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Color as a Key Factor in Creating Sustainable Living Spaces for Seniors

November 2024
Sustainability 16(23):10251

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Color as a feature of interior spaces is a fundamental component of human interaction with the built environment. Therefore, planning the design concept of an interior space with attention to color choices is extremely important, especially when the users of a given space include individuals who require additional support and care, such as the elderly. The colors used in architecture and interiors play a crucial role in the well-being of older adults, influencing their spatial perception, behavior, and activity. With age, color perception changes due to the effects of the aging process on vision. Visual deficits lead to shifts in sensory perception, which can, in turn, affect the sense of well-being, often creating a heightened sense of uncertainty. These changes in color perception due to aging may impact the color preferences of older people within their living environments. To create supportive environments for seniors, it is necessary to investigate which colors are most easily recognized, which colors are easiest to distinguish, and which colors are preferred by older adults. Based on a review of the literature and research findings on age-related changes in chromatic and spatial perception, design recommendations and guidelines have been developed. To supplement this knowledge, a survey was conducted among seniors to gather insights on their color preferences. Observations and analyzes of the survey results point to strategies for color use and underscore the importance of color in designing sustainable living spaces for seniors.

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Citation: Jaglarz, A. Color as a Key

Factor in Creating Sustainable Living

Spaces for Seniors. Sustainability 2024,

16, 10251. https://doi.org/10.3390/

su162310251

Academic Editor: Paris Fokaides

Received: 25 October 2024

Revised: 20 November 2024

Accepted: 21 November 2024

Published: 23 November 2024

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

This article is an open access article

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4.0/).

Article

Color as a Key Factor in Creating Sustainable Living Spaces

for Seniors

Anna Jaglarz

Faculty of Architecture, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, ul. Bolesława Prusa 53/55,

50-317 Wrocław, Poland; anna.jaglarz@pwr.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-667129009

Abstract: Color as a feature of interior spaces is a fundamental component of human interaction with

the built environment. Therefore, planning the design concept of an interior space with attention to

color choices is extremely important, especially when the users of a given space include individuals

who require additional support and care, such as the elderly. The colors used in architecture and

interiors play a crucial role in the well-being of older adults, inﬂuencing their spatial perception,

behavior, and activity. With age, color perception changes due to the effects of the aging process

on vision. Visual deﬁcits lead to shifts in sensory perception, which can, in turn, affect the sense

of well-being, often creating a heightened sense of uncertainty. These changes in color perception

due to aging may impact the color preferences of older people within their living environments. To

create supportive environments for seniors, it is necessary to investigate which colors are most easily

recognized, which colors are easiest to distinguish, and which colors are preferred by older adults.

Based on a review of the literature and research ﬁndings on age-related changes in chromatic and

spatial perception, design recommendations and guidelines have been developed. To supplement

this knowledge, a survey was conducted among seniors to gather insights on their color preferences.

Observations and analyzes of the survey results point to strategies for color use and underscore the

importance of color in designing sustainable living spaces for seniors.

Keywords: architecture; interior design; color theory; visual comfort; color preferences; color perception;

design for seniors; sustainable living space; healthy aging

1. Introduction

The design of an indoor built environment signiﬁcantly inﬂuences the moods, behav-

iors, actions, productivity, and overall psychophysical condition of its users. A speciﬁc

interior can have either a positive or negative impact on its inhabitants. Thus, it is important

to examine factors that beneﬁt users, particularly those with special needs, including the

elderly. Older adults are especially sensitive to interior design features, especially when

experiencing functional and sensory limitations, such as visual impairments. Adapting the

physical environment to meet the unique needs of residents by improving visual comfort,

orientation, and overall well-being can support their independence [1–4].

Color, as an essential feature of interior spaces, forms a foundation of human interac-

tion with the built environment. Color plays roles in creating contrast, attracting attention,

aiding identiﬁcation, and helping users recognize and remember objects. It conveys mes-

sages, directs focus, and stimulates perception of the surrounding environment. Colors

enhance spatial diversity, facilitate distinguishing elements, highlight zones, and establish

a speciﬁc atmosphere and mood. They can also evoke a range of emotional responses [

–

Color is of paramount importance to the perception of beauty in the built environment.

The need for beauty, its admiration, and appreciation is one of humanity’s deepest desires.

Beauty is an attribute of creativity that elicits positive emotions. It is often associated

with a psychological response to certain characteristics, primarily visual ones. These

qualities are closely related to the natural environment, including the worlds of plants and

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310251 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 2 of 19

animals. This concept also encompasses human creative activity, particularly in shaping

the built environment, architecture, interiors, everyday objects, and art. Ensuring aesthetic

experiences and fostering sensitivity and an appreciation for beauty are equally essential in

later stages of life. Architects and interior designers have signiﬁcant opportunities to meet

these needs through their work [7].

The impact of colors on the environment and people has been known for a long time.

The absence of colors leads to monotony and boredom in the perception of space. Therefore,

careful planning of color choices in design is crucial, particularly when creating spaces for

individuals who require additional support and care, including the elderly [

]. Monotony

and lack of color stimuli in interiors can complicate spatial orientation by limiting the

visual cues necessary for identifying architectural features. A monochromatic color scheme

can reduce stimulation, excitement, and challenge for seniors, potentially contributing to

apathy, illness, and even feelings of life dissatisfaction. Providing a thoughtfully designed,

sustainable color environment can offer seniors greater comfort and improved visual

accessibility. The effects of colors in interiors have a signiﬁcant impact on the well-being of

older users by stimulating and activating their “reserve capacities”. Colors inﬂuence spatial

perception, behavior, decision-making, and overall engagement, improving the visibility of

interior elements and enhancing both safety and quality of life for seniors [2,8–11].

One of the most prevalent challenges faced by older adults is visual sensitivity disor-

ders, which alter environmental color perception. With age, color perception changes due

to the physiological effects of aging on vision. These visual deﬁcits lead to altered sensory

perception, affecting well-being and often causing heightened uncertainty. The challenge

may be more pronounced in environments not adapted to senior needs [1,3,12].

