China–Thai Cultural Diplomacy Through the Buddhist Wat: A Case Study of the Thai Wat in Chaozhou Kaiyuan si, Guangdong

Abstract

Cultural diplomacy is often regarded as a potent method to enhance the bond between nations by facilitating the interchange of cultural values and practices. Previous studies have focused chiefly on political and economic elements, neglecting the role of religious institutions in cultural diplomacy. This paper investigates the function of Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan si in Guangdong as a means of cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand. This temple is a significant platform for cultural and religious exchanges, fostering enhanced understanding and collaboration between the two nations. Using a case study methodology, this research employed five semi-structured interviews with several individuals, including a head monk from Wat, a monk from Thailand, a monk from China, a diplomat from Thailand, and a diplomat from China. Additionally, field observations were conducted. The data were examined using NVivo through a three-step process consisting of data collection, data coding, and data interpretation. The study produced four noteworthy findings: (1) Buddhism plays a vital role in cultural diplomacy by advancing national objectives through cultural engagement. (2) Cultural diplomacy involves the act of advancing a country’s interests by means of engaging in cultural exchanges. (3) We identified the key actors involved in formal cultural diplomacy. (4) Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan acts as both a platform for cultural diplomacy and a facilitator of foreign cultural interactions, which is discussed in this study.

Full text

Citation: Zheng, Dongxiao, and
Yaoping Liu. 2024. China–Thai
Cultural Diplomacy Through the
Buddhist Wat: A Case Study of the
Thai Wat in Chaozhou Kaiyuan si,
Guangdong. Religions 15: 1365.
hps://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111365
Academic Editor: Daniel M. Stuart
Received: 6 September 2024
Revised: 29 October 2024
Accepted: 4 November 2024
Published: 11 November 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swierland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Aribution (CC BY) license (hps://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Article
China–Thai Cultural Diplomacy Through the Buddhist
Wat: A Case Study of the Thai Wat in Chaozhou
Kaiyuan si, Guangdong
Dongxiao Zheng and Yaoping Liu *
Department of Global Buddhism, Institute of Science Innovation and Culture, Rajamangala University of
Technology Krungthep, Bangkok 10120, Thailand; 659240100035@mail.rmutk.ac.th
*Correspondence: yaoping.l@mail.rmutk.ac.th
Abstract: Cultural diplomacy is often regarded as a potent method to enhance the bond between na‑
tions by facilitating the interchange of cultural values and practices. Previous studies have focused
chiey on political and economic elements, neglecting the role of religious institutions in cultural
diplomacy. This paper investigates the function of Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan si in Guangdong as a
means of cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand. This temple is a signicant platform for
cultural and religious exchanges, fostering enhanced understanding and collaboration between the
two nations. Using a case study methodology, this research employed ve semi‑structured inter‑
views with several individuals, including a head monk from Wat, a monk from Thailand, a monk
from China, a diplomat from Thailand, and a diplomat from China. Additionally, eld observations
were conducted. The data were examined using NVivo through a three‑step process consisting of
data collection, data coding, and data interpretation. The study produced four noteworthy nd‑
ings: (1) Buddhism plays a vital role in cultural diplomacy by advancing national objectives through
cultural engagement. (2) Cultural diplomacy involves the act of advancing a country’s interests by
means of engaging in cultural exchanges. (3) We identied the key actors involved in formal cul‑
tural diplomacy. (4) Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan acts as both a platform for cultural diplomacy and a
facilitator of foreign cultural interactions, which is discussed in this study.
Keywords: cultural diplomacy; Buddhism; Chaozhou Kaiyuan si; Thai wat; multi‑faceted role
1. Introduction
Cultural diplomacy is a strategic method used to foster international connections and
improve the perception of a country or organization (Umińska‑Woroniecka 2016). Cultural
diplomacy enhances the bilateral relations between two nations by facilitating cultural ex‑
change and collaboration, namely in the case of China and Thailand. Previous research has
explored many cultural associations between China and Thailand, with a focus on political,
economic, and trade aspects (Deng 2023;Guang and Charoensukmongkol 2020;Han and
Khemanihathai 2023;Skinner 2017;Tungkeunkunt 2016). Research on the function of re‑
ligious organizations, such as Buddhist temples, in cultural diplomacy must be conducted.
The Thai Buddhist Wat at Kaiyuan si in Chaozhou (hereafter, Kaiyuan Thai Wat), China,
serves as a remarkable example of cultural and religious exchange between Thailand and
China. Built between 1984 and 1992, the temple is an architectural replica of the famous
Wat Benchamabophit in Bangkok, also known as the Marble Temple, commissioned by
King Rama V. The construction of this temple was funded by Pricha Phisikasem, a suc‑
cessful Thai–Chinese businessman, who sought to honor his deceased parents. As one of
three Thai Buddhist wats in China, the Kaiyuan Temple reects the deep historical and
spiritual ties between the Chinese and Thai communities. Chaozhou, the hometown of
many Thai–Chinese immigrants, especially those of Teochew origin, has long been a hub
for transnational religious and philanthropic activities (Formoso 1996). The Kaiyuan Thai
Religions 2024,15, 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111365 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

Religions 2024,15, 1365 2 of 13
Wat in Guangdong plays a pivotal role in promoting cultural ties between the Thai and
Chinese people. Nevertheless, further investigation is required to explore the precise role
and challenges that this temple encounters within the framework of cultural diplomacy.
