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Threads untangled: Regional mapping of post-consumer textile management
Abstract and Figures
In the coming decade, the EU intends to intervene in the textile value chain to steer it towards sustainability and circularity. As part of this effort, post-consumer textile (PCT) management should align with the waste hierarchy. This study employs material flow analysis (MFA) to examine and compare PCT management in two European regions: Flanders (Belgium) and the Netherlands. Additionally, future scenarios provide insights into transformations of PCT management toward 2030. The results show that Flanders outperformed the Netherlands in 2018, with a higher share of PCTs being collected separately, going to product recovery, local reuse, and material recovery. However, in both regions, there is still much potential to increase the recovery of products or materials. In 2018, local reuse was at only 4 % in Flanders and 2 % in the Netherlands. Most materials were still lost through
incineration, with 52 % in Flanders and 62 % in the Netherlands. Even so, the future scenarios indicate that the
Netherlands’ greater policy ambitions, with specific targets aimed at higher circular strategies, such as local reuse and closed-loop recycling, can result in more circular PCT management toward 2030. Hence, when designing interventions, policymakers should go beyond targets on separate collection to successfully steer the
waste management of PCT toward circularity. This study shows how MFA-based monitoring provides a good overview of a specific system, allowing for a high level of transparency. Therefore, monitoring PCT management is key to developing informed policies and effective targets.
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Policy Highlights
To achieve the recommendation stated in the title, we propose the following: Tackle overproduction and overconsumption in the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles.
Address the impacts of EU Circular Economy Textile policies on the Global South from both SSH and STEM perspectives to ensure positive social and environmental outcomes.
Make Just Transition policies globally accountable and alleviation mechanisms integral to the Textile Strategy rather than supplementary corrective measures.
Include meaningful participatory mechanisms that ensure the democratic inclusion of different voices and actors.
Reverse the burden of proof and provide educational, financial, and legal assistance accounting for multiple vulnerabilities (e.g., gender or type of worker).
The EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles envisages “a circular textiles ecosystem that has sufficient capacities for innovative fibre-to-fibre recycling, while the incineration and landfilling of textiles is reduced to the minimum”. The general objective of this study is to summarise the techno-scientific knowledge base of different recycling, recovery and disposal options for waste textiles. First, it is indicated that post-consumer textile waste is the largest waste fraction, and that annually more than 8 million tonnes used and waste textiles are incinerated or landfilled, a much higher share than re-use, preparing for re-use and recycling together. Textile waste recycling is limited and currently dominated by transforming apparel and home textiles into cleaning rags and insulation materials, but closed-loop recycling facilities are emerging in the EU, particularly for post-industrial textile waste. Second, the life cycle assessment and cost analysis indicated that re-use and preparing for re-use are the most cost-effective options and have the best environmental performance. Whereas recycling is associated to greater costs than incineration and landfilling, it commonly brings supplementary environmental savings. Third, economic and non-economic barriers to recycling, particularly closed-loop recycling were identified. The information provided in this report may contribute to informing policy design and implementation on textile waste management.
Although the number of studies assessing the textile sector is increasing, only a few focus on its waste management. This study aims to shed light on current textile waste disposal practices and account for their environmental impact. To do so, a combination of citizen surveying and environmental quantitative tools, such as material flow analysis and life cycle assessment, are used to assess municipal textile waste in Catalonia in 2020. The results show that only approximately 10 % of municipal textile waste is separately collected, while 90 % is landfilled/incinerated. Of the 10 % of textiles collected separately, almost 40 % are prepared for reuse and recycled in Catalonia and Spain, approximately 40 % are exported for reuse and recycling in Asia, Africa and the rest of Europe, and the remaining 20 % are incinerated or landfilled, stocked or treated as improper waste. The carbon footprint generated by 1 t of textile waste managed by unseparated collection is 353 kg CO2 eq, which almost double that of 1 t of textile waste collected separately: 207 kg CO2 eq. The results also show that the emissions of textiles collected separately could be considerably reduced by minimizing their exports. The conclusions indicate that a proper course of action includes raising awareness about textile waste management and secondhand buying habits among citizens while investing in better sorting and local recycling technologies to reduce exports. Identifying the existing limitations to creating a local reuse and recycling textile sector is crucial to reduce its carbon footprint.
