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Move(d) outdoors: Exploring the role of social relational emotions in human-nature relationships (PhD thesis)

October 2024

Thesis for: PhD

Authors:

Oslo Metropolitan University

Across cultures, the relationship between humans and nature affects both the well-being of humans and the natural environment. While the concept of nature connectedness is recognized as an important topic in this regard, little is known about the psychological processes that establish and foster it. Positioned at the intersection of environmental psychology and outdoor studies, this article-based thesis adopts a critical realism perspective to explore how social relational emotions, such as kama muta (≈ being moved) and awe, are specifically significant to the process of connecting in and to nature.

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Evi Petersen

Move(d) outdoors

Exploring the role of social relational emotions

in human–nature relationships

Dissertation for the

degree of Ph.D

Culture studies

To the evaluation committee

2024

Petersen II The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Scientific environment

This doctoral thesis was conducted between November 2017 and February 2024. During this

time, I was a PhD student enrolled in the Culture Studies program and employed at the

Department of Sports, Physical Education, and Outdoor Studies at the University of South-

Eastern Norway (USN). The PhD project was officially supervised by Professor Jan Ove

Tangen (USN), Professor Thomas Schubert from the University of Oslo (UiO, Department of

Psychology), and Professor Per Ingvar Haukeland (USN).

In April 2019, I received an Erasmus+ stipend to extend the data collection in collaboration

with Dr. Gunnar Liedtke at the University of Hamburg (Institute of Human Movement

Science) in Germany. Thereafter, I was a visiting scholar at Massey University (School of

Sport, Exercise and Nutrition) in New Zealand and collaborated with Professor Andy Martin

from January to July 2020. Since April 2022, I have been working as an assistant professor

at the Faculty of Educational and International Studies at Oslo Metropolitan University

(OsloMET).

Throughout the PhD project, I was a member of the USN-based research groups Research

on Friluftsliv, Society and Sustainability and Kropp, Samfunn og Bevegelseskulturer.

Furthermore, I participated in the international research group Kama Muta Lab and the

academic cluster of the Horizon Europe-funded GoGreenRoutes project. Since April 2022, I

have been a member of the research group Sustainability, Nature, Health, and Movement at

OsloMET.

Written with and in Norway, Germany, and New Zealand.

Assessment Committee:

First opponent: Professor Terry Hartig, Uppsala University

Second opponent: Professor Kirsten Kaya Roessler, University of Southern Denmark

Administrator: Professor Bengt Karlsson, University of South-Eastern Norway

Petersen III The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Dedication

To Ivar and Johne, who guided me towards this PhD path. Among many other things, you

taught me ting tar tid (things take time) and gjort er gjort og spist er spist (what's done is

done and what's eaten is eaten), which became two essential mental mantras throughout this

PhD journey. Your kind, passionate, and playful spirits will continue to inspire me and many

others on our friluftsliv adventures to come.

Petersen IV The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Preface

Standing at the top of a mountain, encountering an animal, seeing the sun rise, or simply

feeling the cool breeze from the ocean: each of these moments, some deeply imprinted in

memory, can elicit strong emotions in humans. Sometimes, such experiences change, either

immediately or over time, how we feel about our relationship with others, ourselves, and not

least, nature itself. How and when does this phenomenon occur, what are the implications of

such connecting moments, and why do people differ in their responses? Questions like these

sparked my scholarly curiosity and marked the beginning of this thesis.

Petersen V The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Culture Studies PhD program and the Department of Sports, Physical

Education and Outdoor Studies at USN. They entrusted me with a research fellowship and

provided valuable learning opportunities through useful PhD courses and teaching

opportunities. I would like to extend my gratitude to my new and dear colleagues at the

Institute of Early Childhood Education at OsloMET for their kind support during the final

phase of this PhD.

I want to thank all the participants who shared their rich experiences with me throughout this

PhD. Along with their outdoor teachers and instructors, they made the data collection for this

project possible.

Taking the path of this doctoral thesis was an adventure. I was lucky to be accompanied by

many wonderful travel companions who provided inspiration, advice, and distraction

whenever needed. I would like to thank certain individuals who particularly influenced the

development of this thesis:

First, I would like to thank my main supervisor, Jan Ove Tangen, for inviting me to pursue my

research interests. Your open-mindedness and trust towards my ideas and approaches

inspired me to be more explorative. I am particularly thankful for your emotional support

towards the end of this journey.

Second, I am grateful to my second supervisor, Thomas Schubert. You challenged me to

become more autonomous in my research and writing. Thank you for introducing me to the

Kama Muta Research Lab and all its members, who contributed with valuable feedback and

exciting discussions over the years.

To my dear friend Alan P. Fiske, I am incredibly thankful for your endless encouragement

and our wonderful and inspiring talks at Stockfleths and online. ಥ‿ಥ

I also want to thank Helga S. Løvoll and Per Ingvar Haukeland for providing very helpful

comments and suggestions on the synopsis towards the end of this thesis.

A heartfelt thank you to my friend Annette Bischoff, with whom I have shared tears of both

joy and sadness. Your support has been present at every level throughout my entire PhD

journey.

Petersen VI The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Kirsten W. Houe, I could always count on your “Heia Heia Heia!”. Thanks for being such a

supportive boss, colleague, and friend.

To Andy Martin, thank you for welcoming me to Massey University, Palmy, Castle Point, and

the weekly 700 kids’ triathlon. I am grateful that your pragmatic advice prevented this thesis

from reaching the volume of a Harry Potter saga.

To Gunnar Liedtke, you have been a great friend and colleague throughout this trip. Without

you, much of my data collection would not have been possible. I am looking forward to more

green collaboration.

Heaps of thanks go to Pip and Ross, our friends and hosts during COVID-19, when New

Zealand went into lockdown and our planned overnight stay turned into several weeks.

Thank you for the inspiring conversations, garden games, and enlightening quizzes over

delicious dinners. 

This journey would not have been the same without my co-stipends and friends. So, I would

like to thank the entire Bø-crew for an adventurous time and for sharing the rollercoaster ups

and downs of a PhD life over many cups of (sometimes quite bad) coffee. Special thanks go

to Maria Karlsen, who made the shut-up-and-suffer sessions less painful. Further, I want to

thank Helga Norheim for her comradeship throughout the entire PhD journey. Daniel, thanks

for the R-support from Jena. Martina and Giorgia, I would not have finished my PhD in a

million years without your support. And to Caro and Esther, thank you for your unwavering

friendship, which knows no geographical boundaries.

I also want to thank my wonderful, loving, and caring family, both in Germany and Norway. I

am especially grateful to my mother Waltraut and my stepfather Holger for always supporting

me, no matter what.

Finally, thank you so much, Iver. You have been a tremendous source of strength and

inspiration. You have provided me with love, a lot of patience, and constructive criticism

whenever needed. New chapters and adventures – here we come!

Petersen VII The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Abstract

Across cultures, the relationship between humans and nature affects both the well-being of

humans and the natural environment. While the concept of nature connectedness is

recognized as an important topic in this regard, little is known about the psychological

processes that establish and foster it. Positioned at the intersection of environmental

psychology and outdoor studies, this article-based thesis adopts a critical realism perspective

to explore how social relational emotions, such as kama muta (≈ being moved) and awe, are

specifically significant to the process of connecting in and to nature.

Article I is a conceptual paper that provides the theoretical foundation for the empirical

studies of the Articles II–VI. It proposes that the same emotions underpin social

connectedness and nature connectedness, and suggests that social relational emotions are

crucial to understanding how humans connect to nature. Drawing on relational models theory

(RMT), the paper specifically highlights the potential role of the emotion of kama muta in the

context of connecting to nature. It concludes by presenting five key implications for future

research and practice within this scope.

Article II explores the social relational emotion of kama muta and its role in accompanying

connecting processes in the context of nature. Follow-up interviews were conducted with

German university students six weeks after they participated in an outdoor field trip, which

took either place in Germany or Norway. The participants were asked to describe their

experiences using photographs from the trips as prompts. The thematic analysis of the

interview transcripts indicates that kama muta was elicited in the context of connecting to

nature, others, the self, and human-made materials or artifacts. Moreover, the article posits

that the method of photo elicitation serves as an effective catalyst in terms of helping

participants to recall and articulate the emotional aspects of their experiences outdoors.

Article III investigates the outdoor practice of solo – that is, being intentionally solitary in

nature. This study aims to understand how affective phenomena are part of this specific

outdoor practice, and how emotions, specifically, are linked to pathways of well-being.

Debriefing group interviews were conducted with adults from Norway, Germany, and New

Zealand, and content-analyzed by applying the PERMA-V framework in combination with a

data-driven approach. The main findings suggest that conscious experiences of emotions

and connecting processes during solo are related to both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being

pathways. The secondary findings indicate that personal (such as prior experiences),

situational (like weather), and socio-cultural (including nationality) aspects are relevant

contextual factors regarding the different well-being pathways. The article’s findings

underscore the value of solo experiences for well-being across various practical fields,

including outdoor education and nature-based therapy.