Designing spaces for the elderly must address these limitations to minimize spatial

and functional difﬁculties. To understand how colors can alleviate spatial discomfort

among older adults, it is essential to analyze the consequences of visual changes in their

chromatic and spatial perception of the built environment. Research into the relationship

between ambient colors in interior design and seniors’ visual comfort is necessary for

creating spaces adapted to their needs [1].

Age-related changes in environmental color perception may inﬂuence seniors’ color

preferences in their living spaces. This underscores the need to identify which colors are

desired by the elderly and establish speciﬁc correlations among these preferences. Such

insights can lead to actionable conclusions for deﬁning color design guidelines. This

research can contribute meaningfully to architectural and interior design practice.

The ﬁndings can inform chromatic strategies aimed at preventing or mitigating visual

disturbances related to color perception, ensuring high levels of visual comfort during

aging. Although the literature on visual aging and age-related eye conditions is well-

developed, its application in architectural design, particularly regarding color guidelines

for visual comfort, remains limited. The ambiguity in guidelines for effective color use in

interiors often discourages bold color choices among designers [1,2].

The interior environment requires systematic analysis concerning color application [

Therefore, further research on the intricate relationships between color, the environment,

and the mental and physical health of older adults is essential. Interdisciplinary collabora-

tion involving representatives of different disciplines, including healthcare professionals,

psychologists, as well as interior designers and architects, could yield solutions that mini-

mize the adverse effects of aging-related visual changes on environmental color perception.

In sustainable living spaces, aging can be more readily accommodated, supporting inde-

pendence, health, well-being, and activity in daily life [1,2,8].

2. Materials and Methods

This study aims to verify the scientiﬁc hypothesis that color selection and combinations

play a signiﬁcant role in creating a sustainable living environment for seniors. The term

“sustainable living space for seniors” is deﬁned here as an environment that supports the

health and well-being of elderly individuals, fostering both physical and mental well-being.

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 3 of 19

Such an environment should promote the independence and autonomy of seniors, provide

visual comfort, reduce inconveniences associated with age-related visual impairments and

eye conditions, improve perception and visual accessibility, and enhance the visibility of

surroundings, element identiﬁcation, and spatial orientation to ensure comfortable and

safe daily functioning. Furthermore, a sustainable living environment should stimulate the

physical and mental activity of seniors, helping to prevent apathy, depression, and other

ailments, enabling them to remain socially active and avoid a sense of life fatigue. This

environment should also offer aesthetic experiences, evoke positive emotions, and create

a harmonious atmosphere around elderly individuals. The concept of “sustainable color

schemes” encompasses color combinations that fulﬁll these needs, becoming an effective

tool for designing senior-friendly living spaces.

To determine which colors may be most suitable for seniors, the study includes an

analysis of sample color palettes created by experienced architects. The initial focus was

on analyzing color palettes designed by Le Corbusier, which are considered exemplary in

terms of color harmony. Next, a review of research ﬁndings related to the effects of the

aging eye on chromatic and spatial perception was conducted, followed by an examination

of a color palette that addresses these changes and served as the basis for interior design

in a senior care facility. The comparison of analyzed color palettes revealed differences

resulting not only from the hues themselves but also from the textures of the materials

used. Consequently, a survey was conducted to examine the color preferences of seniors,

aiming to determine whether they would choose palettes resembling those of Le Corbusier

or rather those based on physiological research ﬁndings.

Based on a review of the literature, scientiﬁc articles, and research ﬁndings, the per-

ception of colors among seniors has been analyzed. Visual perception changes with age,

and sensitivity to certain colors may decrease. Common age-related visual challenges, such

as reduced contrast sensitivity and difﬁculty in distinguishing detail and color, carry signif-

icant implications for design [

]. To understand how to use color to minimize spatial

and functional difﬁculties among older adults, it is necessary to analyze the consequences

of visual changes in their chromatic and spatial perception of the built environment. It is

also essential to examine the impact of indoor environment colors on the visual comfort of

seniors in order to adapt architecture to their needs [1].

The aging process alters environmental color perception, potentially inﬂuencing se-

niors’ color preferences for their living spaces [

–

]. Research is needed to determine which

colors are most easily recognized, which are most distinguishable, and which are most

desirable by older adults. It is important to observe the reaction to colors and the emotions

evoked by colors, which can be associated with a sense of harmony or disharmony and

can inﬂuence color preferences. Revealing these preferences can be crucial for creating

comfortable environments. Insights from these observations can lead to the development

of color-related design guidelines, supporting architects and interior designers in their

professional practice [

]. Given the rapid growth of the elderly population, the demand

for universally effective color schemes is also increasing [15].

Furthermore, examining the color preferences of seniors is essential, considering

their aesthetic and color sensitivities, as well as their expectations for their immediate

surroundings [16].

Previous studies on color perception, color effects, and color preferences, based on

analyzing observers’ impressions, typically involve presenting a single interior with various

color schemes, often using color ﬁlters as stimuli [

]. My method, however, utilizes

diverse examples of residential interior concepts that are unique and individually designed,

where color is thoughtfully selected and harmoniously integrated with other elements of

the interior. This approach goes beyond presenting color as a mere distinguishing feature

of a uniform model; instead, it situates color within the broader context of the atmosphere

and mood created by the interplay of all interior elements. In this way, the observer’s

attention is not solely focused on color; the chosen colors enhance the perception of the

entire space’s ambiance.

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 4 of 19

To prepare the survey material, it was essential to study foundational color theories

that support well-designed interiors. Le Corbusier’s “color keyboard” from 1931, for

instance, provided valuable insights. The color palettes he used in his iconic interior designs

remain relevant today, with his adept use of color stemming from a keen observation of

light within space. Le Corbusier ’s contributions to architectural development are widely

recognized, and his “color keyboards” are still esteemed as symbols of quality and aesthetic

sensitivity. The enduring presence of these colors in contemporary interior design elements

reﬂects the ongoing inﬂuence of his color theory [18,19].

The literature review and theoretical framework underlying this study are presented

in Sections 3–5of this article.

