1. Nanoparticles synthesis approaches, bottom-up and top-down approaches.
Table 1. Bottom-up and top-down approaches merits and demerits
Top–down method Merits Demerits
Optical lithography
A trustworthy, well-established micro- or nanofabrication
instrument, especially for chip manufacturing, with a high
throughput and adequate resolution.
The trade-off between sensitivity and resolution
in the resist process necessitates sophisticated,
costly, clean room-based procedures.
E-beam lithography
This highly precise technique, often used in research settings,
is a useful tool for nanofabrication, enabling the creation of
desired-shaped nanostructures as small as 20 nm.
It is expensive, slow (serial writing method),
low-throughput, and challenging for
nanofabrication below 5 nm.
Scanning probe
lithography
Chemicals with high molecular and mechanical resolution
Nanopatterning abilities that are precisely regulated. The
resists contain nanopatterns for silicon transfer, as well as the
ability to manipulate both large molecules and single atoms.
High-throughput applications and production
are restricted, and the procedure can be costly,
particularly when using ultra-high vacuum
scanning probe lithography.
Atomic layer
deposition
It achieves atomic-level precision in digital thickness control
by creating pinhole-free nanostructured films over vast
regions, one atomic layer at a time.
According to the use of many components,
this procedure is typically sluggish and costly
because it uses many components.
Bottom-up method Merits Demerits
Atomic layer
deposition
Enables precise atomic-level digital thickness control by
depositing single atomic layers at a time; large-scale, pin-
hole-free nanostructured films; The films exhibit excellent
repeatability and adhesion due to the establishment of
chemical bonds at the first atomic layer.
It is typically a laborious and costly procedure
because vacuum components are involved. It
might be challenging to economically deposit
some metals, multicomponent oxides, and
crucial semiconductors for technology.
Sol gel
nanofabrication
Chemical synthesis is a low-cost technique that fabricates
a wide range of nanomaterials, including materials with
multiple components such as glass, ceramic, film, fiber, and
composite materials.
Not readily scalable, it is typically challenging
to regulate the synthesis process and the
ensuing drying stages.
DNA-scaffolding
The system allows for the highly accurate assembly of
nanoscale parts into programmable configurations with far
smaller dimensions (less than 10 nm in half-pitch).
A wide range of topics need to be investigated,
such as throughput, cost, line edge roughness,
compatibility with CMOS fabrication, and
innovative unit and integration procedures.
Molecular self-
assembly
Nanosystems that are accurate down to the atomic level can
be synthesized by stretching patterns very large and letting
deep molecular nonpatterns with a width of less than 20 nm
form.
Nanosystems are more difficult to design and
create than mechanically directed assemblies.

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3. Application of nanoparticles
3.1. Application of nanoparticles in medicine
Simple or complex, nano-sized inorganic particles have special physical and chemical characteristics that
make them essential building blocks for the creation of innovative nano devices with uses in the physical,
biological, biomedical, and pharmaceutical domains [50]. Nanoparticles (NPs) are becoming more valuable in
medicine because of their capacity to provide medications in the right quantities, increase therapeutic efficacy,
lessen adverse effects, and increase patient compliance [12]. Biomedical applications frequently employ iron
oxide particles such as maghemite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) [51]. Mie theory and the discrete dipole
approximation approach frequently determine their optical characteristics, leading to the use of NPs for
biological and cell imaging, as well as photothermal therapy [52]. Polyethylene oxide (PEO) and polylactic acid
(PLA) nanoparticles (NPs), which are hydrophilic, have shown promise as ways to deliver drugs [53]. The use of
superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) with specific surface chemistry in medication administration,
tissue regeneration, immunoassays, hyperthermia, MRI contrast enhancement, and cell separation [54]. Antigen-
antibody interactions, using labeled antibodies, can detect analyses in tissue slices.
Biodegradable NPs are gaining attention for drug delivery because they can efficiently transport medications
while minimizing negative effects. Liposomes are a promising drug carrier, although they have drawbacks such
as low stability and low encapsulation efficiency [55]. Compared to liposomes, polymeric NPs have improved
drug stability and controlled release characteristics. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) characteristics of
semiconductors and metallic nanoparticles make them promising for cancer treatment and detection [56]. Multi-
hydroxylated NPs have demonstrated antineoplastic action with decreased toxicity, whereas gold nanoparticles
can convert absorbed light into localized heat for laser photothermal therapy. Silver nanoparticles are being used
more often in home items and wound dressings due to their antibacterial properties [57]. Functionalized TiO2, ZnO,
BiVO4, Cu-, and Ni-based NPs specifically target microbial species in textiles, medicine, water disinfection,
and food packaging.