Petersen VIII The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Article IV examines the impact of social relational emotions, specifically awe and kama

muta, on nature connectedness during solo experiences. Data were collected and analyzed

from 132 adults in Norway, Germany, and New Zealand, who participated in one of nine

outdoor trips, using pre- and post-experience questionnaires. These questionnaires

evaluated the participants' experiences of awe and kama muta alongside other affective

states, their sense of nature connectedness, well-being, and environmental attitudes.

Employing linear mixed models to the data analysis, the findings reveal a significant increase

in nature connectedness attributable to solo experiences across groups. Moreover, the

intensity of experiencing awe or kama muta during solo was found to predict the increase in

nature connectedness. Secondary findings suggest a medium to strong positive correlation

between the two emotions, and that the influence of personal factors, beyond gender and

age, on nature connectedness merits further investigation.

This doctoral thesis introduces a novel interdisciplinary framework, both theoretical and

empirical, for understanding affective phenomena within the context of human-nature

relationships. It specifically investigates the function and characteristics of social relational

emotions in moments of connecting in and to nature. Among these emotions, kama muta and

awe are emphasized for their crucial roles in the process of connecting to nature. The thesis

employs various methods and approaches to studying emotions in the context of the

outdoors. By offering empirical insight into how certain emotion-related aspects of outdoor

experiences are linked to well-being and, to some extent, pro-environmental attitude, this

research provides valuable practical implications for educational outdoor programs and

nature-based therapy.

Keywords: outdoor experience, friluftsliv, human–nature relationship, nature connectedness,

social relational emotions, kama muta, awe, solo, photo elicitation, well-being, sustainability

Petersen IX The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Sammendrag (Norwegian)

Denne doktorgradsavhandlingen befinner seg i skjæringspunktet mellom miljøpsykologi og

friluftslivsstudier, og utforsker betydningen av sosial-relasjonelle emosjoner i menneskers

forhold til naturen. To sentrale sosial-relasjonelle emosjoner avhandlingen særlig fokuserer

på, er kama muta (≈ beveget, rørt) og awe (≈ ærefrykt).

Artikkel I introduserer et nytt teoretisk perspektiv som argumenterer for at både sosial

tiknytning og naturtilknytning er forankret i de samme emosjonene. Videre hevdes det, basert

på relational models theory (RMT), at sosial-relasjonelle emosjoner spiller en nøkkelrolle i

prosessene der mennesker knytter bånd til naturen. Denne konseptuelle artikkelen legger

det teoretiske fundamentet for de påfølgende empiriske studiene i Artiklene II–VI.

Artikkel II utforsker emosjonen kama muta i konteksten av naturtilknytning, gjennom

individuelle oppfølgingsintervjuer med tyske studenter om deres turer i naturen. Den

tematiske analysen understreker kama mutas betydning i forhold til tilknytning til naturen,

andre mennesker, seg selv, og menneskeskapte artefakter. Bruken av egne bilder viser seg

å være en effektiv metode for å erindre og rapportere om emosjonelle utendørsopplevelser.

Artikkel III undersøker hvordan sosial-relasjonelle emosjoner integreres i helhetsopplevelser

i naturen, med fokus på soloopplevelser – det å være alene i naturen. Innholdsanalyse av

gruppeintervjuer med voksne fra Norge, Tyskland og New Zealand indikerer at positive

emosjoner og tilknytningsprosesser under soloopplevelser er særlig relevant for velvære.

Artikkel IV undersøker hvorvidt opplevelser av kama muta eller ærefrykt under soloturer i

naturen kan forutsi en økning i tilknytningen til naturen. Studien, som baserer seg på

spørreskjemaer utfylt av voksne deltakere fra Tyskland, Norge og New Zealand, bruker

blandete lineære modeller for å analysere data både før og etter turene. Resultatene

indikerer at disse to emosjonene, som varierer fra middels til sterk korrelasjon, kan forutsi en

forsterket naturtilknytning.

Denne avhandlingen foreslår en tverrfaglig teoretisk tilnærming for å forstå emosjoner som er

fundamentale for menneske-natur-relasjoner. Den tilbyr metodologiske anbefalinger for

forskning på emosjoner utendørs og gir innsikt i hvordan emosjonelle aspekter ved

utendørsopplevelser, spesielt i solo kontekster, er koblet til velvære og miljøspørsmål, med

praktiske implikasjoner for friluftsliv i utdannings-, fritids- og terapeutiske sammenhenger.

Stikkord: Friluftsliv, menneske-natur-forhold, naturtilknytning, sosial-relasjonelle emosjoner,

kama muta, ærefrykt, solo i naturen, velvære, bærekraft

Petersen X The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

List of publications1

Article I

Petersen, E., Fiske, A. P., & Schubert, T. W. (2019). The role of social relational emotions for

human–nature connectedness. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2759.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02759

Article II

Petersen, E., & Martin, A. J. (2021). Kama muta (≈ being moved) helps connect people in

and to nature: A photo elicitation approach. Ecopsychology, 13(1), 37-47.

https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2020.0032

Article III

Petersen, E., Bischoff, A., Liedtke, G., & Martin, A. J. (2021). How does being solo in nature

affect well-being? Evidence from Norway, Germany and New Zealand. International

Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), Article 7897.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157897

Article IV

Petersen, E. (XXXX). Connecting with nature in solitude – Awe and kama muta predict

nature-connectedness during nature solo. In preparation for submission to Current

Research in Ecological and Social Psychology.

____________

1 Reprints were made with permission from the respective publishers.

Petersen XI The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

List of tables

Table 1. Overview of research articles in the PhD project ...................................................... 3

Table 2. Frequently applied concepts and measures of nature connectedness ....................17

Petersen XII The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

List of figures

Figure 1. Philosophical framework for the PhD project, derived from critical realism ............37

Figure 2. Illustration based on the stratified ontology of critical realism .................................39

Figure 3. Illustration of the overall methodological approach of this thesis ............................43

Figure 4. Overview of outdoor field trips’ included data (Articles II–IV) .................................47

Figure 5. Prerequisites for identifying kama muta in interview transcripts (Article II) .............52

Figure 6. Integrating the findings: a hypothetical conceptual model ......................................67

Petersen XIII The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Abbreviations

Authority ranking

Communal sharing

Equality matching

EON

Experience of nature

ICF

Informed consent form

Market pricing

LMMs

Linear mixed models

MCAR

Missing completely at random

NESH

Norwegian Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences

and the Humanities

NSD

The Norwegian Social Science Data Service

QCA

Qualitative content analysis

PANAS

Positive and Negative Affect Schedule

PERMA-V

Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, Accomplishment

(or Achievement) - Vitality

PWB

Psychological well-being

RMT

Relational models theory

SWB

Subjective well-being

Thematic analysis

USN

University of South-Eastern Norway

WEIRD

Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic

Petersen XIV The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Table of Contents

Scientific environment ........................................................................................................ II

Dedication ............................................................................................................................III

Preface ................................................................................................................................ IV

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. V

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. VII

Sammendrag (Norwegian) ................................................................................................. IX

List of publications ............................................................................................................. X

List of tables ....................................................................................................................... XI

List of figures .................................................................................................................... XII

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... XIII

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. XIV

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Research scope and aims ....................................................................................... 2

1.2 Thesis structure ....................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Personal and academic stance ............................................................................... 5

2 Theoretical background: human–nature relationships ............................................. 8

2.1 Conceptualizing nature and the experience of it ...................................................... 8

2.2 Factors that shape one’s relationship with nature ...................................................10

2.3 Nature engagement and well-being (flourishing) ....................................................14

2.4 Nature connectedness – concepts, measures, and research .................................16

2.5 The role of emotions in connecting to nature: The literature gap ............................20

2.5.1 Emotions as outcome variables of nature engagement ..........................................20

2.5.2 Emotions as predictors of well-being and pro-environmental aspects .....................21

2.5.3 Conceptual proposals linking emotions and nature connectedness ........................22

3 Theoretical framework: Emotion approach to human–nature relationships ..........24

3.1 Connecting with nature as psychological process ..................................................24

3.2 Notion of emotion: nature or nurture? .....................................................................27

3.3 Functions of social relational emotions ...................................................................30

3.4 Relational models theory ........................................................................................32

3.5 Kama muta .............................................................................................................33

3.6 Awe ........................................................................................................................35

4 The thesis’s research approach .................................................................................36

4.1 Philosophical stance...............................................................................................36

4.2 Methodology ..........................................................................................................42

