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EXPLORING OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES USING TRANSLANGUAGING PEDAGOGY TO DEVELOP READING COMPREHENSION: A STUDY OF INDIAN MULTILINGUAL CLASSROOMS
Abstract
Indian classrooms are multilingual by default though learners’ multilingual resources are not always utilized to their fullest potential. The aim was to develop comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in English of fifth-grade learners through the translanguaging pedagogy. For the present study, four participant English teachers from low SES government primary schools in Hyderabad were trained to design lesson plans based on the translanguaging reading model. The teachers were observed in four lessons, based on which narrative notes were written to understand the teachers’ translanguaging practices. The opportunities and challenges they faced while implementing the lesson plans were mapped through narrative notes of the classroom observations and teacher views expressed in semi- structured interviews. The findings of the study suggest that the teachers were able to integrate translingual strategies to develop vocabulary knowledge by using learners’ L1 knowledge and elicit meaning, as well as help them make inferences by using a variety of questions to draw links between text-based ideas and their schemata or background knowledge. The difficulties of implementing translanguaging steps in a systematic manner and lack of teachers’ reflecting habits were found to be significant challenges. The study has implications for teacher education and policy recommendations for promoting translanguaging pedagogy in multilingual contexts like India. It affirms that learners’ first languages are resources in the classroom that can pave a way for inclusivity and equity in education.
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English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has recently dominated language-in-education policies in South Asia while bilingual/multi-lingual practices have historically been the norm in primary and secondary education. Although the research on translanguaging is rapidly undertaken in English-only spaces in other world regions (e.g. North America), such studies are rare in South Asia. To this end, this conceptual article focuses on EMI research and policies in South Asia and discusses how the use of multiple languages or trans-languaging is practiced in EMI classrooms, what kinds of scholarly judgments are given to such translingual practices, and what ideological limitations exist in translanguaging practices. We show that translanguaging practices are traditional norms in South Asian EMI classrooms but not necessarily a planned pedagogic approach. It is, rather, a spontaneous practice used as a 'coping strategy' of English language domination. We also discuss how seeing elite bilingualism (English plus a national dominant language) as translanguaging can be a liberal approach perpetuating unequal language hierarchies in education. Therefore, we argue that 'critical translanguaging' should resist nationalist and neoliberal ideologies that position languages and their users unequally, and instead protect the language , culture, and identity of those who have historically received marginalization. ARTICLE HISTORY
The majority of Indian classrooms are highly multilingual, particularly in urban areas where increasing internal migration is leading to further language diversity. Recent evidence collected under the MultiLila project documented teachers and students using multiple languages to facilitate comprehension in the classroom. However, while this and evidence from other literature concur that these multilingual practices are prevalent in both English and regional medium schools, teachers are not always aware of the why and how of using these strategies for pedagogical gain.
The authors undertook to further explore how teachers could use multilingual practices in primary school education in a principled and planned manner and examine the impact of teacher training on the use of multilingual strategies and attitudes of a group of primary school teachers in Hyderabad. The project involved four main components. First, a workshop was conducted with 22 teachers from Hyderabad to discuss their beliefs and attitudes in using different languages in class, followed by practising a range of multilingual activities to support teacher–pupil interaction. Subsequently, phone calls and classroom observations documented and analysed the extent to which the teachers were able to implement their learning. Finally, three teachers were filmed to create a resource depicting different ways of promoting multilingual culture in class. The authors conclude with some recommendations for how teachers in similar contexts can be enabled to make more informed choices on purposefully using multiple languages to support learning in multilingual classrooms.
This paper reports on a comparative case study of the multilingual practices of eight secondary teachers of English from across India, all identified as experts of their contexts using multiple criteria. Both qualitative and quantitative data from classroom observations, interviews and other sources were collected, analysed and compared across cases. It finds that, while there was noticeable variation among the participants, all engaged in complex translingual practices that were inclusive of their learners' languages, invariably prioritising learner participation over language choice. It also finds that, in each context, learners invariably mirrored the varied translingual practices of their teachers, and that the practices of the classroom community were found to be reflective of practices in wider Indian society, enabling learners both to meet the normative requirements of monolingual written exams while also learning to integrate English more flexibly in their spoken repertoires. Given these findings, two recommendations are offered for educational policy and practice, both in India and comparable multilingual contexts across the Global South: for policy-makers and institutions to avoid the unqualified endorsement of monolingual target language (e.g. 'English-only') practices in language instruction, and for teachers to prioritise learner inclusion in classroom discourse and activities over maximal target language use.