3. Le Corbusier’s Color Theory

Modernism brought forth notable color experts not only in the visual arts, such as

painting, but also in architecture—a ﬁeld commonly associated primarily with white and

gray concrete. The most famous architect of this period, Le Corbusier, was an exceptional

colorist, and his use of color has proven to be timeless. Contemporary color trends and

currently used color palettes still reﬂect his “color keyboard” from 1931, originally created

for the Swiss wallpaper manufacturer Salubra. Le Corbusier’s Architectural Polychromy

serves as a tool for designing architectural colors—a logically structured color system based

on his “color concept” principles, which he began developing in the 1920s. His “color

keyboard” was intended to inspire people to select harmonious colors for their interiors,

offering a guide with 63 shades that he developed across two collections in 1931 and 1959.

The puristic palettes from 1931 include 43 shades across 14 series, consisting of solid

colors and ﬁnely graduated tints. These shades are predominantly warm earthy tones—

ochres, siennas, muted pinks, blues, grays, and greens. The second collection from 1959

complements the Architectural Polychrome with 20 additional colors that are more expres-

sive and dynamic [

]. The introductory text to Salubra included a quote by Fernand

Léger: “Man needs colour to live; it’s just as necessary an element as ﬁre and water”. Each of the

63 shades evokes unique spatial effects and distinct emotional reactions. Yet, they share

one common quality: they are inspired by nature and coordinated to harmonize effortlessly,

allowing them to be combined ﬂexibly in various compositions.

Le Corbusier’s color keyboards are not static prescriptions but rather sources of

inspiration for achieving natural harmony in color choices. The architect wrote extensively

on the effects of colors on space and its users, distinguishing colors that could optically

alter a room’s dimensions from those that serve as neutral tones. He attributed certain

qualities to speciﬁc colors, including weight, depth, transparency, unity, and psychological

impact, associating these traits with particular color groups. His palettes maintain harmony

through similar tonal relationships and contrasts between warm and cool shades (Figure 1).

Le Corbusier sought to shape spaces by manipulating color and light, encouraging the

observation of natural light within interiors as a guide for selecting wall colors within the

warm–cool spectrum.

He also initiated the concept of an “accent wall”, a single wall set apart by a different

color from the rest of the room to create contrast or dominance that enhances spatial dynam-

ics. According to his observations, strategic color choices could discreetly obscure technical

elements such as radiators or accentuate features like windows and doors. Thoughtful color

combinations could thereby enhance the architectural composition of a space. [

] The

reduced color palette was intended to avoid overwhelming the space, with the selection

conﬁned to 43 colors plus white, which serves as a background in a minimum proportion

of 33–50%. More vibrant, high-chroma colors are limited to a proportion of 7.5–22% to

maintain visual balance [21].

Le Corbusier also introduced other compositional principles in his color combinations.

Colors were to clarify the distinct pure forms within a building and interior, highlighting

their hierarchy. Solid colors were used consistently, with gradients rarely applied, and

each architectural element was typically assigned a single color for its entire surface. The

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 5 of 19

architectural color was often selected based on associative connotations—colors were

chosen to evoke speciﬁc ideas or feelings related to space [

]. This concept of “color

association” remains underexplored in contemporary color research, despite evidence of

strong associations between colors and speciﬁc concepts or emotions [

]. Le Corbusier

classiﬁes colors into three categories—constructive, dynamic, and neutral:

•

Constructive colors: These are colors derived from natural pigments that contribute to

a pleasant ambiance while subtly altering spatial perception. Often inspired by earthy

tones, such as brown, ochre, and sienna, these colors foster a sense of harmony, warmth,

and connection to the natural environment within architectural compositions. Con-

structive colors serve as a foundational palette, shaping the space’s overall atmosphere

and character and include warm earth tones, cool blues, black, and white [18,23].

•

Dynamic colors: Utilizing synthetic pigments, dynamic colors are employed to create

high-contrast effects that evoke strong emotions. These bold, vibrant shades, such as

saturated red, ultramarine, and yellow, consist of intense primary colors. Le Corbus-

ier’s selective use of dynamic colors emphasizes focal points and visual elements that

capture attention, instilling energy within architectural compositions. The inclusion of

dynamic colors adds drama, dynamism, and visual intensity to a space [18,23].

•

Neutral colors: Often referred to as transition or transparent colors, these shades

incorporate translucent synthetic pigments, allowing for surface modiﬁcations without

affecting perceived volume or spatial depth. Examples include soft earth tones, grays,

and greens. Typically applied as glazes or translucent ﬁnishes, neutral colors subtly

enhance texture and adjust the tonal quality of materials, enabling reﬁned alterations

in the architectural composition while preserving the overall spatial perception of the

interior [18,23].

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Figure 1. Le Corbusier’s Color Palees, (source: courtesy of Barczak O.).

4. The Eﬀects of Interior Colors on the Visual Comfort of the Elderly

The trend of an aging society presents signiﬁcant challenges and requires solutions

that enhance the well-being of older adults. A human-centered design approach is

essential, emphasizing sustainable, inclusive, universal, and user-friendly principles.

Prioritizing social integration and accessibility underscores the importance of addressing

the needs and limitations of seniors, facilitating their active participation in social life. As

people age, they tend to spend more time indoors, which necessitates special aention to

the quality of built environments [2].

Interior color choices are crucial for the visual comfort of the elderly, making it essential

to design interior spaces with appropriate color solutions that support seniors’ needs and

promote independence, safety, and comfort. Research underscores the drawbacks of all-

white architectural spaces, revealing that environments dominated by white surfaces often

induce tension and stress. Monotonous, achromatic spaces negatively impact mental health

by lacking visual stimulation and engagement [2,4]. High light reflectance from white-

painted walls can cause eye strain, making vision difficult and creating distracting visual

effects [24]. White-walled spaces can appear “empty” and “devoid of vitality” [25]. The

monotony and lack of sensory stimuli in interiors can impede spatial orientation by

reducing essential visual cues for identifying architectural elements [2].

Color, as a fundamental characteristic of interiors, plays a pivotal role in human

interaction with the environment. It creates contrast, draws aention, and assists in object

recognition and memory. Color conveys messages, focuses aention, and stimulates

perception. For older adults, visual impairments can alter sensory perception, resulting in

changes in well-being often linked to heightened uncertainty.