4.3 Conceptual approach in Article I .............................................................................44

4.4 Empirical approaches in Articles II-IV .....................................................................45

4.4.1 Recruitment, sampling, and participants .................................................................45

4.4.2 Research sites and contexts ..................................................................................46

4.5 Data collection methods .........................................................................................47

Petersen XV The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

4.5.1 Interviews ...............................................................................................................47

4.5.2 Survey questionnaire ..............................................................................................49

4.6 Data analysis..........................................................................................................50

4.6.1 Qualitative data analysis ........................................................................................51

4.6.1.1 Thematic analysis ...........................................................................................51

4.6.1.2 Qualitative content analysis .............................................................................52

4.6.2 Quantitative data analysis ......................................................................................53

4.7 Methodological considerations: strengths and limitations .......................................54

4.7.1 Truth value .............................................................................................................55

4.7.2 Applicability ............................................................................................................56

4.7.3 Consistency ...........................................................................................................56

4.7.4 Neutrality ................................................................................................................57

4.8 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................58

5 Summary of findings ..................................................................................................61

5.1 Article I ...................................................................................................................61

5.2 Article II ..................................................................................................................62

5.3 Article III .................................................................................................................63

5.4 Article IV .................................................................................................................64

5.5 Integration of findings .............................................................................................65

6 Discussion ...................................................................................................................68

6.1 The role of social relational emotions in connecting in and to nature ......................68

6.1.1 Interplay between social relational emotions ..........................................................71

6.1.2 Commonalities and variations in participants’ responses ........................................73

6.2 Researching emotions in outdoor settings ..............................................................78

6.2.1 Memory-experience gap .........................................................................................78

6.2.2 Lexical fallacy .........................................................................................................81

6.2.3 Context complexity .................................................................................................82

6.3 Solo in nature as context for emotion elicitation and connecting .............................83

6.3.1 Contrast between solo in nature and daily routines ................................................84

6.3.2 Multi-sensuous engagement during solo ................................................................85

6.4 Implications for future research and practice ..........................................................87

6.4.1 Theoretical implications ..........................................................................................87

6.4.2 Methodological implications ....................................................................................90

6.4.3 Implications for practice ..........................................................................................91

7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................93

References ..........................................................................................................................94

Article I .............................................................................................................................. 118

Article II ............................................................................................................................. 125

Article III ............................................................................................................................ 139

Article IV............................................................................................................................ 161

Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 195

Petersen 1 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

1 Introduction

For many people, life in contemporary societies unfolds in cities or urban areas and is

embedded in digital technological daily routines. This way of living can be characterized by

the impression of an accelerated pace of living (Rosa, 2010), shaping how humans

experience and interact with their environments, including the natural ones. Related to this

phenomenon, many individuals, particularly in Western societies, find their engagement with

nature diminishing, although some individuals experience a contrary effect, and feel more

drawn to the outdoors. This divergence in engagement with nature has become particularly

apparent at both the individual and national level since the outbreak of the COVID-19

pandemic (Nigg et al., 2023).

Exploring the relationship between humans and nature is crucial to addressing two pressing

issues in modern society: human well-being and environmental conservation. Research

increasingly highlights the significant role that specific natural settings, landscapes, and

features play in enhancing human health and well-being (e.g., Hartig et al., 2014; McMahan

& Estes, 2015), while anthropogenic climate change and biodiversity loss present profound

societal concerns (e.g., Whitmee et al., 2015). This dynamic between human well-being and

environmental conservation emphasizes the need for a fundamental shift in behavior at both

the individual and the collective level. Consequently, stakeholders from various sectors,

including individuals, institutions, and policymakers, are actively seeking advice from a wide

array of experts. This diverse group spans researchers, landscape planners, wilderness

therapists, outdoor educators, artists, and recently, virtual reality specialists, among others.

Together, they explore how to improve access to natural environments and understand

which types of nature-based experiences can act as catalysts for the necessary shifts at both

personal and societal levels.

As for the contribution of research in this regard, different disciplines, including environmental

psychology, outdoor studies, ecophilosophy, and human geography, have made fruitful

contributions to understanding how experiences in nature can benefit both humans and

natural environments. Among others, the concept of nature connectedness (≈ the notion of a

subjectively perceived connection to nature) has been identified as a central psychological

concept in the pursuit of discovering pathways through which contact with nature fosters

health and well-being benefits (e.g., Capaldi et al., 2014; Pritchard et al., 2019). Additionally,

recent studies have shown that nature connectedness is related to pro-environmental

attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Mackay & Schmitt, 2019; Sierra-Barón et al., 2023; Whitburn et

al., 2019). Although there is solid evidence that nature connectedness is influenced by

experiences with nature (Lengieza & Swim, 2021; Sheffield et al., 2022; Tam, 2013a), little

research has examined the specific factors that contribute to this phenomenon in depth.

Petersen 2 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

While it is crucial to identify nuanced outcomes and benefits of nature connectedness for

different societal groups (Barragan‐Jason et al., 2021; Ives et al., 2018), equally important is

understanding how nature connectedness is elicited and facilitated. Recent approaches have

begun to explore the psychological processes of connecting to nature on an individual level,

highlighting the role of emotion-related mechanisms (e.g., Jacobs & McConnell, 2022;

Lengieza & Swim, 2021; Moreton, 2018a). Yet, much of the existing research has treated

emotions primarily as outcomes, such as components of hedonic well-being, overlooking

their critical function in establishing, regulating, and sustaining relationships (see Subsection

2.5). This oversight presents a significant knowledge gap, which this doctoral dissertation

aims to address.

1.1 Research scope and aims

The scientific scope of this PhD project primarily lies at the intersection between

environmental psychology and outdoor studies. Underpinned by a critical realist approach, as

detailed in Section 4.1, this thesis contributes to an emerging body of theoretical and

empirical work exploring the human-nature relationship. It specifically focuses on how

outdoor leisure experiences, especially the experience of solitude in nature, can foster a

psychological connection with nature. Building on emerging research that underscores the

crucial role of certain emotions in interpersonal connection processes, this project seeks to

investigate to which extent these processes may similarly facilitate connections in and to

nature. As such, the main research question of this thesis is the following:

What role do social relational emotions play in the process of establishing and fostering

connections in and to nature?

To explore this main question, the thesis considers four sub-questions, investigated through

one conceptual and three empirical studies. Specifically, this thesis aims to investigate which

emotions influence how people (adults) connect in and to nature, how emotions are

entangled with aspects of the overall nature experience, and how emotions are related to

outcomes like an increase in well-being and pro-environmental attitudes and behavioral

choices. The overall research design for this thesis features an emergent exploratory

sequential approach (Creswell & Clark, 2018), in which different (qualitative and quantitative)

research methods are applied. Table 1 provides a brief overview of the four research articles.

An in-depth account of the philosophical stance, methodology, and methods is provided in

Chapter 4.

Petersen 3 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Table 1. Overview of research articles in the PhD project

Study

purpose

To gain a deeper and more holistic understanding of the emotional mechanisms

involved in the psychological process of connecting in and to nature, and their

influence on outcomes such as well-being and environmental attitude.

Title

Article I Article II Article III Article IV

The role of social

relational emotions

for human–nature

connectedness

Kama muta

(≈ being moved)

helps connect

people in and to

nature: A photo

elicitation approach

How does being

solo in nature

affect well-being?

Evidence from

Norway, Germany,

and New Zealand

Connecting with

nature in solitude –

Awe and kama

muta predict

nature-

connectedness

during nature solo

Published

in Journal

Frontiers in

Psychology (2019)

Ecopsychology

(2021; ahead of

print: 2020)

International

Journal of

Environmental

Research and

Public Health

(2021)

In preparation for

submission to

Current Research

in Ecological and

Social Psychology

(XXXX)

Sub-

research

questions

What is the

potential role of

social relational

emotions for

connecting to

nature?

How does the

social relational

emotion of kama

muta link to

processes of

connecting in and

to nature?

What are the

pathways through

which solo affects

well-being across

different national

samples?

Do the social

relational emotions

of kama muta and

awe predict an

increase in nature

connectedness?