The Kaiyuan Thai Wat in Guangdong, China, has evolved from a mere religious mon‑
ument into a highly eective cultural diplomacy instrument fostering relations between
China and Thailand. Kaiyuan si 开元寺 [literately, temple built in the Kaiyuan Era of the
Tang Dynasty] is most the expansive Buddhist temple in Chaozhou, eastern Guangdong.
It is renowned for its exceptional beauty, making it one of the most exquisite temples in
China. Prior research has emphasized the Wat’s substantial impact in enhancing the Thai
people’s cultural and social identity. Padoongpa (2015) highlights that the Thai Wats
in America fosters a crucial social and cultural relation, bolstering the Thai community’s
sense of identity. Muecke’s (1992) historical research oers fundamental insights into the
inuence of Buddhism on cultural interactions. However, these views need to be updated
and incorporate current geopolitical agendas. The recent research undertaken by Kishwar
(2018) and Y. Zhang (2022) has highlighted the evolutionary aspect of Buddhist diplomacy.
However, these studies do not thoroughly examine the specic processes by which indi‑
vidual temples operate in this particular seing. Additional scrutiny has been focused
on Buddhist diplomacy, emphasizing its growing signicance in world aairs. Ashiwa
(2013) and Chia (2021) assert that, within the framework of the Theravada Buddhist tra‑
dition, China has made a conscious eort to incorporate the depiction of Buddha into its
eorts to improve its standing in the international community. This program emphasizes
the ecacy of Buddhist diplomacy in strengthening China’s inuence and fostering coop‑
eration among neighboring nations (Sco 2016). However, these studies mostly focus on
broader regional dynamics and fail to consider specic cases where Buddhist sites, such
as the Kaiyuan Thai Wat, play a key role.
Given this discrepancy, it is imperative to scrutinize the operation of the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat as a means of cultural diplomacy. The objective of this study is to explore the temple’s
function as a platform for cultural exchange and analyze the implementation of cultural
diplomacy inside it. This study seeks to contribute to the existing scholarly discussion on
the correlation between religion and diplomacy, with a specic emphasis on this subject
maer. Furthermore, it aims to oer useful perspectives that can inform future diplomatic
endeavors involving religious and cultural heritage sites.
1.1. Cultural Diplomacy Between China and Thailand
Cultural diplomacy is a diplomatic approach that employs cultural components to fos‑
ter stronger partnerships and promote greater understanding between states (Zamorano
2016). Cultural diplomacy plays a crucial role in fostering the bilateral relations between
China and Thailand through the facilitation of cultural interaction and the promotion of
common values. Soft power and cultural diplomacy are fundamental notions employed to
comprehend the cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand (Schmidt 2008). Accord‑
ing to Nye (2004), soft power refers to the capacity to shape the preferences of others using
cultural appeal and ideals rather than through force or nancial rewards. China employs
soft power in this context to advance its favorable image and cultural principles through
many cultural events, including festivals, art exhibitions, and educational collaborations.
The intercultural communication model proposed by Saral (1977) applies to compre‑
hending the diplomatic aspects of Chinese–Thai culture. This approach emphasizes the
need of understanding the contextual factors that inuence cultural and communication
standards, which can dier between countries. For instance, addressing the cultural dis‑
parities between Thailand and China necessitates the implementation of a strategic ap‑
proach to enhance cultural ties between these two nations (Zhang and Wang 2016;Guang
and Charoensukmongkol 2020). This approach emphasizes the need of understanding the
contextual factors that inuence cultural and communication standards, which can dier
between countries. It is imperative to comprehend the cultural distinctions and dedication
to equality between Thailand and China in order to create more culturally sensitive and

Religions 2024,15, 1365 3 of 13
eective programs. Additionally, the social exchange hypothesis, which was proposed by
Hollander in 1980 (Hollander 1980), can be utilized in the framework of cultural diplomacy.
When it comes to the relationship between persons or organizations, this idea suggests
that it is based on the principles of reciprocity and mutual benet. The cultural diplo‑
macy between China and Thailand makes it easier for people to be in contact with one
another through a variety of channels, including student exchanges, ocial visits, and col‑
laborative engagement in cultural initiatives like these. The purpose of these activities is
to strengthen interpersonal links and to encourage increased collaboration between the
two countries.
