Evaluating the mechanical and durability properties of sustainable lightweight concrete incorporating the various proportions of waste pumice aggregate

Abstract

Traditional waste management faces significant environmental, social, and economic
challenges, while concrete’s high resource consumption highlights the need for improved, low�density alternatives. Consequently, lightweight concrete (LWC) has emerged as a favored
solution. Recent interest in using pumice aggregate in concrete arises from its advantageous
properties, such as low unit weight, which enables the construction of lighter buildings and
reduces the load on structural elements. This study aimed to create lightweight, sustainable
concrete using underutilized waste pumice aggregate (WPA). Concrete specimens with waste
pumice aggregate ratios of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% were analyzed at 7 and 28 days,
with results contrasted against the virgin sample. The testing protocol encompassed detailed
laboratory evaluations of concrete properties, including workability, density, strength, impact
energy, ultrasonic velocity, water absorption, and cost analysis. Experimental results indicated
that the inclusion of Waste pumice aggregate as a lightweight aggregate in concrete, in contrast
to conventional aggregates, results in reduced workability, density, and strength metrics, as
well as heightened water absorption, diminished impact energy, and lower ultrasonic pulse
velocity. Sustainable or green concrete from M-20 to M-60 along strength ≥17 MPa is for load�bearing applications, while M-80 and M-100 whose strength is <17 MPa are for non-load�bearing uses.

Full text

Evaluating the mechanical and durability properties of sustainable
lightweight concrete incorporating the various proportions of waste
pumice aggregate
Haz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam
a
, Atteq Ur Rehman
a
, Kennedy C. Onyelowe
*,b
,
Sadaf Noshin
a
, Mazhar Yasin
a
, Muhammad Adil Khan
c
, Abid Latif
d
,
Haz Muhammad Usman Aslam
d
, Shabeer Hussain
a
a
Department of Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda
c
Chief Resident Engineer, National Engineering Services Pakistan, Lahore, Pakistan
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Lightweight concrete
Waste pumice aggregate
dry-density
Flexural strength
Indirect Tensile Strength
Compressive strength
ABSTRACT
Traditional waste management faces signicant environmental, social, and economic challenges, while con-
crete’s high resource consumption highlights the need for improved, low-density alternatives. Consequently,
lightweight concrete (LWC) has emerged as a favored solution. Recent interest in using pumice aggregate in
concrete arises from its advantageous properties, such as low unit weight, which enables the construction of
lighter buildings and reduces the load on structural elements. This study aimed to create lightweight, sustainable
concrete using underutilized waste pumice aggregate (WPA). Concrete specimens with waste pumice aggregate
ratios of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 % were analyzed at 7 and 28 days, with results contrasted against the
virgin sample. The testing protocol encompassed detailed laboratory evaluations of concrete properties,
including workability, density, strength, impact energy, ultrasonic velocity, water absorption, and cost analysis.
Experimental results indicated that the inclusion of Waste pumice aggregate as a lightweight aggregate in
concrete, in contrast to conventional aggregates, results in reduced workability, density, and strength metrics, as
well as heightened water absorption, diminished impact energy, and lower ultrasonic pulse velocity. Sustainable
or green concrete from M-20 to M-60 along strength ≥17 MPa is for load-bearing applications, while M-80 and
M-100 whose strength is <17 MPa are for non-load-bearing uses.
1. Introduction
The demand for housing and basic amenities has surged, due to the
accelerating pace of urbanization, and population growth [1,2]. Con-
crete, being cost-effective, easy to produce, adequately durable, resis-
tant to water, moldable into various shapes, and widely available, is the
most extensively used building material after water [3–6], annually,
nearly 3 tons of structural concrete is utilized per person [7,8]. Concrete
is comprised of aggregates, cement, and water [9–11]. Each year, the
construction industry consumes around 1 billion tons of water, 10–12
billion tons of aggregates, and 1.5–2 billion tons of cement [12]. Global
concrete use is about 11.5 billion tons per year and could rise to 18
billion tons by 2050 [13]. Another study estimates current usage at 33
billion tons annually [14].
Fig. 1.
Prominent components of concrete, aggregates, which exist 65–80 %
in concrete by volume, are classied into coarse and ne particles [15,
16]. These key components, varying in size, are seeing growing demand
in construction and infrastructure development [17]. In, 2025, aggre-
gate consumption, is anticipated to reach 10–12.5 billion tons [18]. This
immense demand, for aggregate surpasses the availability of natural
supplies, resulting in their depletion. Additionally, it has been found,
that the production of 1000 kg, of natural aggregate generates 20 kg of
CO
2
, due to quarrying, crushing, and transport [19,20], which causes
environmental degradation [21].
Owing to this, various researchers, recommended the utilization of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kennedychibuzor@kiu.ac.ug (K.C. Onyelowe).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103496
Received 24 September 2024; Received in revised form 2 November 2024; Accepted 21 November 2024
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
Available online 22 November 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).

