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Human Factors in Enhancing Safety and User Experience in Virtual Environments
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Simulator sickness not only degrades the quality of interaction within simulator environments but also poses challenges for user enjoyment and the long-term viability of simulation technologies. The early diagnosis of nausea, disorientation, and oculomotor issues related to simulator sickness is crucial for improving the user experience and minimizing adverse side effects. In this paper, we aim to classify and predict the onset of these issues by establishing thresholds that indicate the presence of symptoms. A cohort of 20 participants is subjected to an 8-minute simulated flight video. During this period, both objective and subjective parameters are gathered using the Equivital sensor and an SSQ. Our research demonstrates promising results in predicting nausea symptoms, achieving high accuracy (91.68%), recall (87.50%), F1 score (86.81%), and AUC (0.905). Our findings reveal that while Inter-Beat-Interval serves as a primary predictor of simulator sickness, the combination of other signals with distinct thresholds also plays a critical role in predicting each symptom, highlighting the complex interaction of multiple factors. In conclusion, these findings have significant practical implications for the development of early warning systems and the enhancement of immersive technologies in various domains. Designers and developers can use these insights to improve user experiences, minimize simulator sickness, and optimize the effectiveness of immersive simulations.
The mismatch in signals perceived by the vestibular and visual systems to the brain, also referred to as motion sickness syndrome, has been diagnosed as a challenging condition with no clear mechanism. Motion sickness causes undesirable symptoms during travel and in virtual environments that affect people negatively. Treatments are directed toward reducing conflicting sensory inputs, accelerating the process of adaptation, and controlling nausea and vomiting. The long-term use of current medications is often hindered by their various side effects. Hence, this review aims to identify non-pharmacological strategies that can be employed to reduce or prevent motion sickness in both real and virtual environments. Research suggests that activation of the parasympathetic nervous system using pleasant music and diaphragmatic breathing can help alleviate symptoms of motion sickness. Certain micronutrients such as hesperidin, menthol, vitamin C, and gingerol were shown to have a positive impact on alleviating motion sickness. However, the effects of macronutrients are more complex and can be influenced by factors such as the food matrix and composition. Herbal dietary formulations such as Tianxian and Tamzin were shown to be as effective as medications. Therefore, nutritional interventions along with behavioral countermeasures could be considered as inexpensive and simple approaches to mitigate motion sickness. Finally, we discussed possible mechanisms underlying these interventions, the most significant limitations, research gaps, and future research directions for motion sickness.
In view of the exponential rise of global obesity in the past three quarters of the century, it is useful to examine what is driving this change and what approaches can curb it. The chief drivers of weight gain are, on one hand our misunderstanding of the mechanisms controlling energy balance, and, on the other, reliance on current, potentially misleading conflicting scientific opinions and government policies regarding the controls of human appetite. This review outlines the evidence that: (1) there is no direct bioenergetic feedback from energy metabolism or energy stores to the brain mechanisms guiding feeding and energy expenditure, (2) human appetite is controlled by signals originating from an empty or full stomach, food palatability and opportunities to eat as well by the rate of food absorption, that (3) humans bear a genetic burden of having high ability and capacity to store fat and mechanisms that curb body- mass and fat loss, (4) humans are motivated to overconsume while maintaining low energy expenditure, and (5) commercial interests of food businesses marketing highly palatable foods, and wide-spread mechanization of living tasks and urban design reduce the need for physical work and movement. The non-pharmacological and non-surgical solutions to obesity involve an understanding of human genetic impediments and environmental obstacles to maintaining healthy weight, coupled with deliberate corrective or preventive behaviors, such as understanding and using gastrointestinal tract signals that provide sufficient, albeit subtle, cues for sensible food intake, and using daily weight monitoring and activity tracking devices to record and motivate healthy levels of physical activity.