Study

design

Theoretical,

conceptual

approach

Empirical,

qualitative

approach

Empirical,

qualitative

approach

Empirical,

quantitative

approach

Sample Peer-reviewed

empirical and

conceptual articles

University students

(N = 27) from

Germany

Adults (N = 40)

from Norway,

Germany, and New

Zealand

Adults (N = 132)

from Norway,

Germany, and

New Zealand

Data Database and key-

word search

(+ preliminary data,

research group

discussions)

Follow-up

photograph elicited

semi-structured

interviews

Group-based

debriefing

interviews

Survey

questionnaires

(PANAS, Nature

Connectedness,

kama muta, awe;

SWB, environm.

attitude)

Data

analysis

Explicit abductive

reasoning

Reflexive thematic

analysis

(following Braun &

Clarke, 2006)

Qualitative content

analysis

(following Rädiker

& Kuckartz, 2020)

Statistical analysis

(correlations, linear

mixed models)

Due to the explorative and data-driven approach of this research and the years it took to

develop this thesis, an attentive reader will recognize two content-related shifts in the thesis's

focus while reading the first to the fourth paper. The first shift occurred while broadening the

perspective from solely connecting to nature in the first paper to connecting in and to nature

Petersen 4 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

in the second paper. In nature refers to situations, in which participants did not experience

kama muta (≈ being moved) while connecting to elements of nature but instead while

connecting to others, the self, and human-made materials or artifacts. In this context, I would

also like to highlight that, from Article II onwards, I frame emotions as positively and

negativity perceived instead of using the terms positive and negative emotions. This is

because I came to recognize that it would be misleading to describe an emotion as positive

or negative. For instance, shame, guilt or embarrassment are generally experienced as

rather unpleasant, but these emotions serve a useful function by helping an individual to

recognize their positioning in a social community (Bastin et al., 2016). The second shift

occurs between Article II and Article III. In the beginning, I focused on collecting data from

German and Norwegian participants regarding their overall outdoor experiences, which

included various forms of outdoor activities and settings. Later, I narrowed this focus to

specifically examining their experiences of being solitary in nature (solo). This change in

focus was based on the results of Article II, which showed that participants were more likely

to establish connections to nature (or at least were aware of it) when they were alone.

Narrowing the perspective to the solo context provided me with the opportunity to consider a

culturally and nationally diverse sample by additionally collecting data in New Zealand, which

in turn lead to a broader applicability of the findings. Although my planned data collection in

New Zealand was compromised by the COVID-19 lockdowns, I was able to gather a portion

of the planned dataset, which are included in the Articles III and IV.

1.2 Thesis structure

This article-based thesis integrates the four research articles into the synopsis (kappe).

Following the introduction and presentation of the research aim and scope, Chapter 1 will

continue by detailing my personal stance as a PhD candidate and providing insights into my

pre-understanding when approaching and conducting this PhD project. Chapter 2 presents

the background and current literature on the human–nature relationship and offers a

rationale for the integration of the emotion perspective into the human-nature relationship

literature. Chapter 3 outlines the theoretical and conceptual framework used to approach the

phenomena of emotions. Chapter 4 presents the research approach for this thesis, detailing

the philosophical stance, methodological approach, and specific methods and procedures for

each article. It also provides critical reflections on the strengths and limitations of the

methodological approaches across articles, as well as an elaboration on ethical

considerations. In Chapter 5, the main findings from Articles I – IV are summarized, followed

by an integration of the findings. Chapter 6 encompasses the discussion of the findings from

the four articles regarding current research literature on the topic, and it outlines the

theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of the thesis’s contribution. Finally,

Chapter 7 provides some concluding remarks.

Petersen 5 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

1.3 Personal and academic stance

"And into the forest I go, to lose my mind and find my soul." (John Muir)

The hilly path of this doctoral journey led me, literally and metaphorically, into the forest and

beyond. I can relate to Muir's poem, as I encountered several moments in which I felt that I

was losing my mind and eventually had some epiphanies along the way. Although the

experiences explored in this PhD project belong to the study participants, their experiences

shaped mine. Thus, on the one hand, this thesis is a scientific exploration of affective

phenomena in the context of the outdoors. On the other hand, it is also a narrative of the

paths that I took to complete this doctoral project. By consciously focusing on the latter in this

section, I aim to provide readers with some insight on how the questions addressed,

methods used, and findings interpreted in this thesis were colored by my personal and

professional socio-cultural background, preconceptions, and motivations. By reflexively

engaging with the personal knowledge that I gained along the way, I acknowledge the notion

that a researcher can never be unbiased or completely objective and that perspectives are

always partial and contextual, as they shift during the research process (Gadamer, 2013).

This form of reflexivity writing can be used as a tool to improve the quality, rigor, and validity

of research and is especially crucial whenever subjective interpretation is at the core of a

data analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). First, I outline my socio-cultural background and

consider how I developed an interest in the thesis topic. Then, I draw on my experiences and

realizations as a novice researcher, gaining a nuanced perspective throughout the research

process.

"Of all the paths you take in life, make sure a few of them are dirt." (John Muir)

I did not follow a straightforward path to becoming a PhD candidate, enrolling in Culture

Studies, and researching emotions within the scope of outdoor experiences. In hindsight,

however, I can retrace some of the crossroads that led me in this direction. By the time I

submit this dissertation, I will be in the middle of my thirties. I am a white European female

academic immigrant with a middle-class background who lives in Norway. My move from

Germany to Norway six years ago informed this thesis (especially the data collection) and

indicates a position of privilege due to my mobility. Focusing on nature-based experiences

within a leisure context also portrays me as an individual with the privilege of leisure time and

access to nature landscapes, as the narratives will further reveal.

Growing up in the northern part of Germany, I lived close to the North Sea, which provided

many early physical interactions with what I call nature. From swimming in the ocean at high

tide to crawling through the mudflats at low tide, picking mushrooms at the dike, and playing

in the nearby forest, many of my childhood paths were made of dirt; the natural environment I

Petersen 6 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

grew up in ensured this. I was excited about physical activities, and those that took place

outdoors especially filled me with joy. Following my passion for such activities, I chose to

study human movement science with a minor in psychology at the University of Hamburg.

During my undergraduate studies, I had the opportunity to participate in an Erasmus

exchange to Kristiansand, Norway in 2010. While studying friluftsliv (≈ outdoor studies), I

noticed some differences in how outdoor activities were practiced in Norway and in

Germany. Consequently, I began to develop a sense for and an interest in the socio-cultural

domain of outdoor experiences. I quickly realized that friluftsliv, as a societal phenomenon,

occupies a central position in Norwegian culture (e.g., Goksøyr, 1994; Gurholt, 2008;

Nedrelid, 1991). At the same time, I recognized the positive effects of this bodily practice on

the mental well-being of myself and others and how its impact could differ according to a

person's socio-cultural background, prior experiences, and expectations. Later, I enrolled in a

master's program in Hamburg and specialized in health research. During my master's

degree, I traveled to Nanaimo, Canada in 2013 to study sustainable leisure management.

This experience widened my perspective on how outdoor practices are situated in broader

socio-cultural settings and how the human–nature connection is not only a matter of human

health and well-being but also linked to environmental concerns. My academic and personal

interest in outdoor studies gradually grew, as did my interest in psychological phenomena

and culture, which eventually let me pursue this doctoral thesis.

To some extent, my academic interest in psychology, health, and sustainability are all

reflected in the questions that underpin this thesis. Through my academic mobility, I had the

opportunity to encounter different socio-cultural notions of being outdoors. In particular, the

First Nations culture in British Columbia (Canada) challenged my anthropocentric approach

to the concept of nature, as did my later experiences with Māori culture in New Zealand.

Otherwise, my personal and professional socio-cultural development has been profoundly

influenced by Western culture, which shaped both my understanding of and relationship with

nature. While positively perceived childhood memories experienced in nature certainly

contributed to my interest in nature-based activities in adulthood, my physical engagement

during childhood experiences builds on an understanding of nature as an accessible and

relatively safe playground for pleasure, adventure, and enjoyment. Such descriptions

resonate with many of my Generation Y peers and have even been acknowledged as part of

outdoor leisure attitudes and behaviors among women in the Scandinavian context (Gurholt,

1999). As demonstrated by my choice of Muir quotations in this section, I have inherited

Western romantic ideas about nature and a conservationist attitude towards it. For instance, I

am aware that I value typical aesthetic and awe-inducing elements of nature that elicit the

notion of freedom, which is prevalent in the modern romantic view of nature (Jay & Schraml,

2009). These preferences undoubtedly motivated my later experiences of journeying in wild

or sublime landscapes on my own and with groups, which again, contributed to my decision

to conduct this research.

Petersen 7 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

In retrospect, I wonder if I was not reflected enough about my privilege to view and treat the

investigation of nature experiences as activities with the opportunity for restoration and

enjoyment throughout the research process. In fact, I paid little attention to the historically

speaking often less-romantic side of human–nature relationships and the continuing

struggles that people experience in coping with natural threats and disasters, such as

earthquakes, tornados, and flooding. Nevertheless, due to my personal leisure perspective, I

share socio-cultural similarities with many of the project's participants, and my personal

experiences with and in nature may not significantly differ from those of the participants,

especially the Germans and Norwegians. In Section 4.7, I reflect on how this circumstance

may has benefitted and, in some ways, challenged the data analysis.