recycled coarse aggregate [22–33], steel slag aggregate [34–39], waste
glass aggregates [40–46], ceramic waste aggregates [47–50], waste
brick aggregate [51–56], E-waste aggregate [57–60], oil palm shell
aggregate [61–63], coconut shell aggregate [64–69], Expanded Poly-
styrene aggregate [70–76], sawdust ash [77], waste rubber tire aggre-
gate [78–84], and lightweight aggregates [85–90], as a substitution
material of natural aggregate.
In this research, lightweight aggregates, are used as a substitution,
for coarse aggregates. Lightweight aggregates (LWA), are distinguished,
by their reduced bulk density, when compared to traditional construc-
tion aggregates [91]. LWA, with densities under 2000 kg/m³, is utilized
to reduce weight, improve durability, and enhance thermal and acoustic
properties in concrete [92]. A large no. of lightweight materials has been
applied, in the manufacturing, of lightweight concrete (LWC). Various
researchers, recommended so far scoria [93], expanded perlite [94,95],
pumice stone [96,97], diatomite [98], exfoliated vermiculite [99,100],
bloated clay [101], and some byproducts of industrial waste, etc. The
strength, and density of these materials, differ by source, type, and
manufacture method. LWA, properties rely, on the thickness of the shell,
pore characteristics, and aggregate shape. Textures, range from smooth
to irregular, affecting the slump, and water to cement requirements of
concrete mixes [85].
Normal concrete, weighing around 2400 to 2500 kg/m³, is quite
heavy, increasing the size of structural members due to its dead load
[16–18]. Normal concrete type, lightweight concrete (LWC), is gener-
ally, constructed, with the help of lightweight aggregate (LWA) or
expanding agent [17–19,102]. LWC, carrying a dry density, in the range
between 300–1840 kg/m³, which is 23–80 % lighter than normal con-
crete [20]. In structural applications, LWC, has a unit weight, of 1400 to
2000 kg/m³, in contrast to 2400 kg/m³ for normal-weight concrete
(NWC) [21–25].
As per the available literature, various researchers used pumice
aggregate, obtained by the volcanic eruption, known as natural or vol-
canic pumice [96,97,103–109]. In this research, NCA is replaced by
waste pumice aggregate (WPA) to conserve natural resources and pro-
duce sustainable, LWC. Despite this, very limited knowledge is available
about the usage of WPA in concrete, which depicts a research gap in the
literature. Pumice stone (PS) is characterized by its lightweight,
sponge-like structure [110–113]. Over 2000 years ago, "Pulvis
puteolanus," now known as volcanic or pumice pozzolan, was rst used
by the Romans, in structures such as the Pantheon and public baths
[114,115]. LWC, carrying a dry density, in the range between 300–1840
kg/m³, which is 23–80 % lighter than normal concrete [116]. In struc-
tural applications, LWC, has a unit weight, of 1400 to 2000 kg/m³, in
contrast to 2400 kg/m³ for normal-weight concrete (NWC) [117–121].
For this study, WPA, Collected, Umer Siddique (US) apparel industry
(31.399, 74.198), which is used for stone-washing denim, dye removal,
and fabric softening. The resulting, pumice waste, is locally discarded
and collected by locals for uses such as concrete aggregate and lling.
The industry’s location and the WPA collection process are shown in
Fig. 2.
Excess, waste pumice, creates an environmental burden on the
environment. Pakistan’s, textile industry, the 8th-largest in Asia, wastes
over 240 tonnes of pumice stone, annually [122], adding to these
concerns.
The main target, of this research, is to x the above-cited problems,
by applying WPA, discarded by the US apparel industry, for the manu-
facture of easy-to-work, environmentally friendly concrete, and sus-
tainable lightweight concrete, which is not only to save the cost of
landlling but also to save natural resources. To achieve the above
objective, NCA was replaced by WPA, by substitution, as 0 %, 20 %, 40
%,50 %,60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. At this replacement slump, fresh den-
sity, dry density, exural, tensile, compressive strength, impact energy,
water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, and cost analysis were
conducted.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
For the preparation of lightweight, and sustainable concrete, this
study used 53-grade, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), which meets the
requirement, of ASTM C150 [123]. Cement, a common binder, sets,
hardens, and bonds materials. It must, be free of lumps, and impurities,
and stored in dry condition, to preserve quality. The physical and
chemical properties, of OPC, are discussed in Table 1.
River sand, locally known as Lawrencepur sand, is used as ne
aggregate or ller materials, along with a neness modulus of 2.50. Fine
Fig. 1. Graphical abstract of this study.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
2