In addition, Throsby’s idea of cultural capital, as described in his research (Throsby
1999), suggests that cultural capital includes the intellectual knowledge, acquired skills,
educational achievements, and societal benets possessed by individuals or groups. The
objective of cultural diplomacy is to promote the values and cultural heritage of specic
nations through the utilization of cultural assets. Through the utilization of the cultural
impact that stems from its Buddhist tradition, China has the potential to improve its ties
with Thailand (Keyes 2016), which also possesses a strong Buddhist heritage. Chaozhou
Kaiyuan si exemplies the practical use of this theoretical framework in the cultural diplo‑
macy between China and Thailand. The Kaiyuan Thai Wat, located next to Kaiyuan si,
Chaozhou, is a well‑known Buddhist temple that has its origins in Thailand. It functions as
a signicant religious symbol and plays a vital role in promoting cultural diplomacy. The
Wat represents the cultural and religious principles of Buddhism that are highly respected
by both countries. It also acts as a platform for cultural exchange, which strengthens the
relationship between the two nations.
Although there are a substantial quantity of studies on cultural diplomacy and soft
power, specic case studies such as Kaiyuan si are often disregarded. The second study,
like the works of Laliberté(2024) and Lai and Lu (2012), tends to make sweeping general‑
izations about the inuence of Buddhist diplomacy without conducting a specic analysis
of individual locations and their unique roles. Furthermore, the historical study under‑
taken by Wijeyewardene (1990) oers fundamental insights, but it frequently lacks up‑to‑
date information and fails to consider the modern geopolitical situation. Hence, this study
aims to address this deciency by comprehensively examining the signicance of Kaiyuan
si in the context of Chinese–Thai cultural diplomacy. This research aims to enhance our
comprehension of how religious sites might serve as a diplomatic tool in contemporary
geopolitical contexts, specically emphasizing this particular area.
1.2. Previous Research in China‑Thai Cultural Diplomacy and Buddhist Wat
Studies on cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand have demonstrated the
utilization of cultural components to enhance bilateral relations. A frequently debated
topic is the utilization of soft power in cultural diplomacy. Nye (2004) denes soft power
as the capacity to shape the preferences of others using cultural appeal and values, rather
than through coercion or economic inducements. China strategically employs a range of
cultural activities, such as festivals and art exhibitions, to enhance its reputation and foster
stronger diplomatic connections with other nations, including Thailand.
Initial research on the impact of Buddhism on cultural diplomacy, such as the work
of Wijeyewardene (1990), oered valuable insights into the potential use of cultural and
religious legacy as a diplomatic tool. Nevertheless, this research frequently focuses solely on
historical studies and needs to incorporate current advancements in cultural diplomacy tactics.
In a recent study conducted by Laliberté(2024), the focus was on investigating the
utilization of Buddhism by China to enhance its soft power in the Southeast Asian region
within the context of geopolitical strategy. Lalibertédemonstrated that, while the signif‑
icance of religion in diplomacy is acknowledged, several studies tend to oversimplify its
inuence without delving into specic instances, like the function of an individual Wat
in cultural diplomacy. Lai and Lu (2012) also challenged the overall methodology of this
study, emphasizing the absence of comprehensive case studies that could oer more pro‑

Religions 2024,15, 1365 4 of 13
found insights into the specic dynamics that occur in the eld. Additional research con‑
ducted by Chung (2022), Kishwar (2018) and R. Zhang (2020) highlighted the progression
of cultural diplomacy and the signicance of Buddhism in enhancing bilateral relations.
Nevertheless, this research primarily focuses on the theoretical aspects. It fails to address
the concrete methods by which an individual Wat, such as Chaozhou Kaiyuan SI, func‑
tion within cultural diplomacy. Therefore, there is a notable deciency in the current body
of the literature, particularly with the absence of research on individual Buddhist Wat’s
unique functions in the cultural diplomacy context between China and Thailand.
2. Research Questions
•RQ1: What is the role of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat in enhancing cultural diplomacy be‑
tween China and Thailand?
•RQ2: Does the Buddhist Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan SI engage in cultural diplomacy on be‑
half of the government to promote national interests, or do they operate independently?
•RQ3: Who are the actors, and what is their perspective on China–Thai cultural diplo‑
macy as depicted in the Buddhist temple Wat Chaozhou Kaiyuan Si?
3. Methods
This study used a case study design to investigate the function of the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat in Guangdong as a means of cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand. The
Kaiyuan Thai Wat is a distinctive religious and cultural nexus connecting Thailand and
China in Guangdong Province, China. This temple plays a signicant role in the cultural
diplomacy between China and Thailand by organizing diverse activities that blend the cul‑
tural aspects of both nations. The Wat used both traditional Chinese architectural features
and Thai designs and ornamentation. The Kaiyuan Thai Wat features architectural struc‑
tures incorporating traditional Thai design elements, including pagodas with gracefully
curved roofs and intricately carved wooden ornaments. Additionally, the temple show‑
cases Buddhist sculptures crafted in the distinctive Thai style. Religious events at the Wat
incorporate aspects from both the Chinese and Thai Buddhist traditions, forming powerful
spiritual connections.