Understanding how color can be used to reduce spatial discomfort for seniors

requires an analysis of the visual changes associated with aging and their impact on

chromatic and spatial perception.

By examining the eﬀects of aging on eyesight, we can address the following aspects:

• how seniors perceive colors and the factors inﬂuencing this perception;

• which types of changes in color vision are most challenging for older adults;

Figure 1. Le Corbusier ’s Color Palettes, (source: courtesy of Barczak O.).

4. The Effects of Interior Colors on the Visual Comfort of the Elderly

The trend of an aging society presents signiﬁcant challenges and requires solutions

that enhance the well-being of older adults. A human-centered design approach is essential,

emphasizing sustainable, inclusive, universal, and user-friendly principles. Prioritizing

social integration and accessibility underscores the importance of addressing the needs

and limitations of seniors, facilitating their active participation in social life. As people age,

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 6 of 19

they tend to spend more time indoors, which necessitates special attention to the quality of

built environments [2].

Interior color choices are crucial for the visual comfort of the elderly, making it essential

to design interior spaces with appropriate color solutions that support seniors’ needs and

promote independence, safety, and comfort. Research underscores the drawbacks of all-

white architectural spaces, revealing that environments dominated by white surfaces often

induce tension and stress. Monotonous, achromatic spaces negatively impact mental

health by lacking visual stimulation and engagement [

]. High light reﬂectance from

white-painted walls can cause eye strain, making vision difﬁcult and creating distracting

visual effects [

]. White-walled spaces can appear “empty” and “devoid of vitality” [

The monotony and lack of sensory stimuli in interiors can impede spatial orientation by

reducing essential visual cues for identifying architectural elements [2].

Color, as a fundamental characteristic of interiors, plays a pivotal role in human

interaction with the environment. It creates contrast, draws attention, and assists in object

recognition and memory. Color conveys messages, focuses attention, and stimulates

perception. For older adults, visual impairments can alter sensory perception, resulting in

changes in well-being often linked to heightened uncertainty.

Understanding how color can be used to reduce spatial discomfort for seniors requires

an analysis of the visual changes associated with aging and their impact on chromatic and

spatial perception.

By examining the effects of aging on eyesight, we can address the following aspects:

•how seniors perceive colors and the factors inﬂuencing this perception;

•which types of changes in color vision are most challenging for older adults;

•

what are the consequences of visual changes for the chromatic and spatial perception

of the built environment;

•

how these insights can inform design practices to mitigate the impact of visual chal-

lenges on seniors’ daily functioning, thereby enhancing their overall quality of life.

4.1. Changes in the Aging Eye and Their Effects on Color Vision

4.1.1. Density of the Eye Lens

As the lens ages, its density and opaciﬁcation increases. There is a decrease in the total

transmission of visible light, especially after the age of 70. The transmission of visible light

varies with age and is as follows: 95% in people of 30 years, 75% in people of 53 years,

31% in people of 75 years [

]. This change has a number of direct consequences for vision,

such as:

•

yellowing of the lens—at the age of 80, approximately 20% of older people may

experience a signiﬁcant yellowing effect of vision, which affects the perception of

colors [1,12,26,27];

•

absorption at short wavelengths—the dense, yellowish lens ﬁlters the shortest wave-

lengths of the visible spectrum, causing lower transmittance of the blue color range

(as a result, the blue color range is not perceived well, leading to a change in color

perception in this range) [1,12,26,27];

•

ambient light and scattering effect—due to the density and opacity, lenses in older eyes

cause greater scattering of light than in young people, which causes deterioration of vi-

sual acuity due to uncomfortable blurring of the ﬁeld of vision and reduced color purity

of the image (this problem is especially common in people with

cataracts) [1,12,26,27].

4.1.2. Eye Pupil Size

Pupil size decreases with age and becomes less ﬂexible. As a result, the eye admits

less light. This fact causes a decrease in the intensity of retinal illuminance, especially in

dark environments, which poses a risk to the elderly [1,12,26,27].

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 7 of 19

4.2. Changes in Color Vision and Their Consequences in Chromatic and Spatial Perception

4.2.1. Color Discrimination—Hue Sensitivity

As the eye ages, chromatic changes occur across the entire spectrum of visible light:

hues from the red and yellow range are easier to distinguish, hues from the blue and green

range are more difﬁcult to distinguish. Due to the weakening of vision caused by aging,

hues are perceived as more gray. To ensure accurate color perception, it is necessary to

use higher saturation. It is also recommended to avoid certain color combinations that

can cause confusion: white/yellow, purple/dark red, blue/green, dark blue/black, and

purple/brown [1,12,26,27].

4.2.2. Color Discrimination—Sensitivity to Chromatic Contrast

With age, sensitivity to chromatic contrast decreases. This is why it is necessary to

use noticeably higher levels of chromatic and achromatic contrast. There is also a need

to create color combinations adapted to easy identiﬁcation and differentiation through

luminance contrast, the contrast between the object and the background. Clear color

differences between a piece of equipment and its background improve the recognizability

and deﬁnition of visual information. High contrast luminance/brightness color design, and

contrast between object and background helps the elderly to navigate the built environment.

Orientation becomes easier when, for example, door handles, handrails, and marking

elements stand out from the wall in high contrast, making them noticeable even to people

with visual impairments. It is recommended to use primary colors, which act as a code and

provide a clue, because they are easier to recognize [1,12,26,27].

4.2.3. Color Discrimination—Color Desaturation (Low Color Saturation)

As the eye ages, a decrease in the clarity of an image or scene is noticeable. We can

observe so-called image desaturation. The older eye perceives colors as less saturated. The

perception of color saturation and image clarity depends on many factors, including the

size of elements and the intensity of ambient light (smaller element—stronger desatura-

tion effect, larger element—greater saturation effect, stronger light diffusion—stronger

desaturation effect, stronger room lighting—greater saturation effect). To mitigate the

effect of image desaturation, it is recommended to avoid combining colors with the same

saturation or brightness level, because they are perceived as more similar and more grayish.