aggregate, ranging from 4.75 mm to 75
μ
m, is used in concrete, to ll
voids, between coarse aggregates. It must be made strong, clean, hard,
devoid of organic contaminants and harmful compounds, and main-
tained inert. It should meet the required standards, for shrinkage,
strength, density, and durability in concrete applications [96].
Coarse aggregate, serving as an inert, and ller in concrete, consists
of particles, equal to or larger than 4.75 mm. Two coarse aggregates,
NCA, and WPA, both with a nominal maximum size of 20 mm, were
used, to study the properties of lightweight, sustainable concrete. The
physical composition and physical and chemical condition of aggregates
are expressed in Fig. 3, Table 2, and Table 3, respectively. The gran-
ulometric analysis, SEM, and EDX image, along with the chemical po-
sition, of the materials are depicted in Fig. 4, and Fig. 5.
Water, essential for laying, setting, mixing, compaction, and hard-
ening of concrete, affects its strength and durability. In the mix design,
pure laboratory water, which is free from contaminants, and additives,
was used. Materials were chosen, by considering, their cost-
effectiveness, workability, strength, and durability.
2.2. Mix proportions
To achieve the intended objectives, two distinct groups of concrete
were meticulously prepared. In 1st group, a control mixture, specied
as, a virgin sample, designated as “M-0”, without WPA, composed of
cement, river sand, NCA, and water, was created, to assess the me-
chanical properties of the normal concrete. In 2nd group, ve, addi-
tional families of concrete, were produced by substitution of NCA by
WPA, as 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %, by keeping the xed
amount of cement, and river sand. These two groups are explained in
Fig. 6.
For, a virgin sample, the design mix and target strength were 1:1.5:3
and 20MPa along with the 75 mm slump for the production of non-air-
entrained concrete mix. All other mix was produced, using the volume
method, following the ASTM and ACI standards. For the verication of
the strength, of the virgin sample, six cylinders were cast, and testing
after 28 days, of the required curing period, the average, attained
strength of concrete, in compression was 22.72 MPa. Table 4, represents
mixes ID, quantities of materials for virgin as well as sustainable LWC,
and mix proportions, for 1m
3
concrete production.
2.3. Mixing, casting, and curing of the concrete
The Tam et al., [135] technique, known as two-stage mixing, was
Fig. 2. Location of US apparel industry location and WPA collection layout detailed.
Table 1
Physical and chemical characteristics of OPC.
Physical Property Chemical Property
Name of Property Standard Value Element Weight
(%)
Initial time for
setting
ASTM C191–04B
[124]
65 minutes C 18.92
Final time for setting 3 hrs 18
minutes
O 40.73
Specic gravity (Sg) ASTM C188 [125] 3.15 Mg 0.96
Compressive
strength (28 Days)
ASTM C109/
C109M–21 [126]
68.26
(MPA)
Al 1.39
Si 4.29
Soundness BS: 196–3 [127] 9.3 S 2.21
K 1.13
Consistency (%) ASTM C187–04
[128]
28.5 Ca 28.96
Fe 1.41
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
3