3.1. Participants
The researchers performed ve semi‑structured interviews, specically with a head
monk from the Wat, a monk from Thailand, a monk from China, a Thai diplomat, and a
Chinese diplomat. The data of the participants are displayed in Table 1below.
Table 1. List of interviewees.
Name Role
BPSC Senior monk from Kaiyuan si
SzCh Thai diplomat
Zh Chinese diplomat
PhraSP Thai monk
XuHs Chinese monk
3.2. Data Collection
The research data were gathered using two distinct methods: (1) conducting in‑depth
interviews with the management of the studied Wat, monks, tourists, and diplomats in
open‑end fashion; and (2) observing daily events, religious rites, and interactions among
participants at the Wat. The ethics around data collection and anonymity were upheld by
obtaining a wrien consent from all participants before conducting interviews and obser‑
vations. The data‑gathering technique commenced by initiating contact with the manage‑
ment of the Wat to secure ocial authorization and elucidate the study aims.

Religions 2024,15, 1365 5 of 13
3.3. Research Instrument
The research instrument comprised semi‑structured interviews and observation sheets.
The semi‑structured interview comprises ve questions that specically address the role
of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat in Chinese–Thai cultural diplomacy. It also explores the methods
employed in cultural diplomacy, such as whether the government is involved in promoting
national interests or if the temple operates independently. The theme and interview ques‑
tions can be observed in Table 2in detail. The second instrument is an observation sheet
that serves as a guide for observing the activities and religious contacts of the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat in Guangdong.
Table 2. Themes and questions.
Themes Questions
Strategic vision What is the mission of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat?
The role of the Kaiyuan
Thai Wat
What is the role of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat in enhancing the
cultural relationship between China and Thailand?
The role of Buddhism What is the role of Buddhism in strengthening cultural relations
between China and Thailand?
Strategic planning Which stakeholders take part in building cultural diplomacy?
Perceptions Would you say that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat exercises cultural
diplomacy or international cultural relations?
3.4. Validity and Reliability Instrument
The instrument validation process was conducted by initially testing a small yetrepre‑
sentative sample. The clarity and relevance of the questions in the semi‑structure interview
instrument were evaluated by administering it to two Wat administrators and two vis‑
itors. The feedback indicated that specic questions could be more straightforward to
enhance the participants’ comprehension. Furthermore, esteemed individuals in cultural
diplomacy and religious studies contribute unique insights to the interview content. They
recommended asking questions about the inuence of the Wat’s activities on local cultural
aitudes. The observation sheet was similarly veried. The research team conducted a
one‑week observational trial at the Kaiyuan Thai Wat. This observation specically cen‑
tered around religious rituals and cultural practices. The trial observations indicated that
the observation sheet should include a column to document the precise social interactions
between visitors and Wat administrators. These adjustments incorporate the precision and
thoroughness of the observations made.
Moreover, the reliability of the semi‑structured interview tool was assessed by admin‑
istering a trial interview to the identical sample within a two‑week timeframe. The inter‑
view results demonstrate a strong correlation between the rst and second interviews, sug‑
gesting that the interview instrument is capable of generating consistent data. The depend‑
ability of the observation sheet was also assessed using the test–retest method. Two dier‑
ent researchers conducted an observation of the same action at the Wat. The observation
ndings demonstrate a signicant level of concurrence between the two researchers, sug‑
gesting a solid reliability of the observation sheet. The agreement level of this observation
sheet is quantied using the Kappa coecient, which has a value of 0.76, indicating a high
level of consistency in data collecting.
3.5. Data Analysis
The data obtained from interviews and observations were analyzed using the NVivo
software (version 14). A thematic analysis was employed to generate codes (Braun and
Clarke 2006), and the most often coded node was identied across many themes in Table 2.
Information gathered from the interview should always be evaluated with a critical mind‑
set, as interview data typically involve subjective evaluations. Thus, triangulation is essen‑
tial. Researchers and teams conducted a membership check to mitigate the inuence of

Religions 2024,15, 1365 6 of 13
subjective interpretation. However, if any discrepancies in interpretation arose, they were
addressed through discussion between the researcher and the team.
4. Results
•RQ1: What is the role of the Buddhist Kaiyuan Thai Wat in enhancing cultural diplomacy
between China and Thailand?