The aim of the study was to find out to what extent low socio-economic status (SES) children enrolled in government-run primary schools in Hyderabad are ready to receive instruction through the medium of English (English medium instruction [EMI]). To this end we investigated children’s oral vocabulary skills, the lexical complexity of their textbooks, as well as the amount of English input they receive in class. A subsample of 90 children from primary school Grades 4 and 5 who opted to carry out a story retelling task in English rather than in Telugu took part in the study. Results reveal that the children’s oral vocabulary levels are far below the levels required to read the textbook materials. The lexical diversity of the children’s stories as analysed with the Index of Guiraud was also a significant predictor of their reading comprehension scores. We conclude that children from low-SES enrolled in government schools are not ready for EMI, and call for further investigation into the levels of English vocabulary knowledge that are needed for EMI.
This thesis reports on a comparative case study of teacher expertise involving eight teachers of English working in state-sponsored secondary education in varied contexts across India, each identified using multiple criteria. An original, participatory design involved a planning workshop prior to data collection to enable participants to contribute to the study’s research questions and plan other outputs of use. Qualitative and quantitative data were analysed to identify similarities and differences both among participants and in relation to prior research on teacher expertise. The findings document many shared features and practices among these expert teachers, which were usually less frequently observed among their colleagues, including well developed PCK and English proficiency, beliefs in building learner self-confidence, engaging learners and ensuring understanding of lesson content. In the classroom participants demonstrated warm, inclusive, supportive relationships with learners. Key similarities in pedagogic practices include the frequent use of interactive whole-class teaching balanced with regular learner-independent activities including both collaborative learning and active monitoring to provide differentiated individual support. Their professionalism was underpinned by extensive reflection, lifelong learning and care for their learners, whose opinions they valued most. Variation among participants was most evident in classroom practices, revealing clinal differences relating to their conception of subject and degree of control over classroom processes. While multilingual practices also varied, all participants were inclusive of their learners’ languages and used them themselves. Strong agreement with the findings of prior studies of teacher expertise was also found, although important differences include participants’ prioritisation of inclusion and confidence-building over setting high standards, their focus on learner understanding over higher-order thinking skills and their varied strategies for helping learners assimilate content from highly ambitious curricula. Implications for research on teacher expertise, particularly in the Global South, improving teaching quality in low-income contexts, and teacher education in India are explored.
India's linguistic diversity is reflected in classrooms across the country, where multiple languages are used by teachers and learners to negotiate meaning and instruction-a multilingual, multicultural student body is the norm, whether in urban or rural contexts. This study documents teaching practices in English language and maths lessons in Delhi and Hyderabad, with a specific focus on language use. The findings from 104 classroom observations allow us to profile multilingual practices used in schools with different official mediums of instruction. Results reveal a predominant use of 'language mixing' in the classroom, in both English-and regional language-medium of instruction contexts-especially in English subject lessons. Maths lessons in regional-medium schools did not involve as much language mixing by the teachers but this was still a strong feature for learners. The data also shows differences between language use particularly when comparing English-medium schools in each city. Specifically, lessons in Delhi were characterised by absolutely no occurrences of English used on its own by the teachers (as recorded during five-minute intervals), compared to significantly greater use of English alone in Hyderabad English-medium and Telugu-medium schools. Delhi teachers appear to use a greater amount of language mixing during each lesson.
In this paper, a series of ESL classroom observations of a teacher in an Indian primary level government run school are presented to show concrete uses of translanguaging. Translanguaging practices were based on the inputs the teacher received from a training programme on using multilingual strategies to teach language and content. It is observed that the teacher applies translanguaging to clarify concepts using contrastive elaboration, instruct students, practice discourse based management, prepare students for classroom activities, and help them communicate. She also reflects upon her experience of translanguaging which shows her plans to use students’ L1 more systematically like by drawing lexical and form based comparisons between Telugu, Hindi (L1s) and English. Instances of use of translanguaging or fluid ways of communicating using two or three languages by this teacher and her experiences in using this approach help in validating the concept for advancing school skills in students from low SES groups who would have not otherwise been able to understand the lessons if taught in the strict monolingual mode.