opted to prepare, LWC. A cement paste was shaped, by mixing water,
cement, and followed by the progressive integration of WPA, which was
stirred continuously for 10 minutes. Subsequently, NCA and sand were
used to increase the characteristics of the sustainable concrete. For the
production, of the M20 grade mix design, materials were combined,
using a 0.6 w/b ratio. Five other families, of concrete, were also shaped,
using WPA by substitution of coarse aggregate (CA), at ratios, of 0 %, 20
%, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. The casting specimen size, type, age at
which samples were tested, total no. of samples, and procedure opted of
the ASTM specications, were cited in Table 5. Fig. 7, depicts the
sequentially phenomena for mixing, sample concrete preparation,
compaction, curing, workability, and cylinder testing.
2.4. Testing methods of specimens
The slump cone test, performed in accordance with ASTM C143, was
used to assess the workability, of the newly mixed concrete. Following
the aforementioned mixing process, three slump cones were simulta-
neously lled to evaluate consistency. The mean value of the three
measurements is taken in this research. It is widely acknowledged, that
the workability of a concrete blend, is characterized, by its consistency,
and uidity [144,145]. The density of the concrete specimen was
assessed in accordance with ASTM C138. The dry weights of cylindrical
specimens (150 mm x 300 mm), of known volume were measured, and
after that, the density of the concrete was evaluated by utilizing the
mass-volume relationship. The average value, derived from these six
measurements, is representative of the density of the concrete mix.
Density, which is largely governed, by lightweight aggregate quantity,
and density controls several physical attributes, in lightweight concrete
[146]. The mechanical strength, of hardened concrete, was assessed
through compressive strength (CS), tensile strength (TS), and exural
strength (FS) tests, in accordance with ASTM C39, ASTM C496, and
ASTM C78 standards. Cylindrical specimens (150 mm x 300 mm), and
prisms (150 mm x 150 mm x 510 mm) were casted. A compression
Fig. 3. Physical composition of NCA, and WPA used in this research.
Table 2
Physical properties of FA, NCA, WPA.
Physical characteristics FA NCA WPA Standard
Fineness Modulus (FM) 2.50 7.11 7.25 ASTM
C136–06 [129]
Compacted Density (rodded)
(kg/m
3
)
1827.25 1638.37 537.21 ASTM C29
[130]
Lose Density (kg/m
3
) 1735.46 1450.52 484.15
Bulk Specic gravity (S
G
) 2.61 2.49 0.70 ASTM C127
[131],
ASTM C128
[132]
Bulk Saturated surface dry
Specic gravity (S
ssd
)
2.64 2.51 1.06
Apparent specic gravity
(S
app
)
2.70 2.54 1.09
Water absorption ( %) 1.26 0.80 50.82
Impact Value ( %) - 8.5 21.6 BS-812
part112 [133]
Crushing Value ( %) - 11.95 36.54 BS-812
part110 [134]
Table 3
Chemical properties of FA, NCA, WPA.
Chemical Elements FA NCA WPA
Weight ( %)
C 27.95 22.21 13.93
O 46.86 44.9 47.81
Na 0.75 0.85 1.78
Mg 1 2.36 -
Al 5.84 4.16 5.46
Si 13.34 9.73 22.49
K 0.97 1.05 2.48
Ca 1.51 6.4 0.69
Fe 1.78 6.89 1.74
Fig. 4. Gradation curves of NCA, WPA, and FA.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
4

testing machine (CTS), having a capacity of, a total load application is
2000KN, was used for assessing CS, and TS. Fs was obtained by the
“Three-point Loading Test”. Results were achieved on samples aged 7
and 28 days under normal water curing. The impact energy (IE), of the
concrete specimens, was founded, with the help of drop weight
hammering effect apparatus, on a circular disk (100mm x 63.5mm), by
using the specication of ACI 544.2R-89. Hammering drops were
applied, until the rst crack appeared, recording the number of drops.
Drops then continued, until the specimen broke into fragments. Impact
energies of concrete were measured, by initial and nal crack specimens.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method, a non-destructive tech-
nique, has been extensively employed, in the assessment and analysis, of
concrete structures’ mechanical properties, and integrity, by using
ASTM C597. UPV was measured using a pulse meter with a transducer
pair operating at a nominal frequency of 54 kHz. This method involves
transmitting a wave pulse into the concrete and measuring the travel
time for the pulse to propagate through the samples, which is useful for
assessing concrete quality and strength. The durability of concrete mixes
was assessed by measuring water absorption (WA), in samples that are
50 mm thick and 100 mm in diameter, as specied by ASTM C1585. This
involved recording W
1
, the 48-hour oven-dried weight of each specimen
at 60◦C, and W
2
, the weight of the specimen after 48 hours of immersion
in water, with a saturated surface-dried condition.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Concrete properties in the fresh state
3.1.1. Workability of concrete
The substitution dosages of WPA inuence, the ow characteristic of
Fig. 5. Exhibited SEM, EDX, of used samples at cited magnication (a) OPC; (b) FA;(c) NCA; and (d) WPA.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
5