The textile industry is causing environmental impacts, driven by consumption patterns and fast fashion. Here we explore how the closing of material loops can decrease the environmental impacts of clothing consumption. We analyze the clothing system of Norwegian households in 2018 by combining material flow analysis and life cycle assessment. We map the flows to explore this linear system, where most garments are acquired new and leave the system through incineration or export. We develop an alternative scenario, where the circularity increases from 5% to 74%, considering consumer willingness to rent various garment types or buy them secondhand. We reduce the climate change impacts by 57%, water scarcity by 62%, and cumulative energy demand by 47% by assuming a proper set-up of the alternative system and a change in shopping and disposal behavior. Such measures allow to keep the same consumption levels; further reductions require lowering the number of acquisitions.
The apparel value chain is essential for the livelihood of millions of workers around the globe. However, human rights violations and the lack of a sustained income by apparel workers demonstrate the poor working conditions present in this sector. Circular economy (CE) has been used by incumbent businesses and startups as a framework to achieve sustainability, thus contributing to its economic, environmental and social dimensions. However, there is a lack of knowledge on its social impact. Most of the literature assesses CE's social impacts by focusing only on the number of jobs created. However, the majority of studies agree on the need to analyse further the quality and inclusivity aspects. This paper explores the social impact of the different circular strategies implemented in three countries. It assesses social impacts related to the quality of jobs, workers' sustainable livelihood and gender equality and inclusion. Results corroborate that CE social ambition is low, and that current circular strategies follow the same feminisation and precariousness of working conditions found in the linear apparel value chain. Thus, policymakers and businesses alike need to strengthen their CE social ambition; coordinate policy and strategies with different countries stakeholders of the apparel value chain to minimise trade-offs; and safeguard a just circular transition. This research contributes to the body of literature on CE by introducing a social impact assessment framework for circularity called SIAF-CE⚥. Additionally, it provides evidence on the current CE social impact implemented by startups and incumbents in regional and global contexts.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43615-022-00203-8.
The circular economy has been proposed to transform global textile supply chains which are currently challenged by a complex nexus of sustainability issues related to the dominant fast fashion trend. Research on circular economy in the textile sector often focuses on businesses or consumers as key enablers in circular transitions, yet it treats them as independent entities and thereby neglects the study of interactions that can provide insight at the systems level. The proclaimed “circular textile mission” in the Netherlands setting a national target for 100% circularity by 2050 is used as case study to address this research gap. We explore the circular textile transition processes found in the context of the Dutch mission and compare the development and interactions among various technical and non‐technological solutions produced by engaged actor constellations for assessing key factors driving and blocking the overall mission fulfilment. To these ends, we derive a theoretical framework based on innovation system theory and conceptualize the Dutch circular textile transition as a Mission‐oriented Innovation System (MIS). Analyzing the structure and functioning of the Dutch mission‐oriented innovation system, we show that (1) there is a good match between the formal Dutch circular textile mission and system actor perceptions; (2) system actors have formed structures around three dominant solution trajectories in the Dutch system: secondhand, mechanical recycling, and chemical recycling; (3) these trajectories expose distinct key virtuous and vicious cycles, which characterize (4) the entire system as formative. Overall, the secondhand trajectory shows most developed structures and most positive dynamics, chemical recycling carries most technological breakthrough potential, whereas mechanical recycling is a mature technology but lacks market demand and supply. We compare the three solution trajectories, discuss the disruptive nature of the Dutch circular textile transition, and suggest installing Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) as a potential intervention for accelerating system transformation. The study concludes with reflections on the case learnings and considerations for further research on mission‐oriented innovation systems.