Dietary guidelines provide evidence-based guidance for healthy individuals to improve dietary patterns, although they are most often based on individual foods or food groups. Legumes are a class of food included in current Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG), mentioned in two of the five food groups, as a vegetable and as an alternative to meat. Whole grain consumption is encouraged in ADG via the statement focused on cereal grains due to their health-promoting properties. Despite their prominence in guidelines, average legume and whole grain consumption in Australia remains lower than recommendations outlined in the ADG. This exploratory study aimed to understand consumer perspectives of wording utilised in dietary guidelines specifically focused on legumes and whole grains. Based on the analysis, there was a significant preference for the statement “each day, consume at least one serve of legumes either as a serve of vegetables or as an alternative to meat” (p < 0.05), which provides a specific frequency and quantification for legume consumption. For whole grain, the significantly preferred statement was “choose whole grain products over refined grains/white flour products whenever you can” indicating a less prescriptive option. Effective messaging in guidelines could consider greater specificity regarding frequency, quantity and quality of foods recommended. This exploratory study suggests an improvement in the adoption and consumption of legumes and whole grains in the Australian diet may be better facilitated through consumer-tested messaging.
Visually Induced Motion Sickness (VIMS) is a bothersome and sometimes unsafe experience, frequently experienced in Virtual Reality (VR) environments. In this study, the effect of up to four training sessions to decrease VIMS in the VR environment to a minimal level was tested and verified through explicit declarations of all 14 healthy participants that were recruited in this study. Additionally, the Motion Sickness Assessment Questionnaire (MSAQ) was used at the end of each training session to measure responses to different aspects of VIMS. Total, gastrointestinal, and central motion sickness were shown to decrease significantly by the last training session, compared to the first one. After acclimatizing to motion sickness, participants’ sense of presence and the level of their motion sickness in the VR environment were assessed while actuating three novel and sophisticated VR systems. They performed up to four trials of the Illinois agility test in the VR systems and the real world, then completed MSAQ and Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ) at the end of each session. Following acclimatization, the three VR systems generated relatively little motion sickness and high virtual presence scores, with no statistically meaningful difference among them for either MSAQ or IPQ. Also, it was shown that presence has a significant negative correlation with VIMS.
The use of virtual reality (VR) in the treatment of psychiatric disorders is increasing, and cybersickness has emerged as an important obstacle to overcome. However, the clinical factors affecting cybersickness are still not well understood. In this study, we investigated clinical predictors and adaptation effect of cybersickness during VR application in highly stressed people. Eighty-three healthy adult participants with high stress level were recruited. At baseline, we conducted psychiatric, ophthalmologic, and otologic evaluations and extracted physiological parameters. We divided the participants into two groups according to the order of exposure to VR videos with different degrees of shaking and repetitively administered the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) and the Fast Motion sickness Scale (FMS). There was no significant difference in changes in the SSQ or the FMS between groups. The 40–59 years age group showed a greater increase in FMS compared to the 19–39 years age group. Smoking was negatively associated with cybersickness, and a high Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule score was positively associated with cybersickness. In conclusion, changing the intensity of shaking in VR did not affect cybersickness. While smoking was a protective factor, more expression of affect was a risk factor for cybersickness.
Motion sickness (MS) and postural control (PC) conditions are common complaints among those who passively travel. Many theories explaining a probable cause for MS have been proposed but the most prominent is the sensory conflict theory, stating that a mismatch between vestibular and visual signals causes MS. Few measurements have been made to understand and quantify the interplay between muscle activation, brain activity, and heart behavior during this condition. We introduce here a novel multimetric system called BioVRSea based on virtual reality (VR), a mechanical platform and several biomedical sensors to study the physiology associated with MS and seasickness. This study reports the results from 28 individuals: the subjects stand on the platform wearing VR goggles, a 64-channel EEG dry-electrode cap, two EMG sensors on the gastrocnemius muscles, and a sensor on the chest that captures the heart rate (HR). The virtual environment shows a boat surrounded by waves whose frequency and amplitude are synchronized with the platform movement. Three measurement protocols are performed by each subject, after each of which they answer the Motion Sickness Susceptibility Questionnaire. Nineteen parameters are extracted from the biomedical sensors (5 from EEG, 12 from EMG and, 2 from HR) and 13 from the questionnaire. Eight binary indexes are computed to quantify the symptoms combining all of them in the Motion Sickness Index (IMS). These parameters create the MS database composed of 83 measurements. All indexes undergo univariate statistical analysis, with EMG parameters being most significant, in contrast to EEG parameters. Machine learning (ML) gives good results in the classification of the binary indexes, finding random forest to be the best algorithm (accuracy of 74.7 for IMS). The feature importance analysis showed that muscle parameters are the most relevant, and for EEG analysis, beta wave results were the most important. The present work serves as the first step in identifying the key physiological factors that differentiate those who suffer from MS from those who do not using the novel BioVRSea system. Coupled with ML, BioVRSea is of value in the evaluation of PC disruptions, which are among the most disturbing and costly health conditions affecting humans.