The Kaiyuan Thai Wat has become a pivotal hub for cultural and religious endeav‑
ors. According to an interview with a monk, pilgrims, and embassy authorities, it was
discovered that the Wat regularly arranges religious festivals and ceremonies that extend
invitations to the Thai–Chinese and global Buddhist communities. This fosters cultural co‑
hesion between the two nations through collaborative endeavors that uphold traditional
customs and Buddhist principles. The researchers inquired about how the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat enhances cultural ties between China and Thailand. The head monk expressed:
“Kaiyuan Thai Wat functions as a hub for religious and cultural gatherings. Our organi‑
zation frequently organizes events such as Vesak and Pindapata, which aract Buddhist
visitors from other countries, including Thailand. Moreover, we facilitate the accommo‑
dation of monks and organize training programs to foster the improvement of spiritual
and cultural connections between China and Thailand”
In addition, the head monk emphasized the signicance of Buddhism in fostering cultural
diplomacy between China and Thailand:
“Buddhism plays a highly inuential role in the practice of cultural diplomacy between
China and Thailand. This religion serves as both a spiritual conduit and a platform for
profound cultural interchange. Buddhism facilitates the comprehension of the respective
values and customs, hence enhancing the cultural and interpersonal ties between the
two nations”
The declarations of Thai cultural diplomacy ocials further corroborated the assertion
made by the monk leader:
“Kaiyuan Thai Wat plays a signicant role in our cultural diplomacy. The venue hosts
numerous ocial events and collaborative festivals, which delegates from both nations
aend. This has established a foundation for meaningful conversation and extensive
cultural interchange, enhancing the strength of our mutual relations.”
Furthermore, he included information about the signicance of Buddhism:
“Buddhism plays a signicant role in fostering cultural diplomacy between Thailand and
China. This religion serves as a means to establish a connection with the spiritual realm
and also provides a platform for cultural discourse and the sharing of knowledge. By
engaging in religious activities and participating in exchange programs, we have the
opportunity to enhance and fortify our bilateral contacts”.
The same applied to Chinese diplomatic ocials:
“Kaiyuan Thai Wat serves as a tangible illustration of how culture and religion can be
eectively utilized as a means of diplomacy. Water has a signicant role in enhancing
the bond between China and Thailand through religious practices cultural events, and
exchange programs. This fosters the enhancement of taste, mutual understanding, and
respect between the two nations.”
“Buddhism signicantly inuences our cultural relations. This religion espouses univer‑
sal principles such as peace, compassion, and diplomacy, which serve as the foundation
for fostering happy relationships. By engaging in religious and cultural events, we can
enhance our connections and foster improved comprehension”.
Additionally, researchers inquire about the specic structure of the implemented exchange
program. The head monk declared:
“One of our programs involves facilitating the exchange of young monks between our
organization and renowned temples in Thailand for educational purposes. This not only

Religions 2024,15, 1365 7 of 13
enhances their comprehension of Buddhist practices but also fosters a more eective com‑
munication channel between two Buddhist communities”.
The interview results indicate a signicant contribution of Buddhism to Chinese–Thai cul‑
tural diplomacy. Buddhism, a prominent religion in Thailand and a signicant aspect
of Thai cultural heritage, connects the diplomatic ties between Thailand and China, both
of which have a rich Buddhist legacy. The presence of spiritual leaders, reciprocal vis‑
its between monks, and the organization of cultural promotion activities centered around
Buddhism enhance diplomatic ties between the nations. An instance of this is the occur‑
rence of festivals such as Vesak and Pindapata, in which Buddhists from many nations,
including Thailand, participated. This event fostered a greater comprehension and cama‑
raderie between the Chinese and Thai communities. By leveraging Buddhism’s shared
teachings and practices, the two nations may foster more harmonious and mutually re‑
spectful ties while enhancing their international standing through mutually advantageous
cultural collaboration.
•RQ2: Does the Buddhist Kaiyuan Thai Wat engage in cultural diplomacy on behalf of the
government to promote national interests, or do they operate independently?
Field investigations and in‑depth interviews revealed that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat played
a crucial role in cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand. However, evidence indi‑
cated they also possessed a notable degree of autonomy in their operations.
According to an interview with the abbot of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat, it was disclosed
that this monastery frequently accommodated visits by delegations from the governments
of China and Thailand. The head monk declared:
“Government ocials visit us regularly, utilizing this opportunity to engage in discus‑
sions on bilateral maers and enhance cultural relations.”
The Kaiyuan Thai Wat serves as a signicant venue for cultural diplomacy, bolstering
the foreign policy of both governments. Furthermore, the research ndings indicate that
the Kaiyuan Thai Wat actively contributed to advancing Chinese national interests through
diverse cultural activities. For instance, this temple hosts a Chinese cultural festival, such
as the Chinese New Year festivities, that draws in thousands of aendees annually.
Monks from China declared:
“This festival serves as a platform to not only commemorate our culture, but also to ac‑
quaint the Thai population with the abundant cultural heritage of China.”
This eort unequivocally demonstrates the monastery’s contribution to advancing
China’s national interest in Thailand.
Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat also exhibits
indications of independence in its functioning. Interviews with the head monks revealed
their autonomy in deciding their religious and social initiatives.