Due to this, objects can be blurry and confusing. It is also necessary to consider the use

of different types of contrasts depending on the color properties: chromatic/saturation

contrast, brightness contrast, and hue contrast [1,12,26,27].

4.2.4. Color Discrimination—Range of Hues Corresponding to Short Wavelengths

The decrease in lens transmittance at short wavelengths signiﬁcantly affects color

visibility, which causes a loss of color discrimination, especially in the blue and green range.

For this reason, the following combinations should be avoided: blue/gray, blue/green

(e.g., blue on a gray or green background). It is recommended to take into account a high

contrast of brightness when using blue and green hues. As we age, blue is perceived as

more greenish and green as more yellowish. It is necessary to use color combinations taking

into account this change [1,12,26,27].

4.2.5. Color Discrimination—Range of Hues Corresponding to Medium and/or

Long Wavelengths

According to research results, colors in the red and yellow range are easier to

distinguish. It is recommended to use colors corresponding to medium and/or long

wavelengths—red, orange, yellow—to deﬁne details, objects, or spatial elements (Figure 2).

Studies show that yellow is the color most easily recognized by people who are losing their

sight. For this reason, yellow is recommended in public spaces dedicated to people with

serious visual impairments (including the elderly) as a color that helps with orientation

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 8 of 19

and as a safety color. However, it is not preferred in home interiors, because long-term

exposure to the yellow color can be tiring, irritating, and annoying [1,12,26–28].

Sustainability 2024, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

to people with visual impairments. It is recommended to use primary colors, which act as

a code and provide a clue, because they are easier to recognize [1,12,26,27].

4.2.3. Color Discrimination—Color Desaturation (Low Color Saturation)

As the eye ages, a decrease in the clarity of an image or scene is noticeable. We can

observe so-called image desaturation. The older eye perceives colors as less saturated. The

perception of color saturation and image clarity depends on many factors, including the

size of elements and the intensity of ambient light (smaller element—stronger

desaturation eﬀect, larger element—greater saturation eﬀect, stronger light diﬀusion—

stronger desaturation eﬀect, stronger room lighting—greater saturation eﬀect). To

mitigate the eﬀect of image desaturation, it is recommended to avoid combining colors

with the same saturation or brightness level, because they are perceived as more similar

and more grayish. Due to this, objects can be blurry and confusing. It is also necessary to

consider the use of diﬀerent types of contrasts depending on the color properties:

chromatic/saturation contrast, brightness contrast, and hue contrast [1,12,26,27].

4.2.4. Color Discrimination—Range of Hues Corresponding to Short Wavelengths

The decrease in lens transmiance at short wavelengths signiﬁcantly aﬀects color

visibility, which causes a loss of color discrimination, especially in the blue and green

range. For this reason, the following combinations should be avoided: blue/gray,

blue/green (e.g., blue on a gray or green background). It is recommended to take into

account a high contrast of brightness when using blue and green hues. As we age, blue is

perceived as more greenish and green as more yellowish. It is necessary to use color

combinations taking into account this change [1,12,26,27].

4.2.5. Color Discrimination—Range of Hues Corresponding to Medium and/or Long

Wav eleng th s

According to research results, colors in the red and yellow range are easier to

distinguish. It is recommended to use colors corresponding to medium and/or long

wavelengths—red, orange, yellow—to deﬁne details, objects, or spatial elements (Figure

2). Studies show that yellow is the color most easily recognized by people who are losing

their sight. For this reason, yellow is recommended in public spaces dedicated to people

with serious visual impairments (including the elderly) as a color that helps with

orientation and as a safety color. However, it is not preferred in home interiors, because

long-term exposure to the yellow color can be tiring, irritating, and annoying [1,12,26–28].

Figure 2. An example of using colors from the yellow, orange, and red range in the interiors of a

multi-family building friendly to the blind and visually impaired, elaborated by Kozaczyńska K.

(source: courtesy Kozaczyńska K.).

Figure 2. An example of using colors from the yellow, orange, and red range in the interiors of a

multi-family building friendly to the blind and visually impaired, elaborated by Kozaczy´nska K.

(source: courtesy Kozaczy ´nska K.).

4.2.6. Sensitivity to Dark Environments and Glare Effect

The appearance of colors and their distinguishing depends on the intensity of ambient

light—the perception of colors varies depending on the illuminance of surroundings and

changes in lighting. As the eye ages, the number of rods (photoreceptors in the retina

responsible for seeing in the dark) decreases. They also lose some of their sensitivity in

visual function. This change causes an inefﬁcient vision process in environments with a

reduced level of light, as well as a slower adaptation process of the eye in a darker space.

For this reason, it is recommended to use higher lighting levels. However, luminance above

the eye’s adaptation level should not be used to avoid glare. Dark colors should be avoided

as they increase the impression of darkness and create a “closed” and “conﬁned” effect

in the room. In small spaces, lighter colors are recommended to increase the feeling of

spaciousness and improve lighting conditions. Color combined with light can be used as a

code and a clue to provide orientation [1,12,26,27].

4.2.7. Recognizability and Reaction Time

Reaction time to light and chromatic stimuli becomes slower with age (at the age of

about 80 reaction speed changes signiﬁcantly). Older people need more time to detect,

distinguish, recognize, or identify objects and elements of the visual scene, among other

things, due to changes in chromatic perception. Reaction speed is further reduced for

combinations of blue and gray color stimuli. Applying colors with these changes in mind

can make it easier to recognize and remember objects and images. Choosing the right colors

can improve object identiﬁcation in terms of accuracy and reaction time [1,12,26,27].

4.2.8. Visual Acuity

Visual acuity based on depth perception and focus, as well as sensitivity to spatial

contrast, begins to decline signiﬁcantly after the age of 70. The deﬁcits in spatial vision

sensitivity in older people are largely due to the characteristics of color vision. Despite the

adaptation of the person who does not perceive many of these gradual changes, the ability

to distinguish colors and maintain control over the built environment becomes increasingly

difﬁcult with age in some circumstances. Objects without a ﬁxed and well-deﬁned shape

are more difﬁcult to distinguish compared to objects with a clearly deﬁned form. The use of

high color contrast and clear chromaticity can improve the identiﬁcation of object locations

and thus contribute to better spatial understanding and orientation. The right choice of

colors can ensure that individual elements in a space can be easily distinguished. Interior

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spaces and different surfaces can be deﬁned by the most recognizable colors (e.g., primary

colors) [1,12,26,27].