Purpose of review:
The question whether food choice and eating behavior influence the mood or are influenced by the mood has been inquisitive to scientists and researchers. The purpose of this review is to support or refuse the argument that mood is affected by food or vice versa.
Recent findings:
The association between food and mood has been comprehensively elucidated in this review based on several studies that include participants from different ages, cultural backgrounds, and health status. The correlation among food, mood, and diseases such as diabetes mellitus, obesity, and depression was thoroughly investigated. The effect of different foods and nutrients on the mood was further explained. It is concluded that the mood significantly affects food intake and food choices. On the other hand, food also influences the mood, which affects the diseases either positively or negatively. Appropriate food choices play a significant role in mood enhancement. Advertisement is another crucial factor that negatively affects food choices and mood and contributes to many diseases. Understanding the interaction between food and mood can help to prevent or alleviate undesired health issues.
Due to rapid growth in Virtual Reality (VR) technology, the industry of VR is expected to grow around $26.89 billion by 2022. However, with its extensive growth and immersive inclusion in human life, health-related issues are reported including, but not limited to nauseated feeling, vomiting, dizziness and cold sweats. These issues introduce a well-known side effect termed as motion sickness in VR users. Consequently, motion sickness limits the VR community in the full adaptation of this immersive technology. Since there is no lack of literature investigating motion sickness caused by VR, yet researches on the effect of VR on human’s physiology is still in its infancy. This study presents novel findings, by comparing different factors such as gender, motion sickness experience, 3D games experience and VR experience. Furthermore, it reports the impact of concerning factors in a within-subjects design (46 participants participated in an experiment) under different virtual environment genres. The key findings of this article report that there is a significant difference in the amount of motion sickness when shifting from pleasant to the horror genre of the environment and having a strong dependence on gender. Moreover, the type of virtual environment is an essential factor that has a notable effect on the user’s blood pressure, blood sugar and heart rate. However, past experiences with motion sickness and 3D games show no significant impact on the user’s level of motion sickness.
In virtual reality (VR), users can experience symptoms of motion sickness, which is referred to as VR sickness or cybersickness. The symptoms include but are not limited to eye fatigue, disorientation, and nausea, which can impair the VR experience of users. Though many studies have attempted to reduce the discomfort, they produced conflicting results with varying degrees of VR sickness. In particular, a visually improved VR does not necessarily result in decreased VR sickness. To understand these unexpected results, we surveyed the causes of VR sickness and measurement of symptoms. We reorganized the causes of the VR sickness into three major factors (hardware, content, and human factors) and investigated the sub-component of each factor. We then surveyed frequently used measures of VR sickness, both subjective and objective approaches. We also investigated emerging approaches for reducing VR sickness and proposed a multimodal fidelity hypothesis to give an insight into future studies.
Simulator sickness is a syndrome similar to motion sickness, often experienced during simulator or another virtual reality (VR) exposure. Many theories have been developed or adapted from the motion sickness studies, in order to explain the existence of the syndrome. The simulator sickness can be measured using both subjective and objective methods. The most popular self-report method is the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire. Attempts have also been made to discover a physiological indicator of the described syndrome, but no definite conclusion has been reached on this issue. In the present paper, three temporal aspects of the simulator sickness are discussed: the temporal trajectory of the progression of simulator sickness, possibility of adapting VR users in advance and persistence of the symptoms after VR exposure. Evidence found in 39 articles is widely described. As for the first aspect, it is clear that in most cases severity of the simulator sickness symptoms increases with time of exposure, although it is impossible to develop a single, universal pattern for this effect. It has also been proved, that in some cases a threshold level or time point exists, after which the symptoms stop increasing or begin to decrease. The adaptation effect was proved in most of the reviewed studies and observed in different study designs – e.g., with a couple of VR exposures on separate days or on 1 day and with a single, prolonged VR exposure. As for the persistence of the simulator sickness symptoms after leaving the VR, on the whole the study results suggest that such an effect exists, but it varies strongly between individual studies – the symptoms may persist for a short period of time (10 min) or a relatively long one (even 4 h). Considering the conclusions reached in the paper, it is important to bear in mind that the virtual reality technology still evokes unpleasant sensations in its users and that these sensations should be cautiously controlled while developing new VR tools. Certainly, more research on this topic is necessary.