My doctoral journey officially began in November 2017 and took me to different geographical

locations and intellectual spaces. Initially, I was intrigued by emerging research that aimed to

empirically demonstrate how nature affects human health and well-being. Approaching my

project like a quest, I was motivated to identify the mechanism by which connecting to nature

affects the human mind. Engaging with the scientific literature for a while led me realize that

this phenomenon was not attributable to one mechanism. Instead, I discovered an intricate

interplay of ecological, physiological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, all contributing

to the complexity of human-nature relationships. Largely due to my engagement with the

Kama Muta Lab (emotion research group), I understood that affective phenomena play a

crucial role in interpersonal relationships but are highly underexplored in human–nature

relationships. I figured that exploring emotion mechanisms by focusing on the subjective

level could be a crucial first step in investigating connecting moments in nature. In my

theoretical approach, I am mainly influenced by disciplines in the social sciences, mostly due

to my academic background. I did not explicitly draw on theories from academic disciplines

within the humanities, such as emotional geography (e.g., Davidson et al., 2007),

ecophilosophy (e.g., Naess, 1977) anthropology (e.g., Ingold, 2000; Milton, 2002, 2005), and

phenomenology (e.g., Merleau-Ponty, 1962). Nevertheless, my engagement with this

literature shaped my research approach for this dissertation, as it particularly influenced my

consideration of the embodied, emplaced, and culturally situated aspects of the project's

findings and discussions, especially concerning solo experiences in nature (Section 6.3).

Lastly, I want to acknowledge that I wrote this thesis under the umbrella of the Culture

Studies program at the University of South-Eastern Norway. Debates in the interdisciplinary

field of culture studies principally view the human body as marked by history—that is, socially

and culturally mediated or produced (Jane & Barker, 2016). Therefore, researchers in culture

studies sometimes dismiss physiological and psychological explanations of human behavior

as biological reductionism and prefer to take a stance within cultural constructionism. By

contrast, the critical realist perspective adopted in this thesis (see Section 4.1) illustrates a

relatively atypical approach to the scope of the Culture Studies program by offering

explanations and thought experiments that suggest the integration of culture studies and

environmental and social psychology in a productive alliance. Such an alliance collapses

Petersen 8 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

several dualistic distinctions such as the mind and the body, culture and biology, and

cognition and emotion (see Section 3.2). Consequently, this thesis contributes to debates in

the field of culture studies in at least two ways: (1) by understanding emotions as both nature

and nurture and (2) by foregrounding the socio-cultural components of outdoor practice.

2 Theoretical background: human–nature

relationships

In the introduction, I established why human–nature relationships are at the center of current

societal discourses on both well-being and environmental issues. Without doubt, human–

nature relationships are complex and can be explored from a range of perspectives. Thus, to

explore and discuss how emotions are relevant to establishing and fostering such

relationships, this chapter provides a contextual foundation for this endeavor. Specifically, I

present relevant perspectives, theoretical concepts, current research approaches, and

studies in environmental psychology and outdoor studies related to the phenomenon of

humans connecting to nature, primarily in the context of leisure. Presenting the concept of

nature connectedness and its relationship to well-being and pro-environmental attitude and

behavior will expand the scope of Article I. The final section (2.5) positions this thesis within

the existing body of literature by reviewing the studies that have empirically and conceptually

investigated the relationship between emotions and connecting to nature, and by identifying

the associated knowledge gaps that give rise to the initial research questions of this thesis.

2.1 Conceptualizing nature and the experience of it

The term nature is at the core of this thesis. As a concept, nature is notoriously difficult to

define, as its meaning changes depending on the historical and socio-cultural context in

which it is used (Glacken, 1992). Moreover, the term nature is not consistently translated

between languages and, within any language, its meaning depends on the speaker and the

specific discourse (Ducarme & Couvet, 2020). Nevertheless, a particularly dominant notion in

Western cultures, and often adopted in social sciences (Dove, 2013), is that the meaning of

nature encompasses a contrast with whatever we see as human or human-made. This is

reflected in thoughts of dualisms such as culture versus nature or humans versus the natural

world. In this sense, the term often refers to perceivable aspects of a physical world, such as

flora and fauna, qualities of air, water and weather, including the landscapes that comprise

these and which show the influence of geological processes (Hartig et al., 2014, p. 208). In

acknowledgement that the current geological epoch is increasingly labeled as the

Anthropocene (Crutzen, 2002), the idea of nature as a pure and timeless place characterized

by the absence of humans has become problematic and unrealistic (Lorimer, 2015).

Furthermore, the ecological foundation of human existence and our inseparable relationship

Petersen 9 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

with the physical elements of nature (e.g., air, water, and solar radiation) are undeniable

(Collado et al., 2017). These realizations have led to the recognition of alternative terms such

as the more-than-human world, coined by David Abram (1996). Abram advocates a

theoretical perspective that views humans as an inseparable part of the natural world.

However, there is an argument to be made that using such a term makes a semantic

distinction between humans and the natural world and thereby inadvertently perpetuates the

very dichotomy it seeks to unify. Thus, due to the wide semantic diversity in the use of the

term nature, which is both historically and geographically situated, any definition of nature

must rely on contextual mental representations (models) and theoretical concepts (Demeritt,

2002; Ellen, 1996). Using nature as a scientific construct, I explain how it and related terms

are applied in this thesis.

To a large extent, the definition of nature used in this thesis relies on the meaning that

individual participants in the empirical studies (Articles II–IV) ascribed to their ideas and

understandings of nature (mental models). According to Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), the

experience of nature (EON) is what is relevant to focus on, rather than the objective definition

of the term nature. Experience can be understood as “(the process of getting) knowledge or

skills from doing, seeing or feeling things" or “something that happens to you that affects how

you feel” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). Consequently, experiences of nature incorporate an

active element of change and should be differentiated from mere contact with nature

(Clayton et al., 2016) or nature exposure (Tomasso & Chen, 2022). Subjective perceptions

and evaluations of nature likely vary over time, in part because humans are affected by their

socio-cultural environment (Hartig, 1993; Proctor, 1998). For instance, the practice and value

of friluftsliv is an essential element in the identity of Nordic countries (Gelter, 2000), which

influences subjective experiences of nature, especially among Norwegians (Article III).

Although most of my study participants were situated within a Western cultural context, their

experiences of what they perceived as nature were diverse and marked by differences in

personal preferences and prior experiences. Interestingly, participants often did not regard

nature as separate from visible human influence; some of the environmental areas that

participants perceived as natural showed substantial human influence through the presence

of rural neighborhoods and cultivated agricultural landscapes, such as the German

landscape in Article II. However, especially among the Norwegians, the experience of being

in nature was linked to spending time in vast areas of remote and somewhat uncultivated

land with minimal visible human influence, which could be referred to as wilderness in

English (Gurholt, 2014, p. 234).

While the term nature area is generally used to describe nature on a large scale, green

space is more often used by policymakers in reference to urban parks or trees along streets

and gardens (van den Berg et al., 2018, p. 58). Thus, descriptions of nature also

substantially intersect with natural environments, another term that is often

interchangeably use in the literature (Hartig et al., 2014). For the purpose of this thesis,

natural environments are operationalized as "areas containing elements of living systems

Petersen 10 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

that include plants and non-human animals across a range of scales and degrees of human

management, from a small urban park through to relatively pristine wilderness" (Bratman et

al., 2012, p. 120), as it is often done in conservation research. Kaplan and Kaplan (1989)

offered some, for this thesis suitable, specific examples of what could be considered nature:

Nature includes parks and open spaces, meadows and abandoned fields, street trees

and backyard gardens. We are referring to places near and far, common and unusual,

managed and unkempt, big, small, and in-between, where plants grow by human

design or even despite it. We are referring to areas that would often be described as

green, but they are also natural when the green is replaced by white or brown or red

and yellow. Nature includes plants and various forms of vegetation. (p. 2)

Moreover, other biophysical elements of nature considered in this thesis include fauna,

celestial bodies (e.g., the sun, the moon, and stars), and weather-related phenomena (e.g.,

wind, rain, and clouds), and water-containing entities (e.g., rivers, lakes, and the ocean). In

addition, non-biophysical qualities such as fresh air are often described as crucial elements

of the nature experience. Although a robust body of research has shown that people can

experience nature by simply viewing natural elements or landscapes from a building, in

photographs or documentaries, or through virtual reality (see Hartig et al., 2014), such

experiences are not covered within the scope of this thesis. Instead, encounters with forms of

nature were realized in diverse modes of being in physical natural environments, often while

being physically active, of which hiking was one of the most prominent forms. Spending time

in nature has become a valued leisure phenomenon, particularly in Western, educated,

industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societal contexts. To emphasize the leisure

context, I use the outdoors, which is an internationally recognized term within the outdoor

leisure research community referring to outdoor places and spaces where people can enjoy

nature (Humberstone et al., 2016). Other culture-specific concepts, such as friluftliv will be

explored as part of the next section.