Multilingualism and linguistic diversity are the norm in India. Although studies have shown a relation between bilingualism and cognitive gains, linguistic diversity has as of yet been ignored as a potential factor affecting cognitive skills. This study aims to fill this gap by examining how cognitive skills - as measured by the n-back and Raven's Colored Progressive Matrices tasks - are affected by multilingualism and/or sociolinguistic diversity in a large cohort of socioeconomically disadvantaged primary school children in two urban sites of India, Delhi and Hyderabad. We present a questionnaire estimating sociolinguistic diversity, and show that this measure assesses a distinct construct as compared to a child’s multilingualism. Children were classified as growing up monolingually or bilingually depending on whether they were growing up with one or more languages in the home. Regarding cognitive performance, bilinguals were found to outperform monolinguals on the n-back task as well as on the Raven's task. In addition, a socially and linguistically diverse environment seems to enhance cognitive performance for children who are not multilingual themselves. Finally, several contextual factors, such as city were found to influence cognitive performance. Overall, this shows that cognitive tasks are prone to contextual effects and that bilingualism and linguistic diversity can enhance cognitive performance of children in disadvantaged contexts.
This article provides a critical review of English medium instruction (EMI) policy/practices in the K-12 multilingual schools in South Asia, especially in Nepal, India, and Pakistan. Employing Bourdieu's (1993) lens of "linguistic capital" and "linguistic marketplace," the article takes stock of (a) the development of EMI and its ideological and pedagogic motivations, (b) the models of EMI policy in relation to mother-tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) and their practices, and (c) social justice concerns that arise from such policies/practices. As the review of research and policy/practices reveals, EMI is ideologically perceived as a means of acquiring the linguistic capital, often believed to provide access to the global economy; and, therefore, a liberating tool for socioeconomically minoritized groups. Such ideology has, then, oriented the concerned bodies to position EMI within the framework of MTB-MLE in South Asian countries, creating the discourse of inequality and injustice for different social groups. The article continues the argument that the language policies, which are being developed/practiced in the lure of economic globalization, ignoring the local realities, become a source of marginalization along the lines of class, ethnicity, gender, and regions.
In the Indian context, concerns have been raised for many years about the learning outcomes of primary school children. The complexity of the issue makes it difficult to advise stakeholders on what needs to be done to improve learning in primary schools in India. As it has been shown that low socio-economic status is one of the key factors that negatively affect learning outcomes, the focus of the Multilila project (‘Multilingualism and multiliteracy: Raising learning outcomes in challenging contexts in primary schools across India’) is on educational achievement among children of low socio-economic status. In following the development of language, literacy, maths and cognitive abilities of primary school children over two years we hope to throw new light on why multilingual children in India do not always experience the cognitive advantages associated with multilingualism in other contexts. This paper focuses on some of the methodological challenges faced by this project. After explaining the rationale for the study, we sketch the contribution this project can make to the discussion about cognitive advantages of bilingualism. We then focus on the Indian context before presenting the methodology of the project (design, participants, instruments and procedure). Finally, we summarize the key challenges for the project and possible solutions to those challenges, and present an outlook towards the future.
This paper reports on an exploratory survey investigating both translingual practices in English language classrooms in India and attitudes towards translanguaging and L1 use among teachers surveyed. 169 teachers from primary, secondary, tertiary and adult sectors responded to 33 quantitative and six qualitative items investigating nine research questions. The majority of respondents reported making only occasional use of other languages in English language classrooms, most often for comparing and contrasting language features, explaining concepts, managing the classroom and translating for learners. Only a minority of teachers reported actively facilitating translanguaging during language practice activities. English medium institutions were found to be less tolerant of L1-use practices than non-English medium institutions. More experienced teachers were more likely to express more pro-translanguaging beliefs and report more L1-inclusive practices. Important differences between urban, semi-urban and rural contexts were also found, indicative of a need for varied, context-sensitive approaches to multilingual practices in English classrooms across India. We argue that there is a need for an explicit focus on use of other languages in Indian English language teacher education and suggest more cohesive support for translingual practices across the education system. We also propose an additional ‘inclusive position’ to Macaro’s (2001 Macaro, E. 2001. “Analysing Student Teachers’ Codeswitching in Foreign Language Classrooms: Theories and Decision Making.” The Modern Language Journal 85 (4): 531–548. doi: 10.1111/0026-7902.00124[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) three ‘codeswitching’ positions.