Several studies have suggested that anxiety may play a role in motion sickness susceptibility (MSS) variability. This study aimed to assess motion sickness susceptibility in healthy subjects and chronic vestibular patients and to investigate its relationship to gender, age and trait-anxiety. Healthy subjects (n = 167) and chronic dizzy patients with various vestibulopathies (n = 94), aged from 20 to 92 years old, were asked to complete Motion Sickness Susceptibility questionnaire (MSSQ) and trait-anxiety questionnaire (STAI-B). When patients were divided into those who had vestibular loss (n = 51) vs. patients without vestibular loss (n = 43), the MSSQ scores (mean ± SD) for patients with vestibular loss (18.8 ± 30.9) were lower than healthy subjects (36.4 ± 34.8), who were lower than vestibular patients without vestibular loss (59.0 ± 39.7). These significant differences could not be explained by gender, age, trait-anxiety, or interaction. Women had higher MSS than men, and MSS declined with age for healthy subjects and vestibular patients. The overall relationship between anxiety and MSS scores was weak and only reached significance in healthy subjects. These results support the conclusion that the vestibular system is heavily involved in MSS and that trait-anxiety may play a role in MSS but only in healthy subjects.
Sickness related to simulator use is a common problem that researchers face when designing experiments. The amount of time in the simulator, the number and length of drives, and the type of maneuver can be limited to minimize the likelihood of simulator sickness occurrence. This research describes the impact of time in a full motion simulator and number of drives on simulator sickness. Data from 11 studies representing 12 unique data sets using the National Advanced Driving Simulator will be examined. To access simulator sickness, a modified version of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) was administered to participants in varying numbers and at various times depending on type of study and length of time. Regardless of the number of times the SSQ was collected, this paper examines the scores after the participant's last drive for a day in the simulator and the attrition rates. The results show that the sickness-related attrition rates across the data sets is low, at 2.45% compared to reported attrition rates with other simulators. Over half of the participants who withdrew came from two similar studies that required a secondary task of using a cellular phone. This paper will address simulator sickness and categorize contributing factors associated with the maneuver type and length of exposure to the simulator.
Virtual environments are synthetic 3D worlds typically viewed from a first-person point of view with many potential applications within areas such as visualisation, entertainment and training simulators. To effectively develop and utilise virtual environments, user-centric evaluations are commonly performed. Anecdotal evidence suggests that factors such as prior experience with computer games may affect the results of such evaluations. This paper examines the effects of previous computer gaming experience, user perceived gaming ability and actual gaming performance on navigation tasks in a virtual environment. Two computer games and a virtual environment were developed to elicit performance metrics for use within a user study. Results indicated that perceived gaming skill and progress in a First-Person-Shooter (FPS) game were the most consistent metrics showing significant correlations with performance in time-based navigation tasks. There was also strong evidence that these relations were significantly intensified by the inclusion of participants who play FPS games. In addition, it was found that increased gaming experience decreased spatial perception performance.
This descriptive, correlational study examined meal frequencies and dietary intakes as they related to airsickness in a population of novice civilian pilots. Food and nutrient intakes and dietary patterns of pilots prior to flight were measured for association with airsickness. A 24-h dietary recall was used in recording dietary intake and meal frequencies during a typical flight day. Correlation analysis was used to determine relationships between dietary intake and airsickness. Of the female pilots, 75% experienced airsickness; and 24% of the male pilots experienced it. Female pilots' mean 24 h dietary intakes of vitamins A, C, and iron were low. The findings indicate eating high sodium foods (r = 0.33, p = 0.02) such as preserved meats, corn chips and potato chips, and eating foods high in thiamin (r = 0.35, p = 0.01) like pork, beef, eggs, or fish correlated significantly with increased airsickness. Consumption of foods high in protein such as milk products, cheeses and preserved meat by the males correlated significantly (r = 0.28, p = 0.05) with increased airsickness. The frequency of meals eaten during the day also correlated with increased airsickness. Of the airsick pilots, 75% consumed three or more meals in the previous 24 h, as compared to 41% of the nonairsick pilots. Higher density foods (more kilocalories) also increased the airsickness occurrences of both the male and female pilots.