2.2 Factors that shape one’s relationship with nature

Approximately 55% of the global human population lives in urban areas, and this percentage

is likely to increase (World Bank, 2020). The urbanization of human life, along with factors

such as rapid digitalization, may contribute to an overall decrease in frequent direct contact

with nature (Soga & Gaston, 2016). Experiences of physical disconnection feed into a

popular scientific and non-scientific environmental discourse on psychological disconnection

from nature. In this scope, terms and concepts such as extinction of experience (Pyle, 1978)

and nature deficit disorder (Louv, 2005) have been proposed to highlight that a lack of

regular physical contact with nature challenges the health and well-being of humans and the

planet (for an overview, see Gaston & Soga, 2020).

Petersen 11 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

However, previous research has also emphasized that this relationship may be more

complex and nuanced than initially thought. For instance, in a study on urban Singapore, Oh

et al. (2020) used a survey approach to investigate whether experiences of nature,

opportunities to experience nature, and the emotional connection between people and nature

had changed over a period of 22 years. The researchers found that emotional connection

with nature increased among both users and non-users of green spaces, although the

frequency and duration of visits to green spaces had remained the same. Such findings

could support arguments proposed by the sociologist Adrian Franklin (2002), who applied a

social theory approach to posit that connections with nature have not disappeared but rather

reshaped and relocated and involve new social objects and cultural interest and practices. In

other words, human–nature relationships are embedded in historical settings, which are

determined by socio-cultural and environmental processes, therefore, their interpretation is

dynamic.

The bio-psycho-evolutionary – Nevertheless, from the perspective of biological evolution, the

observation that humans have begun to live far away from natural environments is a

comparably recent phenomenon. Human psyche may have been shaped by interactions with

natural environments, which resulted in behavioral and attitudinal tendencies that increased

people's likelihood of survival (Ulrich, 1983; Ulrich et al., 1991). For instance, phobias of

animals and threatening aspects of natural environments are cross-cultural (LeBeau et al.,

2010), and specific biophobic responses to animals, such as snakes or spiders, often

manifest more frequently and quickly than other phobias (Öhman, 2009). Furthermore,

people show strong tendencies to prefer views of nature over views of urban environments

(Joye, 2007; Ulrich, 1981, 1993), especially when the natural environment contains water

elements (e.g., Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) or provides semi-open and safe spaces (savannah-

type landscapes; Orians, 1980). Thus, from a psycho-evolutionary perspective, it could be

argued that humans inherited a predisposition towards certain biophobic responses, which

helped them to avoid potential natural dangers, and biophilic responses, which encouraged

and motivated them to approach non-threatening and beneficial environments (Ulrich, 1993).

However, it should be noted that most empirical studies on natural landscape preferences

have been conducted with urban Western populations, and more recent studies have

revealed that such preferences are much more diverse, especially when comparing Western

and non-Western samples (Hägerhäll et al., 2018). Furthermore, the biophilia hypothesis,

which was initially proposed by E.O. Wilson (1984) and explored by Kellert and Wilson

(1993) in greater depth, postulates that humans have a profound biological need to affiliate

with and feel connected to the broader natural world. Despite the widespread recognition of

the biophilia hypothesis, this psycho-evolutionary approach falls short to explain individual

and cultural differences in preferences and benefits experienced from human–nature

relationships. Thus, to better understand humans’ relationship with nature, some frequently

applied evolutionary assumptions would benefit from critical revision and adjustment through

the inclusion of other aspects related to personal and socio-cultural dimensions (e.g., Hartig

et al., 2011; Joye & Van den Berg, 2011). For instance, in a literature review on

Petersen 12 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

environmental attitudes and actions, Gifford and Nilsson (2014) found that various personal

and social factors, such as knowledge about environmental issues and personality traits

(e.g., openness to experience), determine an individual's degree of preference and

engagement with environmental topics and behaviors.

The eco-individual – Also, recurring findings from both qualitative and quantitative studies

suggest that direct physical experiences with nature during childhood and youth play an

essential role in shaping people’s relationship with nature and nature-based activity behavior

(Bischoff, 2012; Broch, 2018; Calogiuri, 2016; Chawla, 2007; Fasting et al., 2022; Rosa et

al., 2018; Tam, 2013a; Thompson et al., 2007; Van Heel et al., 2023). Within this scope,

phenomenologically inspired perspectives of the human body have been applied to explore

human–nature relationships by conceptualizing humans as embodied (embodiment; see

Merleau-Ponty, 1962) and emplaced (emplacement; see Casey, 1993) in a reciprocal

relationship with the world and nature (Ingold, 2000). Embodied experiences of nature-based

physical activity are influenced by opportunities for action afforded by the environment, such

as walking paths in nature (Bischoff, 2012). To understand the entanglement between the

active organism and the surrounding environment, the concept of affordances (originally

proposed by Gibson, 1977) has begun to establish itself as a frequently applied theoretical

framework in both outdoor studies and environmental psychology (e.g., by applying and

expanding on the affordance approach to explain nature’s positive influence on health;

Araújo et al., 2019; Brymer et al., 2020). Affordances can be understood as the functionally

significant properties of the environment that are identified through active information

perception. They encompass characteristics of both the environment and the interacting

individual. Thus, affordances vary between individuals and across different socio-

demographic groups (Kyttä, 2002, p. 109).

The proximate social – While some people’s personal histories include solitary experiences

in nature, most experiences occur in social settings with close others, such as family and

friends, and as members of social groups or communities. In this sense, the proximate socio-

cultural embeddedness of nature experiences influences how people encounter, understand,

value, establish, and maintain their relationship with nature (Olivos & Clayton, 2017).

According to the environmental psychologist James J. Gifford (2014, p. 542), human life is

constantly embedded in cultural practices. Thus, although participants in this study spent

time alone in nature (Articles II, III, and IV), the values and belief systems that they share

with others guide their solo practice.

The broader socio-cultural – Moreover, cultural values and narratives at a societal (national)

level present another influential dimension that shapes a person’s relationship with nature

and affects how the different national samples featured in this thesis engaged with nature in

their leisure time. For instance, in Norway, official policies explicitly stress the importance of

friluftsliv (often translated to English as outdoor life; Gelter, 2000; Gurholt & Haukeland,

Petersen 13 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

2019) and its embeddedness in socio-cultural layers of society, such as the school system,

public health, and environmental questions (Ministry of Climate and Environment, 2016).

Friluftsliv is a Scandinavian-specific way of engaging in outdoor practice; it is popular across

all age groups and is a recognized component of Norwegian national identity (Gurholt, 2008).

The Norwegian ecophilosopher Arne Naess (1973) coined the term ecological self to

describe an individual’s interconnectedness with the earth and sense of inclusion in nature.

Naess was also an outdoor enthusiast who deeply influenced the Norwegian discourse

around outdoor recreation and promoted an idealistic prototype of a slow, nature-focused

way of being outdoors. Such interpretations have continued to shape Norwegians’

understanding of outdoor practice in many ways (Gurholt, 2008). In Germany, cultural

influences at the national level appear to be more implicit and less systematically embedded

in different socio-cultural layers of society, although they are clearly marked by ideas related

to romanticism. For instance, the country's long history with hydrotherapy, which is typically

traced back to Sebastian Kneipp (1821–1897), has generated an enduring fascination with

water, emphasizing the notion of nature’s healing powers. Traces of this cultural influence

can be found in traditional spas (German: Kurbäder) across Germany. However, perhaps the

most relevant nature-related national symbol is the German forest, which has inspired social

phenomena such as the youth movement Wandering Bird (German: Wandervogel) from

1896 to 1933. Today, nature hikes and walks are still the most frequent type of outdoor

activity across different age groups in Germany (Wilson, 2019). Lastly, outdoor participants in

New Zealand often experience a fusion of different cultural understandings of what it means

to have a meaningful relationship with nature (Lynch & Dibben, 2016). On the one hand,

adventure and personal development-inspired outdoor approaches from the United Kingdom,

the United States, and the educational tradition surrounding Kurt Hahn (1886–1974) appear

to have inspired Kiwis to enjoy tramping in the bush, along with a range of other activities,

which suggests an understanding of nature as arena for personal joy and challenge. On the

other hand, such Western cultural ideas have increasingly merged with interpretations of

human–nature relationships in Māori culture, in which belief systems suggest an

understanding of the earth and the self as one (Cosgriff et al., 2012). Indeed, the New

Zealand government has begun to recognize and promote these multiple ways of

understanding and representing the human–nature relationship by incorporating the notion

that natural environments are intrinsically linked to people’s well-being into official public

health guidelines (Ministry for the Environment, 2021).

In summary, this section proposes that different perspectives shed light on various nuances

of the human–nature relationship. Through the entanglement of these different layers,

human–nature relationships are established and maintained; therefore, they are also best

investigated and understood by considering the specific context that they are embedded in.

The critical realism approach that underpins this thesis supports a more complex eco-social

and socio-behavioral viewpoint (for detailed overview, see Tomasso & Chen, 2022) in which

the bio-psycho-evolutionary, eco-individual, and socio-cultural dimensions are interrelated.