This article analyzes how emergent bilinguals discursively support one another during literacy activities in a cross-aged peer-tutoring program in their elementary school. Drawing from Vygotskian sociocultural theory, we frame peer supports as developing a zone of relevance that fosters and sustains peer engagement in literacy discussions. Microgenetic analysis reveals how children worked together and supported one another through discursive moves that provided social, linguistic, and cognitive supports. By analyzing how children encourage elaborative conversation toward meaning-making of texts, this study contributes to deeper understandings of how multilingual children can engage in high-quality interactions together in literacy classrooms. Our findings have implications for further research concerning discursive mediation emergent bilinguals do together as they engage in literacy practices and suggest that educators listen for, acknowledge, and encourage these rich mediational strategies in peer interactions.
The present study aimed to investigate the overall and relative contribution of four subcomponents of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension. The four vocabulary subcomponents were vocabulary size, word association knowledge, collocation knowledge, and morphological knowledge. The participants were 124 college students from a university in Taipei, Taiwan. Six instruments were employed: (1) a reading comprehension test, (2) a vocabulary size test, (3) a test on word association knowledge and collocation knowledge, (4) a test of morphological knowledge, (5) motivation attitude scale, and (6) a self-efficacy scale. The results can be summarized as follows. First, after the effects of motivation and self-efficacy have been controlled, the four vocabulary subcomponents altogether contributed significantly (20%) to reading comprehension performance. Moreover, depth of vocabulary knowledge (including word association knowledge, collocation knowledge, and morphological knowledge) provided an additional explained variance (6%) in reading comprehension performance over and above vocabulary size. Finally, among the three subcomponents of depth of vocabulary knowledge, collocation knowledge explained the most proportion of variance (5.6%) in contributing to performance on reading comprehension. Based on these findings, some implications and suggestions for future research were provided.
The underlying study aims to investigate and analyze the actual reasons, attitudes, and purposes behind the use of the mother tongue (Arabic) in teaching English-as-a-second language to Arab students attending English courses as a university compulsory requirement for the study of English language and literature at Jordanian private and government-aided universities. To achieve this goal, the researcher analyzed data he collected from classroom observation at three different private universities. In addition, the writer analyzes results of responses to questionnaires distributed to 120 students and 12 teachers learning and teaching English at three universities – 40 students and 4 teachers from each university.The results obtained show that almost all the respondents expressed the need for the use of Arabic in the English classroom because, according to them, it helps students understand the meaning of new or difficult words, explain complex syntactic rules, and save time. The study also shows that not allowing students to use their mother tongue will result in prohibiting them to have some opportunities to learn English better.
In this chapter I describe a theoretical rationale for and, where possible, empirical research into criteria to be adopted when progressively increasing the cognitive demands of second language (L2) tasks. These criteria, I argue, provide a basis for decisions about sequencing tasks in a task-based syllabus as well as a framework for studying the effects of increasing L2 task complexity on production, comprehension and learning. I distinguish task complexity (the task dependent and proactively manipulable cognitive demands of tasks) from task difficulty (dependent on learner factors such as aptitude, confidence, motivation, etc.) and task conditions (the interactive demands of tasks), arguing that these influences on task performance and learning are different in kind, and have not been sufficiently distinguished in previous approaches to conceptualizing the options in, and consequences of, sequencing tasks from the syllabus designer's perspective. My focus in this chapter is on the issue of task complexity, which I argue should be the sole basis of prospective sequencing decisions since most learner factors implicated in decisions about task difficulty can only be diagnosed in situ and in process, so cannot be anticipated in advance of implementation of a syllabus and therefore can be of no use to the prospective materials and syllabus designer. Those learner factors which can be diagnosed in advance of syllabus implementation (e.g., aptitude and cognitive style) have not to date been shown to have stable effects on task performance at the different levels of complexity proposed here.