4.3. Design Recommendations and Guidelines

Based on the literature review and analysis of research ﬁndings, we can offer some

general recommendations and design guidelines. They are primarily grounded in obser-

vations of physiological changes in vision associated with aging. Key recommendations

include the following:

•

Chromatic monotony and lack of color stimuli in interiors may make orientation

difﬁcult for older users due to the lack of visual cues needed to identify architectural

features [1,2,4].

•

Color monotony results in a lack of stimulation, excitement, and challenge for seniors,

which can inhibit their potential and lead to apathy, illness, and even a sense of

weariness with life. It is essential to create a color environment that can stimulate and

activate the “reserve capacities” of the elderly [4].

•

Elements of equipment that may pose a safety risk to seniors should be designed

using contrasting colors. Contrasting colors enhance cognitive stimulation and orien-

tation [29].

•

Stronger contrasts (3.5% higher than for people aged 20 to 30) positively impact the

vision of older adults. This is especially important regarding the “ﬁgure–ground differ-

ence” when viewing an object within its immediate surroundings. Objects are easier

to recognize when there is a clear contrast between them and their background [4].

•

Cool tones, such as blue and green, may appear grayish to aging eyes. Therefore, it is

recommended to avoid blue–green or blue–grey combinations, or to pair them with

complementary colors from the warm spectrum. Shades of violet, blue, and green

tend to look more pale or grayish, so when using these colors, it is advisable to select

more intense hues [1,4].

•

Warm colors are most easily perceived by seniors. Friendly, calming, warm hues have

a vitalizing and energizing effect. Wood is also generally perceived as a warm color [

•

Interior colors should be adapted to functional areas to create the right atmosphere,

personalize the space, and enhance memory and orientation. Colors appropriately

matched to individual zones within the home can support spatial orientation [2,3].

•

Due to the impaired spatial perception and depth perception of older adults (making

it difﬁcult to distinguish between background and foreground objects), the use of

expressive, dynamic, contrasting patterns should be avoided, especially on ﬂoors and

stairs. For this reason, ﬂoor coverings with large, bold patterns should not be used on

stairs, as they can make it difﬁcult to perceive the height and depth of each step [4].

•

Glare sensitivity increases with age, which reduces contrast perception. Therefore, it is

recommended to avoid shiny surfaces and to use matte ﬁnishes on ﬂoors to prevent

reﬂections and the appearance of a slippery surface. Smooth, glossy ﬂoors can appear

slippery and may cause older adults to fear falling [4].

•

An excess of colors can overstimulate the sensory perception of seniors. Therefore, it

is important to create harmonious color palettes. A safe and effective approach is to

use colors found in nature or derived from the natural qualities of materials [30].

5. Importance of Multidisciplinary Approach to Color Design for Seniors

Design guidelines based on changes in chromatic perception due to age-related visual

impairments are valuable, but do not clearly address which colors should be used in

the built environment to ensure seniors’ well-being. When designing sustainable living

spaces for seniors, it is essential to consider not only their speciﬁc needs resulting from

physiological limitations in color vision and discrimination, but also their expectations

and preferences related to color. Recognizing that color choice can be highly individual,

inﬂuenced by tendencies, associations, tastes, and aesthetic sensitivity, we should adopt a

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broader perspective on the role of color in interior design. Creating a sustainable, satisfying

living space for seniors, with color as a key tool, requires a multidisciplinary approach.

Today, we see a growing connection between human-centered ergonomic design

and ﬁelds such as ecological psychology, environmental psychology, and neuroscience

in architecture. This approach emphasizes the psychosocial aspects of design and the

impact of environments on individuals, their health, and well-being [

]. One of the most

fundamental needs of aging individuals is to live independently in their own home for as

long as possible. They desire independence, self-reliance, and an active lifestyle [

]. When

developing strategies to enhance seniors’ quality of life in their homes, it is essential to

create stimulating environments that are activating and exciting. Such spaces, incorporating

features like colors, can stimulate the body’s “reserve capacities,” making it more energetic

and autonomous than in low-stimulation settings. Often, these “reserve capacities” are

overlooked, particularly in environments that lack stimulation, such as some senior care

homes, which can inhibit residents’ potential and contribute to apathy, illness, and even

feelings of life-weariness [4].

Seniors, consistent with their individual lifestyles, also need calm and privacy along-

side opportunities for social engagement. To create safe and comfortable living spaces

for seniors, their needs for quiet, intimacy, and personal reﬂection must be balanced with

opportunities for activity and connection.

Aging naturally brings physical changes, such as a decline in vision, memory, and

orientation. Sensory deﬁcits can lead to changes in perception and a decreased sense of

well-being, often accompanied by uncertainty. Effective design of living spaces should

address these challenges to compensate for sensory and perceptual limitations as much as

possible [

]. The fundamental needs of older adults relate to their altered sensitivity

to external stimuli and its psychological effects, which are often linked to physical limita-

tions. Impairment of the sensory organs and central sensory processing makes external

compensation essential.

Memories are also crucial for older adults and form a foundation for their emotional

well-being. This creates a need to stimulate memory, which can be encouraged by including

familiar items, such as favorite furniture, decorations, paintings, clocks, photos, mementos,

artworks, and other personal items in the seniors’ environment. These personalized

elements can stimulate memory, fostering a feeling of familiarity and rootedness in their

living space. Older adults also have a fundamental need for a sense of existential well-being

and connection, as well as a desire for warmth, calm, security, and protection from fear

and disruption. Additionally, it is important to consider individual needs for stimulation,

participation, intellectual activity, memory support, as well as privacy, intimacy, calm,

relaxation, and space for reﬂection [4].