Petersen 14 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

In the following section, I briefly introduce the relevant literature on the role of nature in well-

being and flourishing, which is especially relevant for Article III.

2.3 Nature engagement and well-being (flourishing)

Human well-being has been a topic of scholarly investigation in philosophy and religion for

more than a millennium. However, the systematic beginnings of empirical research on well-

being in the social sciences, particularly psychology, are often traced to the 1970s (Olivos &

Clayton, 2017). Despite the popularity of well-being as a concept among scholars from

various disciplines, there is a lack of consensus on what it consists of and how it should be

defined. Many researchers view well-being as a multi-dimensional construct but

operationalize it differently (Disabato et al., 2016; Huta & Waterman, 2014). This results from

at least one of two related but distinct traditions of thought: a hedonic tradition and an

eudaimonic tradition. Hedonic approaches (feeling good) usually focus on constructs such as

happiness and positive and negative affect in combination with satisfaction with life (e.g.,

early approaches: Bradburn, 1969; Diener, 1984; Kahneman et al., 1999). Eudaimonic

approaches (functioning well) are primarily used to describe positive psychological

functioning and human development (e.g., early approaches: Rogers, 1961; Ryff, 1989;

Waterman, 1993). Although people can engage in activities that provide only hedonia or

eudaimonia (Vittersø, 2016), many eudaimonic activities are positively related to hedonia

(Waterman, 2008).

In recognition of the relevance of both the hedonic and the eudaimonic dimensions, well-

being has often been studied with a conceptual focus on subjective well-being (SWB; defined

by Diener, 1984), psychological well-being (PWB; defined by Ryff, 1989), and sometimes

social well-being (defined by Keyes, 1998), which indicates the complexity of well-being. In

Article IV, I am specifically interested in SWB, which is a reliable predictor of important life

outcomes such as health, longevity, and disease (Diener et al., 2017). SWB is sometimes

referred to as happiness and mainly associated with the hedonic aspects of well-being,

although it is constituted by three complementary aspects: life satisfaction, positive affect,

and negative affect (Diener, 1984; Diener, 2009). PWB, on the other hand, is often linked to

eudaimonic aspects of well-being, such as the meaning of life or one's sense of purpose in

the world. Yet, it should be noted that some psychological interpretations of well-being

incorporate SWB as a second dimension (see Diener et al., 2018). Lastly, social well-being

focuses on components such as feeling connected to others and valued by one's community

(Keyes, 2007).

Acknowledging the complexity of well-being and the relevance (and interrelatedness) of

different hedonic and eudaimonic components (Huta & Waterman, 2014), we addressed

well-being through the concept of flourishing in Article III. Flourishing has been proposed as

Petersen 15 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

a holistic approach to well-being and encompasses a combination of hedonic (related to

positive emotional states such as happiness and vitality) and eudaimonic facets (related to

positive functioning, such as purpose in life, competence, and social connections; (Huppert &

So, 2013; Keyes, 2002, 2007; VanderWeele, 2017). In this context, Seligman (2011)

suggested that positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, purpose, and

achievement/accomplishment (PERMA) represent the relevant (pleasant, engaging, and

meaningful) building blocks of flourishing. Therefore, we used an extended version of

PERMA: PERMA-V (with V for vitality) as a framework for investigating the well-being

(flourishing) pathways of the solo in nature practice (see Article III).

As concepts, flourishing and well-being are closely linked to the introduction of the positive

psychology framework, which aims to understand and strengthen the elements that enable

individuals, communities, and societies to thrive (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Moreover, these concepts are frequently applied in the field of environmental psychology

(Olivos & Clayton, 2017). For instance, a robust body of evidence has affirmed the positive

effects of natural environments and engagement with nature on people's health and well-

being. Specifically, studies have found that contact with nature provides health-related

benefits for well-being (for umbrella review, see Yang et al., 2021), positive affect or

emotions specifically (for an overview, see McMahan & Estes, 2015), and flourishing and

meaning in life-related benefits (for an overview, see Capaldi et al., 2015). Trying to explain

the mechanisms behind these findings, various biophysical, psychological, and social

concepts and theories have been proposed to explain the many health, well-being-(and

flourishing-) related benefits gained from living close to nature, contact with nature, and

engagement in nature activities. Hartig et al. (2014) summarized that contact with nature

leads to enhanced health and well-being via better air quality, increased physical activity,

social relations, and stress reduction. Regarding the latter, the most established theories

used to study the impact of nature on well-being focus on the restorative capacity of nature,

such as attention restoration theory (ART; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Kaplan, 1995) and

psycho-evolutionary theory (conventionally often referred to as stress-recovery theory, SRT;

Ulrich, 1983; Ulrich et al., 1991). A recent paper by Iqbal and Mansell (2021) provided a

comprehensive overview of theoretical approaches to explaining how engagement with

nature contributes to different facets of well-being. Besides exploring the relevance of

biodiversity (Marselle et al., 2021), researchers have recently begun to study and discuss the

role of nature connectedness to explain the well-being-related effects of nature. In this scope,

a growing body of empirical research has shown that nature connectedness is significantly

linked to and can predict various facets of well-being (for recent systematic overview and

meta analysis, see McNeil et al., 2022; Wu & Jones, 2022).

Regarding the latter, the next section presents an overview of how scholars have

approached the identification and quantification of human–nature relationships at an

individual level through the operationalization of different conceptualizations of nature

connectedness.

Petersen 16 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

2.4 Nature connectedness – concepts, measures, and

research

Humans construe their relationship with nature or elements of it in various ways, and some

people or groups appear to have stronger bonds with nature than others. Investigating how

and why connections between humans and nature are shaped differently has become a

central topic in environmental psychology, particularly in the branches of ecopsychology and

conservation psychology. In comparison to the theoretical perspectives of place attachment

(Scannell & Gifford, 2010, 2017) and topophilia (Ogunseitan, 2005; Tuan, 1990), which focus

on affective bounds between people and specific places or environmental settings, the

concept of nature connectedness is underpinned by the notion of connecting to a more

abstract form of nature, which encompasses, for instance, flora, fauna, celestial phenomena,

etc.,. Despite various vernacular labels in the literature (e.g., being in touch with, being

connected to, being part of, or experiencing oneness with nature), contemporary theoretical

contributions primarily describe the human–nature relationship from an anthropocentric

perspective in which humans incorporate relatively unspecific and abstract notions of nature

into their psychological image of themselves (Olivos & Clayton, 2017). To differentiate such

subjective levels from group-based levels, I adopt the term human–nature connectedness

(see e.g., Riechers et al., 2021) to highlight the construct’s relevance at the societal level.

Furthermore, I use nature connectedness as an umbrella term for a subjectively perceived

connection to nature that can be described at a trait and state level.

Schultz (2002, p. 68) suggested that nature connectedness incorporates three psychological

components: cognitive (perception of the self as part of nature), affective (an affective bond

with nature), and behavioral (e.g., taking care of nature). These are expressed through the

structural components of connectedness, caring, and commitment. While researchers

generally agree that nature connectedness involves these psychological, structural

components, the literature provides a range of concepts and corresponding measures to

capture different nuances of an individually perceived nature connectedness (Tam, 2013a).

Keaulana et al. (2021) provided a comprehensive systematic review of nature, land, and

environmental connectedness and relatedness measures across disciplines. Additionally,

Tiscareno-Osorno et al. (2023) published a recent systematic review of explicit instruments

measuring nature connectedness.

Table 2 is inspired by Capaldi’s overview on measures of human-nature relationships (2020,

pp. 21-23), and focuses on briefly summarizing the most frequently mentioned constructs

and their corresponding scales in environmental psychology. The third column highlights how

the theoretical and conceptual approach of the scales were inspired by previous work on

interpersonal relations and a general notion of connecting as a psychological process.

Petersen 17 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

Table 2. Frequently applied concepts and measures of nature connectedness

Concept

(abbreviation;

authors)

Operationalizing measure Links to the conceptual idea of

connecting as a fundamental

psychological process

Emotional Affinity

Toward Nature

(EAN; Kals et al.,

1999)

Degree of agreement with 16 statements

that assess feeling good, free, and safe in

nature; feeling oneness with nature; and

feelings associated with love of nature;

trait state version and shortened 11-item

version available

Recognizes that emotional

responses to nature are tied to a

general sense of relatedness,

acknowledges indirectly the

relevance of the self-concept for

environmental attitudes

New Ecological

Paradigm (NEP;

Dunlap et al.,

2000)

Degree of agreement with 15 statements

that assess basic environmental beliefs

about humanity’s ability to upset the

balance of nature, the existence of limits

to growth for human societies, and

humanity’s right to rule over the rest of

nature; trait measure

Revised version of the 12-item

NEP by Dunlap and Van Liere

(2014), first grounded in social

psychological theories of attitude

structure (Stern et al., 1995), and

associated with fundamental

ideas of people’s belief systems

(Rokeach, 1968)

Inclusion of

Nature in Self

(INS; Schultz,

2001, 2002)

Graphical metaphor that displays seven

distinct pairs of circles labeled self and

nature with different degrees of overlap

between them. Selecting pair of circles

that best represents one’s own perceived

relationship with nature (trait version

available)

Builds on the item desire for

belonging and connection, which

is part of the self-determination

theory; and explicitly adopts the

Inclusion of Other in Self Scale

(Aron et al., 1992) for

interpersonal relationships

Environmental

Identity (EID;

Clayton, 2003)

Degree of agreement with 24 items that

assess components of environmental

identity: interaction with nature, whether

nature is important, thinking of oneself as

part of nature, and whether natural

environments evoke positive emotions.