“We autonomously determine the activities to be conducted and the methods by which
they will be carried out, without any direct intervention from the government.”
This demonstrates that, while they endorse cultural diplomacy, they maintain auton‑
omy in several facets of their operations.
This discovery demonstrates that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat served a twofold purpose in
cultural diplomacy and advancing state interests. It serves as a tool for cultural diplomacy
for both the Chinese and Thai governments, while also operating autonomously in certain
areas. This discovery demonstrates the intricate nature of religious institutions’ role in cul‑
tural diplomacy. It emphasizes the delicate equilibrium between endorsing government
programs and maintaining institutional independence.
•RQ3: Who are the actors, and what is their perspective on Chinese–Thai cultural diplomacy
as depicted in the Buddhist temple Kaiyuan Thai Wat?
After extensive interviews with stakeholders at the Kaiyuan Thai Wat, it was discov‑
ered that the key participants in this cultural diplomacy initiative are the government, re‑

Religions 2024,15, 1365 8 of 13
ligious authorities, and cultural groups. Furthermore, the interviewees articulated their
perspective on the function of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat in cultural diplomacy or international
cultural relations.
According to the interview with a Thai government ambassador, it was disclosed that
the government had a signicant role in assisting with cultural events at the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat. The diplomatic ocial stated:
“We support the cultural initiatives undertaken by Kaiyuan Thai Wat as they contribute
to the enhancement of bilateral relations with China.”
This demonstrates that the government perceives this monastery as a signicant instru‑
ment in cultural diplomacy, capable of fostering positive relations between the two nations.
Religious leaders at the Kaiyuan Thai Wat play a signicant rolein cultural diplomacy
alongside the government. The head monk declared:
“Our objective is to preserve and advance our cultural heritage through a range of reli‑
gious and cultural events.”
When queried about individuals contributing to the advancement of cultural diplomacy,
the head monk responded:
“The primary stakeholders comprise the government, local communities, and ourselves as
religious leaders.”
This demonstrates the essential role that religious leaders have in upholding and dis‑
seminating cultural norms.
The monastic community in Thailand also plays a signicant role in fostering cultural
diplomacy links. A Thai monk expressed:
“We actively participate in the activities at Kaiyuan Thai Wat as a means to maintain
our connection to our cultural heritage.”
When queried about whether the Kaiyuan Thai Wat was engaged in cultural diplomacy or
international cultural ties, the Thai monk responded:
“I believe they operate both. Their purpose is to familiarize the Thai people with Chinese
culture and simultaneously enhance the bilateral relations between the two nations.”
Cultural organizations play a signicantrole in cultural diplomacy. A Chinese ocial expressed:
“We are collaborating with Kaiyuan Thai Wat to organize cultural events aimed at fa‑
miliarizing the Thai population with Chinese arts and traditions.”
This demonstrates the involvement of cultural groups in facilitating and advancing cul‑
tural diplomacy between China and Thailand. This study uncovers that the key partici‑
pants involved in the cultural diplomacy between China and Thailand include the govern‑
ment, religious authorities at the Kaiyuan Thai Wat, the biker community, and cultural
groups. The government provides backing for cultural endeavors to enhance bilateral re‑
lations, while religious leaders uphold and advance cultural legacy through religious prac‑
tices, and cultural groups collaborate in organizing cultural events. The ndings indicate
that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat serves a dual purpose in cultural diplomacy and international
cultural relations, acting as a signicant intermediary in promoting cultural values and
enhancing relations between the two nations.
5. Discussion
•Buddhism is a signicant component of cultural diplomacy
Buddhism is regarded as a promising avenue for cultural exchange between the gov‑
ernments of Thailand and China and their respective populations. The practical applica‑
tion of Buddhism is considered the most impactful aspect of the China–Thailand connec‑
tion. The Chinese regard Thailand as a nation with a strong Buddhist inuence, and this
connection is utilized to enhance mutual collaboration. McDaniel (2017), Niyomsilpa et al.
(2018), and Chen et al. (2022) have veried that Buddhism is a signicant conduit for cul‑
tural diplomacy between the two nations, with Thailand frequently cited as a prominent

Religions 2024,15, 1365 9 of 13
spiritual and cultural exemplar for China. This demonstrates the ecacy of religious and
spiritual principles in fostering mutually advantageous international partnerships.
Wong and Faikhamta (2023) broadened this viewpoint by demonstrating that the uti‑
lization of Buddhism in diplomacy extends beyond just China–Thailand relations and in‑
uences cultural interactions in Southeast Asia. They disclosed that Myanmar and Laos
utilize Buddhism to establish solid international connections with adjacent nations and
enhance their standing in global diplomacy. This demonstrates that Buddhism has con‑
siderable potential in cultural diplomacy in Kawa‑san, mirroring its signicance in other
bilateral relationships.