pumice-based concrete. To demonstrate, the impact of these dosages, on
the workability, of concrete mixtures, slump ow tests, were conducted
on controls and a sustainable LWC group, and the results of each group
are shown in Fig. 8. Results depict, at every substitution level, of WPA %,
slump values decreased, which is from 11.69 to 53.25 %. The observed
decrease, in slump or workability, linked to the increased percentage of
waste pumice aggregate (WPA), incorporated into the concrete mix, can
be attributed to its elevated porosity, which leads to a higher rate of
water absorption in comparison to conventional aggregates [147,148].
3.2. Concrete properties in the hardened state
3.2.1. Dry density of concrete (Dry unit weight)
Alengaram et al. [149], observed that density is inuenced by the
waste material replacement levels, specic gravity, water-cement ratio,
water absorption, and sand type. But, in this research, the density of
control, and sustainable LWC samples were compared, by changing the
only waste material replacement levels. From the results, it is clear, that
a wide range of concrete densities can be produced, by incorporating
WPA, at different volume percentages in normal concrete, at 7 and 28
days of the curing period. The density of M-0, is 2696.43kg/m
3
,
compared with the M-100 has 1739.62 kg/m
3
, which is less, and the
trend from 20–100 % inclusion WPA, density also decreased presented
In Fig. 9. This decrease was noticed from 10.64–31.22 % at 7 days, while
12.71–35.48 % at 28 days of cured sample. This reduction is because of,
less unit weight or the porous nature of the concrete, cited by
[150–153].
3.2.2. Compressive strength of the concrete
CS is affected by the degree of compaction, matrix strength, cement
Fig. 6. Virgin, and sustainable concrete group used in this research.
Table 4
Quantities of materials for 1 m
3
concrete used in this research.
Mixes ID OPC
(Kg /m
3
)
Rivers Sand (Kg
/m
3
)
NCA
(Kg /m
3
)
WPA
(Kg /m
3
)
Water
(Kg /m
3
)
M-0 349 523.5 1047 0 209.4
M-20 349 523.5 837.6 68.11 209.4
M-40 349 523.5 628.2 136.22 209.4
M-60 349 523.5 418.8 204.33 209.4
M-80 349 523.5 209.4 272.44 209.4
M-100 349 523.5 0 340.55 209.4
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
6

content, aggregate strength, and water-to-cement ratio [154]. In this
work, LWA, having less strength as compared to NCA, was used to assess
the CS of LWC. The replacement levels of NCA by WPA were kept at
20–100 %, with a 20 % difference for each mix. The obtained results are
depicted in Fig. 10. From the results, it is noticed that the CS of the virgin
sample is higher than the produced LWC. But, overall CS, of the sus-
tainable LWC, is decreasing from 9.92–46.05 %, and 9.31–48.91 % at 7,
and 28 days of cured samples, respectively. Previous work, also
explained that using natural or volcanic pumice, in concrete causes a
reduction in the strength, because of the lightweight, porous, and less
unit weight of WPA, as explained by [155,156].
Besides this, the SEM micrographs of the fracture surfaces of normal
and optimized waste pumice aggregate concrete samples at 28 days are
shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. 11 (a), the micrograph of normal aggregate
concrete revealed the aky crystals development, which is identied as
Portlandite (CH), alongside a dense layer of C-S-H gel, which assisted in
the concrete, as the principal strength-contributing phase. This “C-S-H”
gel provides the binding and strength-enhancing properties of the mix.
The 28-day SEM images for normal aggregate concrete indicated a dense
microstructure with minimal ettringite and CH crystals, and the surface
appeared almost entirely enclosed by C-S-H gel. While in contrast,
Fig. 11 (b) shows the microstructure of waste pumice aggregate con-
crete. In this sample, aky crystals of Portlandite (CH), C-S-H gel, and
occasional needle-like ettringite structures were observed. The 28-day
SEM images of recycled aggregate concrete displayed a greater pres-
ence of pores compared to normal aggregate concrete. Over time, many
of these pore voids became gradually occupied from C-S-H gel, resulting
in a dense and solid microstructure, that pointedly improved durability
as well as the strength, of both normal and waste pumice aggregate
concrete, which is aligned with [157–159]. The failure pattern of normal
along with sustainable concrete presented in Fig. 12.
The failure pattern against uni-axial compression load, and
Table 5
Details of specimen size, type, testing age, ASTM followed total no samples.
Test performed on concrete Size of Specimen
(mm)
Type of Specimen Age of samples testing (Days) ASTM code opted for a test Total no. of samples
Workability test D
(t)
*
=
100
D
(b)
*
=
200
H*=300
Conical - ASTM C143 [136] Conducted on each mixture
Density (Dry) 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C138 [137] 42
Compressive Strength 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C39 [138]
Tensile Strength 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C496 [139] 42
Flexural Strength 150×150×510 Prism 7, 28 ASTM C78 [140] 42
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 150×300 Cylinder 28 ASTM C597 [141] Conducted on each sample of CS
Water absorption 100×50 Circular Disk 7,28 ASTM C1585 [142] 42
Drop weight Test 100×63.5 Circular Disk 28 ACI 544.2R-89 [143] 25
Note: D
(t)
*
=
Cone dia at the Top; D
(b)
*
=
Cone dia at the base; and H* =Elevation of the cone.
Fig. 7. Procedure for (a) Mixing; (b) Preparing concrete samples; (c) compaction; (d)Curing; (e) Slum measurement; and (d) cylinder testing.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
7