3.2. Application of nanoparticles in anticancer activity
The current difficulties in treating cancer with traditional medicines have led to further advancements in
nanotechnology. The exponential growth of nanoscience has led to the development of therapeutically active
nanomaterials (NMs) [58]. They have great potential in cancer treatment because NMs alter the profile of
medication toxicity. Improved surface properties enable nanoparticles (NPs) to diffuse more readily within
tumor cells, minimizing toxicity and delivering the right medication dosage to the tumor site [59]. Using
NMs with tumor-specific components, it overcomes the challenges of the anticancer agent’s indiscriminate
biodistribution and excessive dosage administration by targeting cancer cells [28]. This article focuses on the
most recent developments in the application of different nanomaterials to cancer treatment, including their
ability to target organelles, tumor microenvironment (TME), and cancer cell surfaces [59]. Nano routes are
transforming the paradigm of cancer management through the distribution of anticancer drugs.
3.3. Application of nanoparticles in drug delivery
Nanoparticles, typically in the size range of 1–100 nanometers, are minuscule particles that can encapsulate
therapeutic agents such as small molecules, proteins, peptides, or nucleic acids [60]. Protein and polysaccharides
are used as nanomaterials for the formation of composite scaffolds that have favorable properties to use [61].

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They represent a state-of-the-art technology in drug delivery, carrying many advantages over traditional
drug formulations. Nanoparticles can functionalize targeting ligands like aptamers, peptides, or antibodies to
identify and attach to specific cells or tissues. This precise delivery of medications to the intended site of action
minimizes side effects and enhances therapeutic efficiency [62].
Although initially developed to serve as vaccination and chemotherapy agent carriers, nanoparticles are stable,
solid particles composed of degradable polymers that range in size from 10 to 1000 nm. Medicinal substances
can become enmeshed in the particle matrix, adhere to the particle surface, and become trapped in the polymer
[63]. Oncology is the primary field of study for most of the research on using nanoparticles as a medicine delivery
mechanism [64]. In addition to enhancing retention and permeability, nanoparticles can concentrate in tumour
masses, inflammatory areas, and infection sites. While it is also feasible to produce multiple unique medications
and selectively administer that particular medication to the cancerous tissue, a colloidal shell encases a cancer-
fighting medication, which breaks down over time, while a lipid layer encases an antiangiogenics medication [65].
When injected intravenously, the cancer cells absorb this nanoparticle. The first action of the antiangiogenesis
medication is to inhibit the intermediaries involved in blood vessel formation. The release of the anti-cancer
medication subsequently leads to the effective elimination of cancer cells [66]. A nanoscale, an effective vehicle for
the anticancer medication to reach the neoplastic location, enables all of that.
Figure 2. Untargeted drug delivery (left) and targeted drug delivery by nanoparticles (right)
Nanoparticles can release medications in a regulated manner, either continuously for an extended period
or in response to specific stimuli such as pH, temperature, enzymes, or light [67]. This controlled release profile
allows for the maintenance of therapeutic medication levels within the intended range, thereby maximizing
effectiveness and minimizing side effects [68]. The poor solubility and bioavailability of many medications,
particularly hydrophobic chemicals, limit their therapeutic effectiveness. Nanoparticles can encapsulate these
medications, protecting them from deterioration, and enhancing their solubility and durability in physiological
settings [69]. Due to this increased bioavailability, better drug absorption and distribution translate into greater
therapeutic results. The protective shell that nanoparticles provide shields the encapsulated medicine from

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enzyme breakdown and adverse environmental conditions [70]. This defense strengthens the medication’s stability
throughout the body’s circulation, extending its half-life and enabling prolonged release at the intended location.
By delivering many medications at once that have distinct physicochemical characteristics, nanoparticles can
overcome drug resistance and produce synergistic benefits [71]. This strategy is especially helpful for treating
complicated illnesses like cancer, as combination therapies that target several pathways can increase efficacy
and lower the chance of tumor recurrence. By delivering pharmaceuticals directly to the target site and minimizing
systemic exposure, nanoparticles can lessen the toxicity associated with traditional therapeutic formulations [72]. This
targeted delivery enhances the therapeutic intervention’s safety profile by reducing the likelihood of off-target effects
on healthy tissues. Nanoparticles offer the possibility of personalized medical techniques by enabling customized
drug delivery plans based on unique patient features [73]. This personalization can result in therapeutic interventions
that are more patient-centered and effective, maximizing therapy efficacy while minimizing side effects.