Objective
Virtual reality (VR) simulation is changing the landscape of simulation-based
medical education. Immersive VR allows users to interact with a computer-generated environment and digital avatars using a VR headset and controllers. However, current literature regarding the use of immersive VR simulation in psychiatric medical education is sparse. This study describes its use and considerations regarding tolerability.Methods
At a mental health hospital in Canada, two immersive VR suicide risk assessment
(SRA) case simulations were developed. These simulations have participants interview VR patients to characterize their suicide risk, offering a novel and safe way to engage healthcare providers in SRA training. Regarding user tolerability of these VR simulations, the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) was administered to participants after the simulation to characterize any motion sickness symptoms experienced.ResultsOf the 22 participants in this study, the overall SSQ scores demonstrated good tolerability of the VR SRA, with the majority of participants reporting no or minimal simulator sickness symptoms. Moreover, the majority of participants
reported being satisfied with this training and that the VR SRA simulation enhanced their learning experience.Conclusion
These study findings are novel, given the current dearth of data regarding the use of immersive VR in simulation-based psychiatric medical education. Further studies exploring the educational effectiveness of VR SRA in simulation-based psychiatric medical education are indicated.
The purpose of this study was to propose a model for estimating individual susceptibility to motion sickness by correlating measures of seated postural sway before exposure to a roller coaster movie displayed in a head-mounted display (HMD) with subjective ratings of visually induced motion sickness (VIMS). The participants were required to watch the content for 15 min, and seated center of pressure (sCOP) was measured using a force platform for 5 min before viewing. We developed a VIMS estimating model from 16 subjects and verified it on 15 subjects. SSQ scores for VIMS were strongly correlated with the area of sCOP, the main-to-minor ratio of the sCOP ellipse, and the total length of sCOP, respectively (r = 0.706, r = 0.555, and r = 0.622). When verifying the estimation model, the observed SSQ scores differed by 32.628 ± 29.749 from the expected SSQ scores, and both score sets were positively correlated (r = 0.622). The classification results between nil and mild, moderate, and severe groups for VIMS showed an accuracy of 0.74 using random under-sampling boost (RUSBoost).
A relationship between cognitive ability and safety performance in car drivers has been consistently supported in previous literature. However, this relationship has been neglected in research regarding high-speed railway drivers. Drivers play a vital role in ensuring safety operation of high-speed railway in China. Therefore, it is of great significance to predict the impact of cognitive ability and railway driving experience of high-speed railway (HSR) drivers on safety performance. This study uses a standard driving adaptability system to assess driver’s cognitive abilities which predict safety performance in Chinese high-speed railway.
154 HSR drivers completed a standardized driving adaptability system test on a display device, which is widely used in the HSR drivers’ selection in China. The driving adaptability system is used to assess attention, multiple reaction ability, learning ability, short-term memory, speed anticipation and performance stability. Thereafter, monthly performance assessment data were collected after cognitive test since they truly reflect the driver's safety performance.
Research found that attention, speed anticipation and performance stability were found to positively predict safety performance of HSR drivers. The railway driving experience plays a moderating role in the relationship between speed anticipation and safety performance, performance stability and safety performance. The richer the driver's driving experience, the stronger the effect of speed perception and job stability on safety performance, and vice versa. The results provide new ideas for the selection and management of HSR drivers and the improvement of driver safety performance.
Background:
In previous research on motion sickness in simulated and virtual vehicles, subjects' experience controlling the corresponding physical vehicles has been confounded with their age. During driving of virtual automobiles in a video game, we separated chronological age from experience driving physical automobiles.
Methods:
Subjects drove a virtual automobile in a driving video game. Drivers were young adults with several years of experience driving physical automobiles, while nondrivers were individuals in the same age group who did not have a driver's license and had never driven an automobile. During virtual driving, we monitored movement of the head and torso. We collected independent measures of the incidence and severity of motion sickness.
Results:
After virtual driving, motion sickness incidence did not differ between drivers (65%) and nondrivers (60%). Game performance and the severity of symptoms also did not differ between drivers and nondrivers. However, movement differed between subjects who later became motion sick and those who did not. In addition, physical driving experience influenced patterns of postural activity that preceded motion sickness during virtual driving.