According to the waste hierarchy, waste prevention is environmentally superior to recycling or recovery, hence its inclusion in government policy. The assessment and prioritization of waste prevention strategies are impeded, inter alia, by ambiguous definitions and the lack of a sound environmental assessment method. In this study, a systematic approach to the environmental assessment of waste prevention activities (WPAs), covering the whole life cycle of products, was developed. The approach combines material flow analysis and life cycle assessment with a sustainable circular system design framework whilst giving special consideration to pivotal factors such as diffusion factor (share of population engaging in WPA), substitutability (degree to which a new product is replaced), effects on use‐phase impacts, and rebound effects. The application of the approach to the case studies of clothing and household furniture in Switzerland revealed lower impact saving potential than assumed initially, due to lack of participation, low substitutability, or high rebounds. For example, reusing clothing locally, instead of exporting it to low‐income countries, as currently done, displayed no or even negative impact savings since secondhand clothing in high‐income countries is often consumed in addition to new clothing. Drastic scenarios for clothes led to only moderate impact reductions of less than 15%, whereas a take‐back scheme for furniture reduced impacts by 70%. Concluding, the four factors (diffusion rate, substitutability, effects on use‐phase impacts, and rebounds) proved crucial in the assessment of waste prevention strategies and the approach presented was able to pinpoint improvement potentials of the waste prevention scenarios investigated.
This study aims to provide information about circular economy perspectives in the management of textile products and textile waste in the European Union (EU). The report improves the understanding of current value chains in the manufacturing and retailing of apparel products in the EU and provides a detailed picture of material flows in the EU textile sector in a global context. This includes an overview of the size of the textile processing industry in the EU in terms of turnover, employment, number and size of companies, and the EU's share of the global industry. Then, an accurate picture is drawn of the volume (tonnes) and value (Euros) of new fibres, yarns, fabrics and textile products (apparel and household textiles) produced in the EU and traded with the rest of the world. This is complemented by a detailed look at the volumes of post-consumer textiles available for collection, reuse and recycling in EU countries, based on available data. This mapping serves as a preview of the upcoming challenges associated with the increased collection and processing of post-consumer textiles, foreseen as a result of mandatory obligations for the separate collection of textile waste in 2025. Furthermore, it identifies needs for planning the new fibre-to-fibre recycling capacity. This study also provides information on current industrial practice in the EU for the collection, sorting and preparation of post-consumer textiles for reuse and recycling. Both currently installed and emerging technologies for the recycling of textile fabrics and apparel are mapped in order to provide a snapshot of the state of the art of available technologies that are expected to cope with the increased amount of textile waste towards 2025. The study details existing capacities for the collection and sorting of old textiles in Europe, and describes recycling technologies that are at a relatively high technological maturity level in order to estimate future sorting and recycling capacities. In order to minimise overlaps with an ongoing study commissioned by DG GROW about textile recycling technologies, the review of recycling technologies in this study mainly focuses on the core principles of each technology type and provides examples of that technology type in operation. On this basis, the challenges that exist with regard to the sorting and recycling technologies in terms of achieving a more circular economy will be addressed.With regard to the perspectives of the circular economy in the textile sector, the study collects and examines established and newly emerging circular business models that have the potential to make the value chain for the European textile and clothing market and the post-consumer textiles sector more circular. Knowledge on existing and emerging practices of repair, reuse and recycling of textile products is presented and analysed with a view to ascertaining how these activities can contribute to increasing the circular economy in the EU. This provides a basis for identifying which options show the greatest potential, and for understanding which policy interventions, if any, could help shift the textile sector towards increased circularity. The study concludes with an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of the textiles production and consumption system in two scenarios: 1) the prevalence of a linear economy model and 2) a projected circular economy scenario. On this basis, the opportunities for and threats to the current textile sector, including the post-consumer textile collection, sorting, reuse and recycling industries, are examined in their entirety. Existing and emerging circular economy models are analysed in the same way
The fashion industry is one of the most wasteful consumer industries in the world. Through the advent of fast fashion – trendy, low-cost clothing produced by global fashion brands – clothing has evolved from a durable good to a daily purchase. In recent years, the concept of the circular economy, a framework for a more efficient, closed-loop economy, has emerged as a key way forward in the transition to a more sustainable and less wasteful fashion industry. This paper investigates how the Swedish fashion industry has implemented circular economy principles. Drawing on interviews with the founders, CEOs, and/or brand sustainability managers of 19 Swedish fashion brands, this article maps circular economy strategies across key stages: take, make, and waste. Crucially, for the fashion industry to move towards circularity, this paper argues that brands must integrate these strategies across supply chains, rather than limiting them to the waste stage. The analysis explores the gaps between circular economy principles and practice, identifying challenges inherent in fashion brand approaches. It concludes with recommendations for further study of the circular economy and the fashion industry.