The living spaces of the elderly should convey an atmosphere of warmth, security,

calm, and comfort. They should also provide invigorating stimulation and a variety of

experiences. They should not express uniformity or monotony, but have a friendly, safe and

lively character, also in terms of colors. Friendly, calm, but not too cold color combinations

would be the perfect solution. It is important to note that in older adults the sense of

touch is often less stimulated than other senses. It can be activated by consciously selecting

materials for their tactile sensations. The spatial environment should be designed to

express a friendly and stimulating atmosphere, using mainly warm nuances contrasting

with accents of cool color elements. Subdued color tones are recommended for rooms

intended for relaxation and rest, e.g., bedrooms, while in rooms of activity, e.g., living

rooms, a more stimulating and communicative atmosphere is needed [

]. This effect

can be achieved by using bright, warm hues, saturated nuances, and contrasting accents.

According to research, people with Alzheimer’s disease are sensitive to touch and smell.

In addition to scents and various natural materials, soft, pastel colors such as dusty pink

or apricot are preferred, which are not too “ﬂashy” or contrasting. It is recommended

to use subtly stimulating colors that affect the senses. Table 1presents an example of a

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color palette that was designed for seniors in a care home taking into account the above

guidelines [4].

Table 1. An example of the color palette for a care home designed by architects Otto Steidle and

Gerhard Meerwein (based on Ref. [4]).

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Table 1. An example of the color palee for a care home designed by architects Oo Steidle and

Gerhard Meerwein (based on Ref. [4]).

Browns

− Cool, muted, medium brown of wood

− Brown–pink, pastel shade of wood

− Warm brown of textured stucco

− Brown–yellow string fabric with a distinct weave texture (a

melange of colors: brown, yellow, orange)

− Brown–gray upholstery fabric with a distinct warp and weft

weave texture (with a predominance of brown)

Reds

− Burgundy shade of grained leather

− Brick orange–red of textured stucco

− Vermilion red (textured stucco)

Yellows

− Straw yellow of wood

− Mustard yellow of grainy leather

Greens

− Very light jasmine green of textured stucco

− Pistachio green of fabric

− Emerald green of fabric

Pinks

− Light powder shade of pink (smooth stucco)

− Melange of light powder pink with a subtle warm brown

nuance (string fabric with a distinct weave)

Grays

− Gray–brown upholstery fabric with a distinct warp and weft

weave texture (with a predominance of gray)

− Silver gray with a satin sheen of brushed metal

The interior should use natural materials and facilitate contact with nature [4].

People’s preference for natural materials stems from their aachment to natural

environments. This makes it easy to recognize and perceive natural materials, which is

especially important for older people. Natural materials and biophilic elements, e.g.,

wood, regenerate the nervous system, reduce stress, and add energy. Wood also has

tactile, olfactory, and acoustic qualities. The color of wood also plays an important role in

interiors. The arrangement of space can make its texture more noticeable or soften it by

treating it as one of the shades. The color of the wood corresponds to shades from light

beige to dark brown, and brown with the presence of yellow, orange, and red saturation,

which corresponds to hues from the medium and/or long wave spectrum, more easily

recognized and distinguished by seniors. In addition to its visual qualities, wood is a

noble, durable and timeless material. It is one of the most friendly materials for shaping

spaces for the elderly [2].

6. Overview of the Survey, Results, and Discussion

To complement the recommendations and guidelines for color design based on

evidence regarding physiological changes in the vision of seniors, a survey was conducted

to examine color preferences among this social group. For this purpose, 20 examples of

living room interior designs were presented. These were visualizations made by students

as part of an “Interior Design” course. The designs diﬀered in style and color. The design

Browns

−Cool, muted, medium brown of wood

−Brown–pink, pastel shade of wood

−Warm brown of textured stucco

−Brown–yellow string fabric with a distinct

weave texture (a melange of colors: brown,

yellow, orange)

−Brown–gray upholstery fabric with a distinct

warp and weft weave texture (with a

predominance of brown)

Reds

−Burgundy shade of grained leather

−Brick orange–red of textured stucco

−Vermilion red (textured stucco)

Yellows

−Straw yellow of wood

−Mustard yellow of grainy leather

Greens

−Very light jasmine green of textured stucco

−Pistachio green of fabric

−Emerald green of fabric

Pinks

−Light powder shade of pink (smooth stucco)

−Melange of light powder pink with a subtle

warm brown nuance (string fabric with a

distinct weave)

Grays

−Gray–brown upholstery fabric with a distinct

warp and weft weave texture (with a

predominance of gray)

−

Silver gray with a satin sheen of brushed metal

The interior should use natural materials and facilitate contact with nature [

]. People’s

preference for natural materials stems from their attachment to natural environments. This

makes it easy to recognize and perceive natural materials, which is especially important for

older people. Natural materials and biophilic elements, e.g., wood, regenerate the nervous

system, reduce stress, and add energy. Wood also has tactile, olfactory, and acoustic

qualities. The color of wood also plays an important role in interiors. The arrangement of

space can make its texture more noticeable or soften it by treating it as one of the shades.

The color of the wood corresponds to shades from light beige to dark brown, and brown

with the presence of yellow, orange, and red saturation, which corresponds to hues from

the medium and/or long wave spectrum, more easily recognized and distinguished by

seniors. In addition to its visual qualities, wood is a noble, durable and timeless material. It

is one of the most friendly materials for shaping spaces for the elderly [2].

6. Overview of the Survey, Results, and Discussion

To complement the recommendations and guidelines for color design based on evi-

dence regarding physiological changes in the vision of seniors, a survey was conducted

to examine color preferences among this social group. For this purpose, 20 examples of

living room interior designs were presented. These were visualizations made by students

Sustainability 2024,16, 10251 12 of 19

as part of an “Interior Design” course. The designs differed in style and color. The design

process was supported by in-depth theoretical and professional knowledge of interior

design, including color theory and its effective use in living spaces. The study involved

90 seniors (57 women and 33 men), aged 65 to 95 (the average age of respondents was

75.6 years). The survey was conducted in Poland from August to October 2024 among

culturally homogenous participants; therefore, cultural differences in color perception and

preferences were not considered in this study. The study was conducted in-person, because

a signiﬁcant proportion of older adults do not use or have no access to the Internet. For

this reason, the collected data can be considered particularly valuable. Table 2contains

20 examples of color concepts for living spaces shown to seniors during the study. During

the survey, each of the interior examples was presented as a printout on a separate sheet

of paper, on a scale that allowed observers to familiarize themselves with all the concepts

in detail. Each person was asked to choose only one of twenty different interior concepts

that they considered the most friendly in terms of color. Table 3presents a summary of the

survey results.