Table 2. List of different types of nanoparticles with their composition and applications [66]
Types of nanoparticles Composition Applications
Solid lipid nanoparticles Melted lipid diffused in aqueous surfactant A less toxic and extra firm colloidal carrier as substitute
substance to polymer
Polymeric nanoparticles Decomposable polymer regulated and targeted delivery of drugs
Polymeric micelles Amphiphilic block copolymer regulated and organized delivery of hydrophobic drugs
Magnetic nanoparticles Magnetite Fe2O3, Meghe mite covered with
dextran Drug for targeting diagnostics in medication
Carbon nanoparticles Metals, semiconductors or carbon Regulated transfer of drug to DNA and gene
Liposomes Phospholipid vesicles Regulated delivery of drug
Nanoshells Dielectric core and metal shell Targeted drug delivery to tumor
Ceramic nanoparticles Silica, alumina, titania Delivery of drugs and biomolecules
Nanopores Aerogel, which is created by cell gel chemistry Carriers for focused drug release
Nanowires Silicon, cobalt, gold or copper-based nanowires Carries electrons in nanoelectronics
3.4. Applications of nanoparticles as therapeutic agents
Nanoparticles themselves can serve as therapeutic agents due to their unique qualities and abilities [74]. This
makes them excellent options for a range of medical applications. Copper, zinc oxide, and silver nanoparticles
possess intrinsic antibacterial qualities [74]. They can damage microbial membranes, stop enzyme function, and
produce reactive oxygen species, which can effectively kill or stop the growth of viruses, fungi, and bacteria [57].
These antimicrobial nanoparticles have potential uses in medical implants, wound dressings, and anti-infection
surface coatings. It is possible to create nanoparticles so that they reduce the body’s inflammatory reactions.
As an example, gold nanoparticles that are coated with peptides or anti-inflammatory drugs can target tissues
that are inflamed and stop the pathways that cause inflammation [75]. This could help treat asthma, inflammatory
bowel disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. Researchers are thoroughly studying the potential of nanoparticles
in cancer therapy. Functions can be added to different kinds of nanoparticles, like liposomes, polymeric
nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, so they can only reach tumor cells and deliver photothermal
agents, nucleic acids, or chemotherapeutic medicines [76]. These nanoparticles can improve the effectiveness
of anticancer drugs and reduce side effects by breaking down multidrug resistance, making it easier for drugs

29 Volume 8; Issue 11
to build up at the site of the tumor, and making combination therapy more possible. For neurodegenerative
illnesses like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and stroke, nanoparticles exhibit promise in neuroprotection and
neurodegeneration treatments [77]. Putting nanoparticles into the central nervous system that contain growth
factors, neuroprotective drugs, or stem cells can help neurons survive, heal damaged tissue, and improve
functional recovery. Researchers are exploring the use of cardiovascular nanoparticles in the treatment of
various cardiovascular illnesses such as atherosclerosis [78], myocardial infarction, and thrombosis. Nanoparticles
functionalized with antioxidants, thrombolytic medications, or anti-inflammatory medicines can target plaque
deposits, reduce inflammation, and dissolve blood clots, thereby treating or preventing cardiovascular events.
These useful instruments for immunotherapy applications have the ability to alter the body’s immunological
responses [75]. Nanoparticles can be engineered to carry adjuvants, immune checkpoint inhibitors, or antigens
that can activate or deactivate specific immune pathways. This could lead to new treatments for autoimmune
diseases, allergies, and cancer immunotherapy [79].
Applications of nanoparticle
Medicine, Untargeted Delivery
and Target Delivery
Anticancer Act ivity
Applicatio n of nanoparticle as
therapeutic agents
Applicatio n of nanoparticles in
clinical Biotechnology
Figure 3. Schematic representation of applications of nanoparticles in anticancer activity and drug delivery.
4. Usage in clinical settings
Researchers have thoroughly studied NPs for their potentially beneficial anticancer effects in a variety of human
cancer cell lines, including MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, IMR-90 lung fibroblasts, endothelial cells,
and U251 glioblastoma cells [80]. NPs demonstrated considerable potential as efficient drug delivery methods
against tumors. Traditional cancer therapies like radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery have established
drawbacks such as drug toxicity, erratic side effects, issues with drug resistance, and a lack of specificity [81].