morphology of aggregates of the samples are presented in Fig. 15, and
Fig. 16, respectively.
3.2.3. Indirect tensile strength of the concrete
To assess, the impact of WPA %, on the TS of concrete, LWC was
made by substitution levels of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %.
Fig. 8. Slump variation against the various waste pumice-based concrete.
Fig. 9. Effect of WPA % on the density of concrete against 7, and 28-day age of samples.
Fig. 10. Effect of WPA % on the CS of concrete against 7, and 28-day age of samples.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
8

Results are portrayed, in Fig. 13, which indicates TS of normal concrete
is higher than the LWC, produced by using WPA. The TS, of LWC, is
decreasing from 10.19–57.32 %, at 7 days, while 5.80–53.53 %, at 28
days of aging concrete, when 20–100 % dosages of WPA were used in the
place of NCA. This decrease in behaviors of TS of LWC is mostly
acknowledged, by various researchers, owing to, lower unit weight,
porosity, and inferior quality of WPA [160–165]. The failure pattern of
the samples, subjected to an indirect tension test, is illustrated in Fig. 14.
3.2.4. Flexural strength of the concrete
The impact of LWAs, on FS, has been shown by various authors.
Minapu [151] found that the inclusion of natural pumice aggregate as
10–50 %, along with the 10 % difference for each mix, caused a
reduction in FS, 10–53 %. Similarly, Pravallika and Rao [166], also
noticed by using natural pumice 10–50 %, with 10 %increment for each
mix, FS reduced by 3–31 % at 7 days, while 0.61–30.36 % at 28 days age
of concrete. This research, used WPA, as a replacement for NCA, 20–100
%, by a difference of 20 % for each mix. Results obtained, shown in
Fig. 15, indicated that at 7 days, FS decreased from 9.05–65.85 %, while
at 28 days, FS reduced from 12.25–75 %. This negative impact, high-
lighted by various researchers, owing to, less unit weight, loading ca-
pacity, porous or inferior quality of the WPA, as cited by [167–169]. The
failure conguration of the samples, when subjected to a three-point
loading, is elucidated in Fig. 16.
3.2.5. Impact energy of the concrete
The impact resistance (IR), and impact energy (IE) of concrete, are
contingent upon the type of reinforcement, strength, aggregate size, and
shape [170]. It is revealed, by the results, presented in Fig. 17, that a
lower nal IE, is attained as the dosages of WPA are increased. This
reduction in IE was 26.67 %, 34.71 %, 65.35 %, 75.95 %, and 86.67 % at
1st crack generation, while 12.10 %,22.91 %,51.32 %,65.93, and 80.25
% at the failure state, in contrast to virgin samples at 28 days of age of
the concrete, when 20–100 % WPA was used, with a 20 % difference for
each mix. This reduction in IE resulted, was because of, the lower unit
weight, and compressive strength of the LWC, as cited by [171]. From
the above nding, it is also clear that as the IE, of the LWC, reduced, the
IR also decreased, because an initial and nal crack generation, in the
Fig. 11. SEM Micrographs of the normal as well as sustainable concrete against 28-day age of samples.
Fig. 12. Failure behavior of cited samples under compression load at the 28-
day age of samples.
Fig. 13. Effect of WPA % dosages on the TS of concrete at 7, and 28-day age of samples.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
9