Conclusions:
The results are consistent with the postural instability theory of motion sickness, and help to illuminate relationships between the control of physical and virtual vehicles.Chang C-H, Chen F-C, Kung W-C, Stoffregen TA. Effects of physical driving experience on body movement and motion sickness during virtual driving. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2017; 88(11):985-992.
Detecting danger in the driving environment is an indispensable task to guarantee safety which depends on the driver’s ability to predict upcoming hazards. But does correct prediction lead to an appropriate response? This study advances hazard perception research by investigating the link between successful prediction and response selection. Three groups of drivers (learners, novices and experienced drivers) were recruited, with novice and experienced drivers further split into offender and non-offender groups. Specifically, this works aims to develop an improved Spanish Hazard Prediction Test and to explore the differences in Situation Awareness, (SA: perception, comprehension and prediction) and Decision-Making (DM) among learners, younger inexperienced and experienced drivers and between driving offenders and non-offenders. The contribution of the current work is not only theoretical; the Hazard Prediction Test is also a valid way to test Hazard Perception. The test, as well as being useful as part of the test for a driving license, could also serve a purpose in the renewal of licenses after a ban or as a way of training drivers. A sample of 121 participants watched a series of driving video clips that ended with a sudden occlusion prior to a hazard. They then answered questions to assess their SA (“What is the hazard?” “Where is it located?” “What happens next?”) and DM (“What would you do in this situation?”). This alternative to the Hazard Perception Test demonstrates a satisfactory internal consistency (Alpha = 0.750), with eleven videos achieving discrimination indices above 0.30. Learners performed significantly worse than experienced drivers when required to identify and locate the hazard. Interestingly, drivers were more accurate in answering the DM question than questions regarding SA, suggesting that drivers can choose an appropriate response manoeuvre without a totally conscious knowledge of the exact hazard.
We investigated the influence of vehicle control (driver vs. passenger) on postural activity and motion sickness in the context of a console video game. Using a yoked control design, individuals participated as driver-passenger dyads. Within dyads, individuals participated alone, with Driver sessions being recorded and played back to corresponding Passengers. Passengers were more likely than Drivers to report motion sickness. During game exposure, Drivers tended to move more than passengers. Yet participants who later became motion sick moved differently than those who did not, with changes in movement variability of the head and torso. The results confirm that control of a simulated vehicle reduces the risk of motion sickness, and that postural instability precedes motion sickness. The results can be used to guide the design of driving simulations and video games. Copyright 2010 by Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Inc. All rights reserved.
This paper describes the characteristics and preliminary evaluation of Experimential Cognitive Therapy (Experimential CT), a VR-based treatment to be used in the treatment and assessment of obesity and binge-eating disorders. Experimential CT is a relatively short-term, integrated, patient-oriented approach that focuses on individual discovery. The main characteristic of this approach is the use of Virtual Reality, a new technology that allows the user to be immersed in a computer-generated virtual world. Two preliminary clinical trials were carried out on female patients: 25 patients suffering from binge-eating disorders were included in the first study and 18 obese in the second. At the end of the inpatient treatments, the patients of both samples modified significantly their bodily awareness. This modification was associated to a reduction in problematic eating and social behaviours. No subjects experienced simulation sickness. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The purpose of the present study was to clear the differences of psychophysiological responses due to individual sensitivity of simulator sickness. The present experiment tried to investigate the simulator sickness objectively by observing the change of the simulator sickness for the different level of sickness groups (sick and non-sick group). The subjective evaluations using Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) and physiological responses were measured every five minutes when they were driving as 60 km/h in the driving graphic simulator. Response level of the subjective evaluation for all subjects on the simulator sickness was linearly increased with time for every item, and the response level of sick group was bigger than that of non-sick group. When the analysis on central nervous system was done separately on the sick and the non-sick group, there was significant difference in the parameter ¿/total at Fz and Cz. Although the analysis on autonomic nervous system for all subjects showed the increased activation of sympathetic nervous system, there was no significant difference between the sick and non-sick group. In summary, the parameters to distinguish between the sick and non-sick group were the change on ¿/total and subjective evaluation using SSQ.