Furthermore, Lin (2023) demonstrated that the eectiveness of religious cultural diplo‑
macy varies across dierent situations. Lin emphasized that, while Buddhism has inu‑
enced China–Thailand relations, other nations with diverse religious traditions may en‑
counter similar diculties when aempting to employ religion as a diplomatic instrument.
This highlights the ecacy of Buddhism as a form of cultural diplomacy within the cultural
framework and unique bilateral relationships.
Grincheva (2024) expanded the scope by evaluating the inuence of religious cultural
diplomacy on trade and economic connections. Chung (2022) demonstrated that, in addi‑
tion to cultural values, countries like Thailand and China leverage their spiritual connec‑
tions to enhance bilateral economic and investment collaboration, making Buddhism an es‑
sential component of their economic diplomacy approach. This demonstrates that cultural
diplomacy, rooted in religious foundations like Buddhism, has the potential to broaden
the scope of diplomatic eorts beyond the cultural aspects. These data demonstrate that
Buddhism is as a potent factor in cultural diplomacy, particularly in China–Thailand ties.
However, the eectiveness of cultural diplomacy is also contingent upon the particular
circumstances and strategic goals of the nations engaged. While Buddhism can serve as a
cultural bridge, its application should be tailored to the specic dynamics of bilateral ties
and the strategic requirements of each country.
•Cultural Interaction: Cultural Diplomacy and the Promotion of National Interest
Culture is a crucial factor in implementing cultural diplomacy with other countries.
Because of their shared cultural background, China and Thailand share some religious
commonalities, which have been exploited to facilitate cultural exchange. Y. Zhang (2022)
researched how the two countries use historical relations and Buddhism to promote bilat‑
eral relations. According to Zhang, China and Thailand frequently organize joint cultural
events and academic exchanges centered on Buddhist beliefs and practices to promote mu‑
tual understanding and collaboration.
The ndings of this study are consistent with those of Lo and Pan (2021), which high‑
lights that cultural diplomacy between China and Southeast Asian countries, especially
Thailand, serves as a strategic tool for promoting national interests. They discovered that
cultural initiatives sponsored by Buddhist monitoring and other cultural institutions con‑
tributed signicantly to China’s positive image overseas and the strengthening of diplo‑
matic relations. This demonstrates that cultural diplomacy is utilized to aain political
and economic objectives in addition to fostering mutual understanding.
Furthermore, Lee’s (2015) research on the role of cultural diplomacy in international
relations demonstrated that cultural interchange not only strengthens bilateral relations
but also helps to promote national interests through soft power. Lee (2015) demonstrated
how cultural events, such as festivals and intellectual exchanges., can improve the state’s
impact on the world stage. In the case of China and Thailand, cultural collaboration cen‑
tered on Buddhist history promotes bilateral relations and China’s position as a cultural
leader in the region.
Furthermore, according to Mahaseth et al.’s (2023) research on cultural diplomacy in
Southeast Asia, Buddhist monasteries frequently serve as cultural centers that assist the
goals of state diplomatic eorts. They discovered that these monasteries not only promote
cultural and religious values but also help to enhance national identity and cultural pride.
In the instance of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat, this monastery serves as a cultural bridge between

Religions 2024,15, 1365 10 of 13
China and Thailand and as a tool to promote the two countries’ national interests through
diverse cultural and religious activities.
•Critical actors in formal cultural diplomacy
The state actor is the most inuential in developing and implementing foreign policy.
Around one‑third of the world’s countries have formed dedicated departments/centers/units
dealing with cultural diplomacy or cultural relations in their foreign aairs agencies. For
example, in Thailand, the Cultural Diplomacy Division (previously the Cultural Relations
Division, formed in 2002) was created by the 2015 Ministerial Regulation to oversee the
Khu‑Sus cultural diplomacy plan. The development of such organizations demonstrates
the increasing importance of cultural diplomacy in modern foreign policy.
The Cultural Diplomacy Department selects cultural, religious, and performing pro‑
grams that showcase and convey Thai cultural values and identity to international audi‑
ences. According to Kimani (2023), cultural diplomacy units, like the ones in Thailand,
play a vital role in organizing events and activities that showcase their cultural heritage
and eectively convey strategic messages to global audiences. According to Kimani (2023),
Thailand frequently employs traditional festivals, art performances, and cultural exchange
programs to enhance the national image and foster cross‑cultural understanding. The Thai
Cultural Diplomacy Department uses these initiatives to preserve and showcase distinctive
cultural elements while also endeavoring to establish a more robust means of communica‑
tion with other nations, thus enhancing Thailand’s standing in global diplomacy.
Smith (2021) demonstrated that establishing dedicated departments for cultural diplo‑
macy is not exclusive to Thailand but has also become a worldwide phenomenon. Smith
observed that countries like Japan and South Korea have established comparable entities,
such as the Japan and Korea Foundation, to oversee cultural diplomacy eorts. Both in‑
stitutions have a crucial role in advancing their culture and enhancing international ties
through initiatives that facilitate cultural and educational exchange. This demonstrates
that establishing a department or cultural diplomacy center is a deliberate and calculated
measure implemented by numerous governments globally to accomplish their political
and diplomatic objectives.