circular sample, was early as compared to the control sample. The fail-
ure morphology of the samples, when subjected to impact loading, is
elucidated in Fig. 18.
3.2.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test
Numerous factors inuence UPV, such as the type of LWAs, the
water-to-cement ratios, and the weight ratio of each type of aggregate to
the total aggregate content [172]. To assess this variation, LWAs (WPA)
were used for the preparation of LWC, and tested against the UPV test, at
the age of 28 days. Results are depicted in Fig. 19, which showed that the
UPV of virgin samples was 4.96 Km/sec, while the other was 4.34, 3.88,
3.29, 2.33, and 1.83 Km/sec which indicates a negative impact on UPV,
as the WPA increased. This indicated that, as the inclusion of WPA,
increased up to 100 % from 20 %, the time required for the pulse to
travel through a virgin sample was shorter compared to that of concrete
samples containing WPA, which caused a decrease in UPV. This occurs
Fig. 14. Failure of cited samples by indirect tension test at the 28-day age of samples.
Fig. 15. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the FS of concrete at 7, and 28-day age.
Fig. 16. Failure conguration of the samples, when subjected to three-point loading at the 28-day age of samples.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
10

due to the porosity or reduced density of the concrete, as corroborated
by [173–176].
3.2.7. Water absorption of the concrete
The WA, of concrete is inuenced by factors such as the presence of
mineral admixtures, concrete composition, curing age, and size [177].
For this, in this research, LWC was made, by replacing the NCA by WPA,
from 20 to 100 %, by volume, at the increment level of 20 % for each
mix. WA was evaluated by keeping, the temperature of the oven was
60◦C, and found at 48 hours, at the age of 7 and 28 days. Results ob-
tained are presented in Fig. 20, which indicates the escalation trend of
WA, as the WPA increased in concrete. The WA of the virgin sample is
lower as compared to WPA concrete. The increase in WA of the concrete
from 47.78–74.89 % at 7 days of curing sample, while 45.36–76.33 % at
Fig. 17. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the IE of concrete at 28 days of aging.
Fig. 18. Failure morphology of the samples, when subjected to impact loading at 28 days of aging.
Fig. 19. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the UPV at 28 days of aging.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
11

28 days of cured sample, when the WPA, introduced in concrete from
20–100 % by volume. The observed increase in WA, of pumice-based
concrete, as reported by various researchers [178,179], can be attrib-
uted to the higher air void content (spongy nature) or elevated water
absorption properties of pumice aggregates.
3.2.8. Cost analysis of the concrete
In any construction project, concrete is deemed an essential element,
and its cost is contingent upon the prices of the raw materials used in its
production. The comprehensive cost of a project encompasses not only
the expenses related to materials and construction but also includes
maintenance and end-of-life costs [180]. But, in this study, the cost of
preparing 1 cubic meter of normal concrete, for construction works, is
evaluated by considering the per kg ingredients cost of materials
(cement, sand, Crush, and waste pumice aggregate), used in the virgin as
well as sustainable concrete materials, which obtained based on the
most current market quotations [181,182]. This cost varies by changing
the target strength, mix ratio, materials density, water-to-cement ratios,
and dry-to-wet volume factors. This decrease in cost is due to the in-
clusion of waste coarse aggregate, which is collected from industry,
without any cost [183–185]. This saved cost can be used for improving
lifestyle as well as in improving the structural works.
The mix prepared using the volumetric method, reveals that the cost
of pumice-based concrete decreases by 5.6 % to 28 %, when NCA is
substituted with WPA, in quantities ranging from 20 % to 100 %. Fig. 21
shows the increasing cost trend for waste pumice-based concrete with
20–60 % WPA, relative to 1 to 5 cubic meters of concrete.
3.3. Correlation developed between dry density and various experimental
parameters
Fig. 22 (a, b, c), depicts the trends of the mechanical strength against
the density, of normal as well as sustainable concrete, at the curing ages
of 7 and 28 days. It is clear from the trends, as the density of the concrete
enhanced, the mechanical strength of the normal as well as sustainable
concrete, also enhanced. These trends are developed by the curve tting
techniques, known as polynomial regression analysis (PRA). This tech-
nique developed R
2
values, greater than 0.9, which portrays the degree,
to which regression models, accurately present trends of mechanical
strength, against the density at the concerned ages of concrete. Simi-
larly, Fig. 22 (d, e), represents the trends of impact energy, at the initial
and failure stage, and ultrasonic pulse velocity, which also indicates the
increasing trends against the density of the concrete. Their PRA models
provided R
2
values, also greater than 0.9. On the other hand, Fig. 22 (f)
depicts, that as the density of the concrete increased, the percentage of
water absorption reduced, owing to the dense packing or less percentage
amount of waste pumice aggregate in concrete. Their PRA model indi-
cated that the R
2
value is also greater than 0.9, which explains the ac-
curacy of water absorption data against the density. Future researchers,
from the above-cited models, can make his viewpoint, regarding opti-
mized concrete mixtures, and predict the performance of normal as well
as sustainable concrete. While the designer, optimizes the mix design of
Fig. 20. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the WA against 7, and 28 days of aging.
Fig. 21. Cost-saving trends for pumice-based concrete across different volumes and WPA replacement percentages.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
12