Motion sickness susceptibility questionnaires (MSSQ) predict individual differences in motion sickness caused by a variety of stimuli. The aim was to develop a short MSSQ. Development used repeated item analysis and various scoring methods. Retained were motion types (cars, boats, planes, trains, funfair rides, etc.); corrections for motion type exposure; sickness severity weightings; childhood versus adult experiences. Excluded were visual/optokinetic items (cinerama, virtual reality, etc.) with low sickness prevalence, they added little information but could become important in the future. Norms and percentiles were produced (n = 257). Predictive validity used controlled motions (total n = 178): cross-coupled (Coriolis); 0.2 Hz frequency translational oscillation; off vertical axis rotation (OVAR); visual-motion simulator. Predictive validity for motion was median r = 0.51. Relationship between MSSQ-Short and other non-motion sources of nausea and vomiting (e.g. headaches, food, stress, viral, etc.) in the last 12 months was r = 0.2 (p < 0.01). Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha 0.87; test–retest reliability around r = 0.9; Part A (child) with Part B (adult) r = 0.68. MSSQ-Short provides reliability with an efficient compromise between length (reduced time cost) and validity (predicted motion susceptibility). Language variants include French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Flemish, German, Russian and Chinese.
Despite the forecast of a bright future for functional foods, which constitute the single fastest growing segment in the food market, critiques arise as to whether this food category will deliver upon its promises. One of the key success factors pertains to consumer acceptance of the concept of functional foods, which is covered in this study. Data collected from a consumer sample (n=215) in Belgium during March 2001 are analysed with the aim to gain a better understanding of consumer acceptance of functional foods. Functional food acceptance is defined as giving a score of minimum 3 on a 5-point scale, simultaneously for acceptance if the food tastes good, and if the food tastes somewhat worse as compared to its conventional counterpart. With this specification, 46.5% of the sample claimed to accept the concept of functional foods. A multivariate probit model is specified and estimated to test the simultaneous impact of socio-demographic, cognitive and attitudinal factors. Belief in the health benefits of functional foods is the main positive determinant of acceptance. The likelihood of functional food acceptance also increases with the presence of an ill family member, though decreases with a high level of claimed knowledge or awareness of the concept. This adverse impact of high awareness decreases with increasing consumer age. Belief, knowledge and presence of an ill family member outweigh socio-demographics as potential determinants, contrary to previous reports profiling functional food users.
To study the potential aftereffects of virtual environments (VE), tests of visually guided behavior and felt limb position (pointing with eyes open and closed) along with self-reports of motion sickness-like discomfort were administered before and after 30 min exposure of 34 subjects. When post- discomfort was compared to a pre-baseline, the participants reported more sickness afterward (p<0.03). The change in felt limb position resulted in subjects pointing higher (p<0.038) and slightly to the left, although the latter difference was not statistically significant (p=0.08). When findings from a second study using a different VE system were compared, they essentially replicated the results of the first study with higher sickness afterward (p<0.001) and post- pointing errors were also up (p<0.001) and to the left (p<0.001). While alternative explanations (e.g. learning, fatigue, boredom, habituation, etc.) of these outcomes cannot be ruled out, the consistency of the post- effects on felt limb position changes in the two VE implies that these recalibrations may linger once interaction with the VE has concluded, rendering users potentially physiologically maladapted for the real world when they return. This suggests there may be safety concerns following VE exposures until pre-exposure functioning has been regained. The results of this study emphasize the need for developing and using objective measures of post-VE exposure aftereffects in order to systematically determine under what conditions these effects may occur.
An experimental program of research was carried out to assess the potential health and safety effects of participating in virtual environments (VEs) via head-mounted displays (HMDs). This paper presents the results obtained from nine experiments examining the effects experienced during and after participation in a variety of VR systems, VE designs, and task requirements, for a total participant sample of 148 individuals. A combination of methods including self-report scales, performance measures, physiological indicators, observation, interview, and user attitude/opinion questionnaires were used to measure simulator (VE) sickness, postural instability, psychomotor control, perceptual judgment, concentration, stress, and ergonomics effects. Greatest effects across the different systems, VEs, and exposure times were found for sickness symptoms and physiological measures, with some concern over postural instability and physical ergonomics, also. Although many of the effects were relatively minor and short lived, they were serious for five percent of participants and irritating for a considerable percentage more. The aetiology of the effects is sufficiently different to that for simulators or transport systems to justify us using a new term, virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects (VRISE). Implications are drawn for VR system design, VE specification, and the ways in which industrial use of VR/VE should be planned and supported.