The second part of the study concerned the choice of a favorite color. This order of

conducting the two parts of the study was intentional. The choice of a favorite color was

preceded by appropriate visual stimulation of seniors, resulting from earlier viewing of

interior concepts in different colors.

•

Interior 1—living room arrangement designed in various shades of grey. It is a

monochromatic composition, without color accents and contrasts. None of the sur-

veyed seniors decided to choose this interior concept.

•

Interior 2—a room arrangement in warm colors—beige, brown, orange, and brick red,

with elements in gray. This color composition was chosen by one older adult.

•

Interior 3—a composition of light grays, cool beiges, and a distinct, saturated sea green

on an accent wall. Wooden elements in a shade of light, warm brown are an addition.

This concept was chosen by two seniors.

•

Interior 4—arrangement of the room in a very warm tone resulting from the com-

bination of yellows, oranges, reds, and light warm browns. The composition is

complemented by light pea green. This interior was chosen by two older adults.

•

Interior 5—an example of a living space in cool colors. It is a composition of warm

off-white, light cool beige, muted purple, mint green, and gray. It also features a black

ceiling surface, cool white light, and ﬁne black elements. This concept was chosen by

two seniors.

•

Interior 6—color composition based on cool white, gray, silver, black, and muted navy

blue with accents of old gold. This interior was chosen by three older adults.

•

Interior 7—bright interior, the colors of which result from a combination of white,

light turquoise blue, and cool yellow. The whole composition is complemented by

copper and black accents and the beige of natural wood. This proposal was chosen by

three seniors.

•

Interior 8—interior design based on brown shades of natural wood combined with

cool and warm white. The color combination is complemented by bluish gray and

cool dark brown. This concept was chosen by three seniors.

•

Interior 9—the colors of this living space are a combination of muted shades of indigo,

gray, honey brown wood, and red brick. The composition is enriched with elements in

different shades of white and ﬁne accessories in black. This interior was chosen by

four older people, with a predominance of men.

•

Interior 10—an example of an interior in cool colors. It is a composition of light

grays, cool shades of brown, and the beige of natural wood. The color combination

is complemented by white and black elements. This proposal was chosen by four

older adults.

•

Interior 11—arrangement of the day zone based on a combination of white, gray,

straw shade of wood, and light green “khaki”. The composition is complemented by

anthracite and black elements. This interior was chosen by four seniors.

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•

Interior 12—living space, the color scheme of which is a composition of different shades

of white, cool beige, gray, honey wood, forest green, and black. The combination is

complemented by a nuance of ochre and gold. This concept was chosen by ﬁve older

adults, mostly men.

•

Interior 13—living space in warm tones resulting from the interpenetration of different

shades of yellow, warm beige, gold, light and dark brown, rusty red, turquoise, and

forest green. This composition was chosen by ﬁve seniors.

•

Interior 14—interior design composition dominated by light blues, whites, and grays

combined with the dynamic Indian Pink of the sofa and elements in mint green and

honey brown wood. Wood also appears here in a dark brown shade. This proposal

was chosen by ﬁve older adults.

•

Interior 15—living space, the colors of which are created by shades of white, various

grays, and light and dark blues. The composition is complemented by green, brown,

and a nuance of honey leather. This interior was chosen by six seniors (including three

women and three men).

•

Interior 16—the color scheme of this living space is based on a combination of warm

and cold white, light beige, ecru, forest green, gray, and brown. The composition is

complemented by forest green and a nuance of turquoise and yellow. This interior

was chosen by six older adults.

•

Interior 17—living space, where constructive colors appear, such as shades of gray,

beige, warm reddish wood, and golden-brown wood. The bright emerald green of the

curtains is a dynamic color here. The composition is complemented by milky white,

smoked glass, and shiny steel nuances as neutral–transitional colors. This composition

was chosen by seven seniors (including three women and four men).

•

Interior 18—interior design, based on a combination of warm white, pearl white, light

beige, light brown wood, light pea green, and warm banana yellow. This interior was

chosen by eight seniors.

•

Interior 19—living room, where the composition is constructed by earthy colors—

beige, ecru, light and dark browns, burgundy, and black. This color combination is

complemented by milky, muted white, mint green, and red hue as a dynamic color.

This composition was chosen by nine seniors.

•

Interior 20—interior design, in which shades of white complement each other—cool,

warm, white of natural wool, creamy, and ecru. Light beiges and browns of natural

wood also appear here. Light, bluish, and almost anthracite greys are both matte and

shimmering with a copper shade. We can ﬁnd a small addition of black here. Different

shades of green come from nature and plants. The warm nut brown of the armchair

appears as an accent. The interpenetration of the interior with the exterior provides

an additional feast of colors. This composition was liked the most and was chosen by

11 seniors.

Based on the results of this study, we can observe that interiors with monochromatic,

monotonous color compositions were not chosen by seniors, which may indicate that older

people perceive them as sad and depressing, and at the same time unstimulating and

uninspiring. Seniors do not want to live in such interiors because they lack colors, accents,

and contrasts. Interiors dominated by distinctly warm or distinctly cold tones were also

not popular. Likewise, seniors did not choose interiors with strong tonal contrasts or clear

contrasts of saturation and brightness. They preferred harmoniously composed spaces,

based on colors of similar tones, which emphasize each other through contrasts of warm

and cold shades (which is in line with Le Corbusier’s color theory). Such color compositions

can be created based on the principle of shade similarity, i.e., selecting different colors that

have the same intensity and a similar degree of chromaticity or brightness [

]. The greatest

interest was aroused by compositions with colors coming from nature, the colors of the

earth, and the colors of natural materials: wood, wool, natural fabrics, leather, and various

shades of greenery. This means that seniors prefer a color environment that is associated

with nature.

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