concrete, for specic applications, of both normal as well as sustainable
concrete. The specic values and correlations of these properties, based
on the percentage of WPA, quality, and concrete mix design, are detailed
below:
4. Conclusions
In this work, comprehensive experimental analyses were under-
taken, to investigate the properties of lightweight aggregate concrete,
utilizing waste lightweight pumice aggregate, as the primary coarse
aggregate. A cost-effective, eco-friendly, and easily workable concrete
was developed by substituting coarse aggregate in increments of 0 %, 20
%, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. This approach not only reduces landll
expenses but also conserves natural resources. The properties of the
mixtures were evaluated in both their fresh and hardened states. The
following conclusions have been derived from this study:
1. The workability of waste pumice-based concrete is reduced at each
level of replacement, compared to natural coarse aggregate. This
decrease is due to the pumice’s lightweight, and higher water ab-
sorption, all of which result in a lower concrete slump.
2. At each substitution level, the unit weight of waste pumice-based
concrete is consistently reduced in both, its fresh and hardened
states. This reduction is attributed to the inherently spongy nature
and lower density of pumice aggregate compared to virgin aggre-
gate, thereby yielding lightweight concrete.
3. Mechanical properties, such as exural, compressive, and tensile, of
waste pumice-based concrete, exhibit a progressively negative trend,
Fig. 22. Correlation developed between dry density and various experimental parameters.
H.M.S. Aslam et al.
Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496
13

at each level of substitution, and curing period. This decline is
ascribed to the material’s reduced density, increased porosity, and
structural frailty.
4. Impact resistance, and impact energy absorption capacities of waste
pumice-based concrete, demonstrate a progressively diminishing
trend, at each substitution level following 28 days of curing. This
attenuation is attributable, to the inherent lightweight properties,
and compromised compressive strength characteristic of pumice-
based concrete.
5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests reveal decreased quality and velocity
in concrete, with higher waste pumice aggregate percentages after
28 days, due to increased pulse transmission time from structural
changes and porosity.
6. Water absorption in Waste pumice aggregate concrete demonstrates
an escalating trend at curing ages of 7 and 28 days, with each
increment in substitution level surpassing that of the virgin sample.
This progression is attributed to the intrinsic high sponginess and
elevated water absorption properties of waste pumice aggregate.
7. Cost analysis for 1m³ of waste pumice-based concrete, reveals a 5–28
% reduction compared to the virgin sample, due to the replacement
of costly natural coarse aggregate, with waste pumice aggregate,
which is freely available from the apparel industry.
8. Produced concrete is deemed sustainable, aligning with Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) like industry innovation, sustainable
cities, responsible consumption, climate action, and life on land.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Haz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam: Writing – original draft, Vali-
dation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.
Atteq Ur Rehman: Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization.
Kennedy C. Onyelowe: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Vali-
dation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.
Sadaf Noshin: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation,
Conceptualization. Mazhar Yasin: Supervision, Formal analysis,
Conceptualization. Muhammad Adil Khan: Methodology, Data cura-
tion, Conceptualization. Abid Latif: Writing – original draft, Supervi-
sion, Investigation, Conceptualization. Haz Muhammad Usman
Aslam: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Investiga-
tion. Shabeer Hussain: Validation, Methodology, Formal analysis.
Declaration of competing interest
We afrm that there are no known conicts of interest related to this
publication, and there has been no signicant nancial support for this
research that might have inuenced its outcomes.
We further certify that the manuscript has been reviewed and
approved by all authors named, and no other individuals meet the
criteria for authorship but are omitted. Additionally, the order of au-
thors as presented in the manuscript is agreeable to all of us.
Intellectual property and publication compliance
We acknowledge that we have given thorough consideration to
safeguarding the intellectual property associated with this work and can
conrm that no obstacles exist for publication, including any concerns
about the timing of publication in relation to intellectual property. We
afrm that our actions are in accordance with the intellectual property
regulations of our respective institutions.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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