Modeling human behavior is important for the design of robots as well as human-computer interfaces that use humanoid avatars. Constructive models have been built, but they have not captured all of the detailed structure of human behavior such as the moment-to-moment deployment and coordination of hand, head and eye gaze used in complex tasks. We show how this data from human subjects performing a task can be used to program a dynamic Bayes network (DBN) which in turn can be used to recognize new performance instances. As a specific demonstration we show that the steps in a complex activity such as sandwich making can be recognized by a DBN in real time.
There is little quantitative information that can be used to predict the incidence of airsickness from the motions experienced in military or civil aviation. This study examines the relationship between low-frequency aircraft motion and passenger sickness in short-haul turboprop flights within the United Kingdom.
A questionnaire survey of 923 fare-paying passengers was conducted on 38 commercial airline flights. Concurrent measurements of aircraft motion were made on all journeys, yielding approximately 30 h of aircraft motion data.
Overall, 0.5% of passengers reported vomiting, 8.4% reported nausea (range 0% to 34.8%) and 16.2% reported illness (range 0% to 47.8%) during flight. Positive correlations were found between the percentage of passengers who experienced nausea or felt ill and the magnitude of low-frequency lateral and vertical motion, although neither motion uniquely predicted airsickness. The incidence of motion sickness also varied with passenger age, gender, food consumption and activity during air travel. No differences in sickness were found between passengers located in different seating sections of the aircraft, or as a function of moderate levels of alcohol consumption.
The passenger responses suggest that a useful prediction of airsickness can be obtained from magnitudes of low frequency aircraft motion. However, some variations in airsickness may also be explained by individual differences between passengers and their psychological perception of flying.
Meal ingestion has been suggested to reduce susceptibility to the development of gastric tachyarrhythmia, the abnormal activity of the stomach that frequently accompanies nausea.
To determine the types of meal that are most effective in preventing the development of gastric tachyarrhythmia, nausea and the symptoms of motion sickness provoked by a rotating optokinetic drum.
Participants received a carbohydrate beverage, a protein-predominant beverage or nothing immediately before exposure to the rotating drum. Subjective symptoms of motion sickness and electrogastrograms were collected during a 6-min baseline period and a subsequent 16-min drum rotation period.
Subjective symptoms of motion sickness scores were significantly more severe during the no-meal condition than during either the protein or carbohydrate condition. Central, peripheral and, to some extent, gastrointestinal symptoms were more severe during the carbohydrate condition than during the protein condition. Gastric tachyarrhythmia increased significantly less from baseline to drum rotation during both the protein and carbohydrate conditions than during the no-meal condition.
Liquid protein-predominant meals were most effective in suppressing both the development of gastric tachyarrhythmia and the entire spectrum of motion sickness symptoms, including nausea.
Protein ingestion has been shown to decrease subjective and physiological markers of nausea. Aim: To elucidate the importance of drink palatability and nutritional composition in preventing subjective symptoms of nausea, decreased normal gastric electrogastrographic activity, and withdrawal of vagal tone in response to optokinetic motion.
Participants received a liquid high protein/low carbohydrate, moderate protein/high carbohydrate, low protein/high carbohydrate or water meal 30 min prior to exposure to an optokinetic drum. Subjective symptoms of nausea, electrogastrograms and cardiac vagal tone were measured during the 30-min post-drink rest period, a 10-min baseline period in the stationary drum, and during a 16-min drum rotation period.
Regardless of nutritional composition, a pleasant taste predicted a reduction of the subjective experience of nausea. Subjective symptoms were significantly more severe in the moderate protein/high carbohydrate and water groups compared to the high protein/low carbohydrate and low protein/high carbohydrate groups. Electrogastrographic indicators of nausea were reduced in the high protein/low carbohydrate and low protein/high carbohydrate groups versus water, while cardiac vagal tone was reduced in the high protein/low carbohydrate and moderate protein/high carbohydrate groups versus the low protein/high carbohydrate and water groups.
Palatability and high protein meals appear to be important factors in attenuating the nausea associated with exposure to optokinetic motion.
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