The fashion industry is the second largest industrial polluter after aviation, accounting for up to 10% of global pollution. Despite the widely publicized environmental impacts, however, the industry continues to grow, in part due to the rise of fast fashion, which relies on cheap manufacturing, frequent consumption and short-lived garment use. In this Review, we identify the environmental impacts at critical points in the textile and fashion value chain, from production to consumption, focusing on water use, chemical pollution, CO2 emissions and textile waste. Impacts from the fashion industry include over 92 million tonnes of waste produced per year and 1.5 trillion litres of water consumed. On the basis of these environmental impacts, we outline the need for fundamental changes in the fashion business model, including a deceleration of manufacturing and the introduction of sustainable practices throughout the supply chain, as well a shift in consumer behaviour — namely, decreasing clothing purchases and increasing garment lifetimes. These changes stress the need for an urgent transition back to ‘slow’ fashion, minimizing and mitigating the detrimental environmental impacts, so as to improve the long-term sustainability of the fashion supply chain.
Textiles waste is relatively small in terms of weight as compared to other waste streams, but it has a large impact on human health and environment, and its rate is increasing due to the ‘fast fashion’ model. In this paper, we examine the French national programme for managing post-consumer textiles and clothing through a case study research. To date, France is the only country in the world implementing an extended producer responsibility (EPR) policy for end-of-use clothing, linen and shoes. The case highlights the benefits of using an EPR policy and provides interesting insights about the challenges faced by the textiles waste sector. For instance, the EPR policy has contributed to a threefold increase in the collection and recycling rates of post-consumer textiles since 2006. In addition, the material recovery rate of the post-consumer textiles can reach 90%, 50% of which can be directly reused. However, the ‘reuse’ stream is facing some challenges because its main market is in Africa and many African countries are considering banning the import of used textiles to encourage a competitive textiles industry locally and internationally. The EPR policy shows a great potential to identify new markets for ‘reuse’ and to improve the textiles waste sector. Such an EPR policy also could drive societies to financially support innovation and research to provide feasible solutions for fashion producers to adopt eco-design and design for recycling practices. This paper provides guidance for policy makers, shareholders, researchers and practitioners interested in diverting post-consumer textiles and clothing waste from landfills and promoting circular textiles transition.
This paper reviews studies of the environmental impact of textile reuse and recycling, to provide a summary of the current knowledge and point out areas for further research. Forty-one studies were reviewed, whereof 85% deal with recycling and 41% with reuse (27% cover both reuse and recycling). Fibre recycling is the most studied recycling type (57%), followed by polymer/oligomer recycling (37%), monomer recycling (29%), and fabric recycling (14%). Cotton (76%) and polyester (63%) are the most studied materials.
The reviewed publications provide strong support for claims that textile reuse and recycling in general reduce environmental impact compared to incineration and landfilling, and that reuse is more beneficial than recycling. The studies do, however, expose scenarios under which reuse and recycling are not beneficial for certain environmental impacts. For example, as benefits mainly arise due to the avoided production of new products, benefits may not occur in cases with low replacement rates or if the avoided production processes are relatively clean. Also, for reuse, induced customer transport may cause environmental impact that exceeds the benefits of avoided production, unless the use phase is sufficiently extended.
In terms of critical methodological assumptions, authors most often assume that textiles sent to recycling are wastes free of environmental burden, and that reused products and products made from recycled materials replace products made from virgin fibres. Examples of other content mapped in the review are: trends of publications over time, common aims and geographical scopes, commonly included and omitted impact categories, available sources of primary inventory data, knowledge gaps and future research needs. The latter include the need to study cascade systems, to explore the potential of combining various reuse and recycling routes.