Lee (2015) emphasized the diculties that countries encounter when overseeing their
cultural diplomacy department, particularly in the seing of emerging nations. Lee clari‑
ed that, while other countries have established comparable ministries, not all possess suf‑
cient resources or ecient strategies to eectively execute their best cultural diplomacy
plans. This demonstrates that more than the mere presence of cultural diplomacy units is
needed; their ecacy heavily relies on providing resources and successful execution.
Overall, our ndings indicate that, while numerous governments have established in‑
stitutional frameworks for cultural diplomacy, the eectiveness of their implementation is
contingent upon the specic circumstances and resources at their disposal. Cultural diplo‑
macy departments in nations like Thailand, Japan, and various European countries signify
cultural diplomacy’s signicance in foreign policy. However, it is crucial to acknowledge
the obstacles in its execution to ensure the ecient functioning of cultural diplomacy in
aaining domestic objectives.
•The Kaiyuan Thai Wat serves as both a cultural diplomacy platform and a facilitator
of foreign cultural interactions
The results of this study demonstrate that the Kaiyuan Thai Wat not only facilitates
the government’s formal cultural diplomacy eorts but also functions autonomously in
advancing Chinese culture in Thailand. According to Hunter (2009), religious institutions
frequently act as non‑state players in cultural diplomacy. They have the independence to
organize cultural initiatives that might assist their home country’s foreign policy.
Another study that corroborated this discovery was a study conducted by Su‑yan
Pan on the inuence of culture in China’s diplomatic interactions with Southeast Asian
nations (Pan 2013). Kenneth Dean discovered that Chinese temples located overseas fre‑
quently serve as hubs for cultural endeavors that facilitate government cultural diplomacy

Religions 2024,15, 1365 11 of 13
and foster communal bonds between nations (Dean 2023). This demonstrates that the dual
function of the Kaiyuan Thai Wat in cultural diplomacy and international cultural relations
is not an isolated occurrence but rather a component of a broader trend in Chinese cultural
diplomacy in Southeast Asia. Unlike the Buddhist temples and institutions of Theravada
tradition in Yunnan, particularly in the Xishuangbanna area, which share ethnic and reli‑
gious commonality with Thailand, the Kaiyuan Thai Wat primarily serves as a facilitator
for religious and cultural connections between Thai–Chinese communities and their ances‑
tral homeland in the Chaoshan (or Chiusan) region of Guangdong.
Moreover, a study conducted by Eaksiipong (2021) on China–Thailand relations
demonstrated that cultural diplomacy has emerged as a signicant instrument in enhanc‑
ing bilateral relations. The Kaiyuan Thai Wat serves as a signicant conduit for introducing
and disseminating Chinese culture, fostering a greater understanding and collaboration
between the two nations. This discovery aligns with the study ndings that demonstrate
this monastery’s active involvement in promoting cultural interchange and enhancing re‑
lations between the societies in both countries.
6. Conclusions
The present study investigated the pivotal signicance of the Chaozhouan Kaiyuan
Tai Wat in Chinese–Thai cultural diplomacy. There are four signicant discoveries: (1) Bud‑
dhism has a crucial role in cultural diplomacy, which involves promoting and enhance the
understanding between peoples via cultural engagement. (2) Cultural diplomacy encom‑
passes the promotion of national interests through cultural interaction. (3) We identied
the key actors involved in formal cultural diplomacy. (4) The Kaiyuan Thai Wat acts as both
a platform for cultural diplomacy and a facilitator of foreign cultural interactions. This re‑
search can be expanded by conducting a comparative analysis between the Kaiyuan Thai
Wat and other Buddhist monasteries in Southeast Asia that engage in cultural diplomacy.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.L.; Methodology, Y.L.; Validation, Y.L.; Formal analy‑
sis, D.Z. and Y.L.; Investigation, D.Z.; Data curation, Y.L.; Writing—original draft, D.Z.; Writing—
review & editing, Y.L.; Supervision, Y.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted by the Declaration of Helsinki and
approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Commiee) of the Institute of Science Inno‑
vation and Culture, Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep, Thailand with the Approval
Code: R. 458/2023 on 9 August 2024.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon request from the
corresponding author due to privacy and ethical restrictions.
Acknowledgments: We sincerely appreciate everyone who participated in this study. We express
our gratitude to the administration of Chaozhou Kaiyuan si for permiing us and providing unwa‑
vering support throughout the research endeavor. We thank the monks and diplomats who willingly
dedicate their time to provide comprehensive interviews, sharing their perspectives and experiences.
Conicts of Interest: The authors declare no conicts of interest.
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