This paper describes a framework for examining the effects of the cognitive complexity of tasks on language production and learner perceptions of task difficulty, and for motivating sequencing decisions in task-based syllabuses. Results of a study of the relationship between task complexity, difficulty, and production show that increasing the cognitive complexity of a direction-giving map task significantly affects speaker-information-giver production (more lexical variety on a complex version and greater fluency on a simple version) and hearer-information-receiver interaction (more confirmation checks on a complex version). Cognitive complexity also significantly affects learner perceptions of difficulty (e.g. a complex version is rated significantly more stressful than a simple version). Task role significantly affects ratings of difficulty, though task sequencing (simple to complex versus the reverse sequence) does not. However, sequencing does affect the accuracy and fluency of speaker production. Implications of the findings for task-based syllabus design and further research into task complexity, difficulty, and production interactions are discussed.
The article reports research investigating the way bilingualism affects cognitive and linguistic performance across the life span. In general, bilingualism appears to have both benefits and costs. Regarding costs, bilinguals typically have lower formal language proficiency than monolinguals do; for example, they have smaller vocabularies and weaker access to lexical items. The benefits, however, are that bilinguals exhibit enhanced executive control in nonverbal tasks requiring conflict resolution, such as the Stroop and Simon tasks. These patterns and their consequences are illustrated and discussed. We also propose some suggestions regarding underlying mechanisms for these effects.
This chapter explores the scope of language education in the Indian multilingual context. It reviews the construct of translanguaging and its usefulness in language classrooms with special attention to reading, the cornerstone of primary education. It presents a critical summary of translanguaging practices across the globe followed by teacher-learner practices in Indian classrooms with children from low socio-economic status and/or from migrant workers' families. The review of Indian classrooms with translanguaging practices helps to understand the purposes of use of this pedagogic strategy and its impact on language learning and reading. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the role of using the socio-constructivist theory to scaffold reading through peer interaction. This chapter is a precursor to the next chapter that presents the design of a translanguaging-based reading model built with the help of peer interaction to scaffold reading development in young multilingual learners.
The study explored the mutual relationship between lexical coverage, inferencing, and comprehension. It asked what percentage of target items learners inferred at three coverages, how inferencing raised the amount of comprehended vocabulary, and how
it affected comprehension. The most interesting finding was that at 90% coverage learners could infer half of the unknown target items. This raised their coverage to the minimal 95% necessary for comprehension.
The influence of vocabulary breadth (number of words known) and vocabulary depth (what is known about those words) on different aspects of text comprehension was examined in 83 10- to 11-year-olds. Vocabulary was not an important predictor of comprehension for details explicitly stated in the text. In contrast, vocabulary was related to inference making and, in particular, measures of vocabulary that assessed what was known about individual words predicted unique variance in global coherence inferences. The pattern of findings supports previous research reporting that measures of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge are important predictors of both reading comprehension and comprehension-related skills, and critically identifies that some aspects of vocabulary knowledge may be more important for higher-level comprehension skills than others.
Using translanguaging as a theoretical foundation, this paper analyses findings from a Grade 2 reading class for low achieving students, where Malay was used as a scaffold to teach English. Data come from one class in one school in Singapore and its Learning Support Programme (LSP), which is part of a larger research project on biliteracy. The LSP is an early intervention reading programme in English for students in lower primary school. Our key finding is that the broad goal of translanguaging in teacher talk was to mediate academic content. Specifically, the purposes for translanguaging in teacher talk were to aid comprehension (in 41% of switches) and translate vocabulary (in 39% of switches). The use of Malay changed interactional patterns by closing the gap in talktime between teacher and students: though the ratio of talktime between teacher and students on Day 1 was 76%:20%, this became a more democratic 47%:49% on Day 8. Finally, the scaffold of Malay changed the way the students attempted to answer questions.
TESOL Quarterly publishes brief commentaries on aspects of qualitative and quantitative research. For this issue, we asked two researchers to discuss narrative research in TESOL.
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