Features:
- Continues to serve as the only book on material flow analysis (MFA)
- Updates information concerning MFA/SFA development
- Includes software STAN and links to STAN2WEB
- Contains new case studies about resource management and waste management
- Provides a fresh, data-based treatment of uncertainty
Summary:
Since the first issue of the handbook was published in October 2003, the field of material flow analysis (MFA) has developed rapidly, including hundreds of MFA studies all over the globe. MFA methodology has become a widely used technique in environmental management, resources management, and waste management. Today, most MFA done on a global basis uses the MFA methodology described in this handbook, because the methodology offers a concise, transparent, reproducible, and well-accepted framework for performing MFAs and substance flow analyses (SFAs).
Sound waste management and optimisation of resource recovery require reliable data on solid waste generation and composition. In the absence of standardised and commonly accepted waste characterisation methodologies, various approaches have been reported in literature. This limits both comparability and applicability of the results. In this study, a waste sampling and sorting methodology for efficient and statistically robust characterisation of solid waste was introduced. The methodology was applied to residual waste collected from 1442 households distributed among 10 individual sub-areas in three Danish municipalities (both single and multi-family house areas). In total 17 tonnes of waste were sorted into 10-50 waste fractions, organised according to a three-level (tiered approach) facilitating comparison of the waste data between individual sub-areas with different fractionation (waste from one municipality was sorted at "Level III", e.g. detailed, while the two others were sorted only at "Level I"). The results showed that residual household waste mainly contained food waste (42±5%, mass per wet basis) and miscellaneous combustibles (18±3%, mass per wet basis). The residual household waste generation rate in the study areas was 3-4kg per person per week. Statistical analyses revealed that the waste composition was independent of variations in the waste generation rate. Both, waste composition and waste generation rates were statistically similar for each of the three municipalities. While the waste generation rates were similar for each of the two housing types (single-family and multi-family house areas), the individual percentage composition of food waste, paper, and glass was significantly different between the housing types. This indicates that housing type is a critical stratification parameter. Separating food leftovers from food packaging during manual sorting of the sampled waste did not have significant influence on the proportions of food waste and packaging materials, indicating that this step may not be required.
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Textiles represent the fourth highest pressure commodity on a global scale and cause significant environmental, climate and social impacts under resources and waste perspectives. Considering the environmental burdens associated with resources limitations and waste management, the Waste Framework Directive approved by the European Parliament in 2018 has obliged the Member States to collect textiles separately by 2025, supporting circular strategies and environmental sustainability. As to tackle the linear economy model (take-make-waste), the present research applies the material flow analysis to estimate textile waste streams in Europe and to simulate two short-term prospective End-of-Life scenarios. Further, the research calculates the energy and the CO2eq emissions flows according to textiles recycling, incineration with energy recovery or landfilling. As a result, separate collection should be considered as one of the most important pathways to: (a) reduce textile waste streams destined to incineration or landfilling; (b) reduce virgin fibers supplying from the environment; (c) reduce CO2eq emissions associated with the EoL pathways, such as incineration or landfilling. The research contributes to the scarce empirical studies about textile waste management in Europe, providing theoretical and public authorities’ recommendations towards sustainable development.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have shown that the optimal treatments of textile waste follow the waste hierarchy. Consequently, there is great potential for environmental improvements through ensuring that textiles are collected, reused, recycled and disposed of in the best possible way. Despite the fact that textile sorting centres play a central role in ensuring a high reuse rate, they have either been left out of previous LCAs or modelled based on low-quality data. In this study, a material flow analysis (MFA) of the textile flows in a sorting centre, and a life cycle inventory (LCI), was undertaken for the period 2015–2017, along with an assessment of the main economic factors. The MFA showed that the majority of the sorted textiles were indeed reusable, but their numbers decreased in the reference period, from 79.8% to 74.9%. The LCI and economic analysis showed increasing resource consumption in terms of electricity, gas (trucks) and packing per sorted tonne. Furthermore, the quality of textiles has generally decreased over the last decade, which is reflected in the share of reusable textiles of the highest quality, which undergo additional fine sorting. While in 2015, almost 33% of the reusable textiles were sorted out for fine sorting, in 2017, this figure was down to 29%. The number of recyclable textiles increased over the period, from 12.9% to17.3%, and the amount of waste also increased, from 5.4 to 6.0%. The results presented herein are important for properly representing the sorting process in modelling textile waste management.