NPs overcome these drawbacks by reducing side effects and improving cancer therapy effectiveness. One
of their unique selling points is their ability to administer medications with precision and traverse various
biologic barriers. The combination of targeted delivery of anticancer medications to tumor tissues and green
manufacturing of NPs is a novel strategy for enhancing cancer treatment [82]. One of the most intriguing and
difficult methods available today for efficient, tailored cancer treatment is theranostics, which combines
diagnostics and therapy [83]. NPs can create scattering lights for imaging when they selectively absorb into
malignant cells [84]. Despite their proven effectiveness in dental treatment, NPs continue to be a contentious
candidate because of their inconsistent toxicity in biological systems. It is interesting to note that NPs have
shown encouraging action against the malaria pathogen Plasmodium falciparum as well as its associated vector,

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the female Anopheles mosquito. In oral, cutaneous, and inhalational exposures, NP bioavailability is low;
nevertheless, it varies according to the particle size, dosage, surface coating, and soluble fraction [85].
Table 3. List of nanoparticles with their neurotoxic effects [66]
Nanoparticles Neurotoxic effects
Carbon nanotubes It initiates the synthesis of reactive oxygen species, escalate oxidative stress, restrain cell growth, and cause
apoptosis.
Silver nanoparticles It causes a decline in the anti-oxidation capability of anti-oxidative enzymes and escalate oxidative stress.
Titanium oxide
nanoparticles
It initiates oxidative stress, causes inflammation of neurons, cause genotoxicity, imbalance neurotransmitters,
and suppress signaling pathways.
Iron oxide
nanoparticles It causes inflammation of neurons, apoptosis, and the infiltration of immune cells.
Silica It causes intellectual disruption, synapse alterations, and increases oxidative stress.
Organic
nanoparticles It causes oxidative stress, inflammation and appoptosis in nerve cells.
5. Future and challenges
Even with all of the recent improvements in cancer care, it is still one of the leading causes of death worldwide.
Past research revealed that traditional therapy approaches can have a plethora of unintended consequences.
As a result, researchers are trying to come up with new approaches to cancer diagnosis and therapy. The
pharmaceutical industry has recently given a lot of attention to the green synthesis of NPs [86]. Although green
chemistry is, non-toxic, inexpensive, and ecologically benign, biologic approaches have certain drawbacks.
NPs’ high levels of biodegradability and clearance are also essential for preventing any potential long-term
toxicity [87]. When it came to treatments based on nanomedicine, NPs demonstrated enormous promise.
However, clinical trials are necessary to determine the future use of NPs-based nanomedicine. Clinical studies
need to resolve the main issues of biodegradability, dosage, and mode of administration. Additionally, NPs can be
a crucial imaging and detection tool for cancer cells in the early phases of cancer diagnosis [88]. It has already been
demonstrated that the green production of NPs aids in vivo fluorescent tumor imaging. The use of green-synthesized
NPs will be anticipated as a potential cancer treatment and diagnostic tool in the future era of cancer treatment.
6. Conclusion
This paper provides an extensive overview of nanoparticles (NPs), including information on their types,
synthesis techniques, characterizations, physicochemical characteristics, and applications. Several
characterization methods, including SEM, TEM, and XRD, have demonstrated that NPs have a shape that
can be controlled and range in size from a few nanometers to 500 nm. Their small size and large surface area
allow for a variety of applications. Their optical characteristics also become more significant at the nanoscale,
increasing their importance in photocatalytic applications. Synthetic approaches can achieve the controllable
morphology, size, and magnetic properties of nanoparticles (NPs), thereby enabling their adaptability in diverse
sectors. Nevertheless, concerns about the health risks associated with the careless use and release of NPs into
the environment persist, despite their benefits. Resolving these issues is imperative to ensure the safe and

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ecologically responsible use of NPs.
Author contribution
Conceptualization: Zartasha Aftab
Investigation: Zartasha Aftab, Syed Muhammad Ahmad Bukhari, Muhammad Abubakar, Hafiz Muhammad
Sultan
Writing – original draft: Zartasha Aftab, Syed Muhammad Ahmad Bukhari, Hafiz Muhammad Sultan,
Muhammad Zubair
Writing – review & editing: all authors
Visualization: Maysoon Ahmed Abou El Niaaj
Disclosure statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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