A method for quantitative evaluation of data quality in regional material flow analysis (MFA) is presented. The principal idea is that data quality is a multidimensional problem that cannot be judged by individual characteristics such as the data source, given that data from official statistics may not be per se of good quality and expert estimations may not be per se of bad quality, respectively. It appears that MFA data are never totally accurate and may have certain defects that impair the quality of the data in more than one dimension. The concept of MFA information defects is introduced, and these information defects are mathematically formalized as functions of data characteristics. They are quantified on a scale from 0 (no information defect) to 1 (maximum information defect). The proposed method is illustrated in a case study on palladium flows in Austria. A quantitative evaluation of data quality provides opportunities for understanding and assessing MFA results, their a priori information basis, their reliability in decision making, and data uncertainties. It is a formal step toward better reproducibility and more transparency in MFA.
The global textile fiber production, consumption of textiles and amounts of textile waste are constantly growing. The increase of textile waste has also been demonstrated in sorting studies performed for the municipal solid waste, where the share of textiles has grown. Ideally, recycling and, even more so, reusing textiles can reduce the production of new textiles from virgin materials and hence reduce the use of water, energy and chemicals in the production chain. The aim of the study was to ascertain the flows of textiles and textile waste currently in Finland and assess the environmental performance of the current system. In addition, the possible consequences of a significant increase in the reuse or recycling of discarded textiles were analyzed. Finally, an assessment on the policy measures available for increasing textile circulation was performed.
The validity of material flow analyses (MFAs) depends on the available information base, that is, the quality and quantity of available data. MFA data are cross-disciplinary, can have varying formats and qualities, and originate from heterogeneous sources, such as official statistics, scientific models, or expert estimations. Statistical methods for data evaluation are most often inadequate, because MFA data are typically isolated values rather than extensive data sets. In consideration of the properties of MFA data, a data characterization framework for MFA is presented. It consists of an MFA data terminology, a data characterization matrix, and a procedure for database analysis. The framework facilitates systematic data characterization by cell-level tagging of data with data attributes. Data attributes represent data characteristics and metainformation regarding statistical properties, meaning, origination, and application of the data. The data characterization framework is illustrated in a case study of a national phosphorus budget. This work furthers understanding of the information basis of material flow systems, promotes the transparent documentation and precise communication of MFA input data, and can be the foundation for better data interpretation and comprehensive data quality evaluation.
Consumer decisions on clothing disposal are important from an environmental point of view, as they have an effect on the lifespan of clothing, as well as the potential for reuse and recycling. This article summarizes what is known about consumers' clothing disposal behaviour based on empirical literature published during the past 30 years. The goal of this synthesis is to integrate empirical research, find generalizable results, evaluate the used research methods and identify central issues for future research. Most clothing disposal studies concentrate on disposal channels, behavioural motivations, disposal reasons and demographics of consumers that behave in specified ways. Many consumers prefer to deliver clothing for reuse rather than to dispose of them, but convenience is paramount. Common disposal reasons for apparel were wear and tear, poor fit and fashion or boredom, in addition to lack of storage space. Survey methods are most common, which indicates the need of other research designs that preferably include the clothing items in method triangulation. Studied samples are dominated by young women and students, and research on more heterogeneous samples is needed.
A number of different tools for analysing environmental impacts of different systems have been developed. These include procedural tools such as strategic environmental assessment (SEA) and environmental management systems (EMS) as well as analytical ones such as life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle costing (LCC), cost–benefit analysis (CBA) and the system of economic and environmental accounts (SEEA) including input–output analysis (IOA). Descriptions or scenarios of the future are typically relevant elements in these tools, since they are often used to describe impacts in the future. For futures studies a number of different approaches and techniques have been developed. In an earlier paper we have presented a typology of different types of scenarios that respond to different types of questions. These include predictive scenarios, explorative scenarios and normative scenarios. The aim of this paper is to explore connections between selected tools for environmental systems analysis and different scenario types. Although there is a clear need for futures studies in several tools for environmental systems analysis, it is interesting to note that the literature on methodologies for and case studies of combinations of futures studies and environmental systems analysis tools is rather limited. This suggests that there is a need for further research in this area including both methodology and practical case studies.
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