Further items include competence,

autonomy, belonging, and engaging in

outdoor activities; shortened 11-item

version (Clayton, 2012), cross-culturally

tested 14-item trait version available

(Clayton et al., 2021)

Builds on research from collective

social identities; the construct of

environmental identity is viewed

as similar to other collective

identities and can therefore

provide a sense of connection or

belonging to a larger whole

Connectedness to

Nature (CNS;

Mayer & Frantz,

2004)

Degree of agreement with 14 items that

assess perceptions and cognitive beliefs

of belonging to and feeling kinship with

nature, viewing oneself as an egalitarian

member of nature, and thinking of

personal well-being as dependent on

environmental well-being; trait and state

version available (Mayer et al., 2009)

Builds on social psychological

research on self-expansion,

interpersonal closeness and

empathy in interpersonal

relationships

Nature

relatedness (NR;

Nisbet et al.,

2009)

Degree of agreement with 21 items that

assess affective, cognitive, and

experiential components of one's

relationship with nature; captures people’s

identification with nature, nature-related

worldviews, and familiarity with and

appreciation of being in nature; trait-like

measure, shortened six-item version

available (Nisbet & Zelenski, 2013)

Encompasses elements of self-

determination theory: desire for

belonging and

connection.Inspired by the notion

of ecological identity or ecological

self (Naess, 1973)

Petersen 18 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

As Table 2 indicates, empirical measures of nature connectedness predominantly rely on

psychometric scales that contain different sets of item statements, which respondents are

asked to indicate their agreement with on a Likert scale. However, exceptions have been

proposed by Schultz and colleagues, for instance, the Inclusion of Nature in Self scale (INS)

which is a graphical single-item measure, or the Nature Implicit Association Test (IAT-

Nature), which is an implicit measure based on reaction time (Bruni & Schultz, 2010; Schultz

et al., 2004). Tam (2013a) aimed to identify the similarities and differences between many of

the above introduced measures. Despite some differences, the author concluded that the

measures could be understood as indicators of the same underlying construct, as they were

strongly correlated. These findings were echoed in a recent meta-analysis by Balundė et al.

(2019), who found that the constructs of connectedness with nature, environmental identity,

and environmental self-identity were strongly correlated. Tam (2013a) found that measures

that conceptualize nature connectedness as multidimensional (cognitive and emotional

components) outperformed other measures. Further, Tam also highlighted the relevance of

Ashmore et al. (2004) work on collective identity and suggested that including a social

dimension in the measure of nature connectedness would reflect the concepts socio-cultural

embeddedness.

The measures listed in Table 2 have also inspired the development of modified, revised

versions and new measures, which indicates a growing academic interest in the topic of

nature connectedness. For example, Dutcher et al. (2007) developed the Connectivity with

Nature (CWN) scale, which, similar to the INS, is a combination of a graphical item and four

items that contain statements based on agreement ratings. Other closely linked concepts

and scale measures that have emerged include the Allo-Inclusive Identity–Natural World (AI-

Nature; Leary et al., 2008), the Commitment to Nature concept (COM; Davis et al., 2009), the

Love and Care for Nature (LCN; Perkins, 2010), and the Dispositional Empathy with Nature

(DEN; Tam, 2013b). Moreover, scales have been proposed to measure nature

connectedness among children, such as the Connection to Nature Index (CNI; Cheng &

Monroe, 2010) and the Nature Connectedness Parental Self-Efficacy scale (NCPSE; Barnes

et al., 2021). Most empirical studies on nature connectedness that featured one of these

abovementioned measures used a correlational cross-sectional design that targeted the

relationship between humans and nature at a trait level and psychological and behavioral

outcomes related to well-being and sustainability (for recent meta-analyses, see Barragan‐

Jason et al., 2021; Pritchard et al., 2019).

In general, nature connectedness scores have been found to vary across an individual's

lifespan, with a distinct drop from the ages of 10 to 15 (Hughes et al., 2018; Hughes et al.,

2019; Richardson et al., 2019). Furthermore, Richardson et al. (2019) found modest variation

across socio-economic groups and significantly higher nature connectedness scores among

women than men in their population surveys. Although previous studies have primarily

investigated trait levels of nature connectedness, some researchers have also applied state

measures and showed that participation in different types of nature activities, such as walks,

can increase state nature connectedness (e.g., McEwan et al., 2019; Passmore & Holder,

Petersen 19 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

2017; Richardson & Sheffield, 2017). According to Mena-García et al. (2020), these results

indicate that a person’s relationship with nature is dynamic, reciprocal, and can fluctuate.

Thus, state levels of nature connectedness can be used to investigate the factors that situate

variations in nature connectedness responses on a momentary basis and are, therefore,

more relevant to the questions explored in this thesis compared to trait levels.

While brief exposure to natural environments has been found to increase nature

connectedness (Mayer et al., 2009), it has been suggested that more time spent in nature

has a stronger effect on nature affiliation and connectedness (e.g., Nisbet et al., 2009; Soga

et al., 2020). However, a recent study from the United Kingdom, which was based on a large,

nationally representative cross-sectional dataset, showed that noticing nature through

activities that involve active sensory engagement with it (e.g., smelling flowers) explained

differences in nature connectedness levels statistically better than the actual amount of time

spent in nature (Richardson, Hamlin, et al., 2021; Richardson, Passmore, et al., 2021).

Furthermore, in a comprehensive narrative review based on 85 research papers, Lengieza

and Swim (2021) gathered knowledge on how changes in nature connectedness are related

to situational contexts, individual difference predictors and internal psychological states

(mindfulness, self-awareness and affect). The review highlights a lack of theoretical

frameworks that explain how connectedness is initiated and calls for nuanced understanding

of effects regarding contact with nature, self-awareness, and affect, embedded within a

cross-cultural perspective. Additionally, a recent review with meta-analysis by Sheffield et al.

(2022) based on 36 papers, examined factors that could account for increased nature

connectedness in adults, incorporating (quasi-)experiments and field interventions. The

results revealed a significant positive medium mean effect of manipulations on nature

connectedness in the short term (pre-post), with similar results observed in 12-week follow-

up measures (based only on 12 studies). Interestingly, the authors found no significant

differences in effect sizes regarding the type of nature interaction (direct or indirect), the

quality of engagement (active vs. passive), or the timing of engagement (single session,

repeated practice, or residential). Sheffield et al. highlighted similar gaps in the literature as

Lengieza and Swim (2021), but also pointed out the need for future studies to investigate the

impact of social aspects of nature-based activities and changes in nature connectedness.

In summary, nature connectedness can be evaluated at both the state and trait level, and it

can be quantified using various measures. Incorporating both cognitive and affective aspects

has shown to generate more reliable findings. As a trait, nature connectedness fluctuates

across the lifespan and can differ between socio-economic groups and gender. Although

there exists solid evidence that state (and trait) nature connectedness can change through

experiences with and in nature, little research has examined the factors that contribute to this

phenomenon in depth. In this context, emotions have been declared as relevant element,

however, there is little understanding of how and in what ways they may be fundamental to

nature connectedness. The next section elaborates on this literature gap.

Petersen 20 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

2.5 The role of emotions in connecting to nature: The

literature gap

The following literature review aims to situate the thesis's primary research question within

the scope of current academic discourses on leisure-based nature engagement. It does so

by summarizing relevant empirical and conceptual studies on the relationship between

emotion phenomena and nature connectedness and pointing out the gaps in current

research. The relationship between nature connectedness and affective phenomena,

especially positively perceived emotions, is a growing topic of interest, primarily in the scope

of environmental psychology. Most current research indicates a robust association between

nature engagement, nature connectedness, and positively perceived emotions. However,

views on the direction of causality within this relationship vary.

2.5.1 Emotions as outcome variables of nature engagement

As outlined in the introduction to this thesis, previous research has mainly focused on

emotions or mood as outcomes of engaging with or being exposed to nature (e.g., as

positive versus negative emotional state of hedonic well-being; see Bratman et al., 2021).

Additionally, some studies investigated the affective level in the form of improved emotion

regulation (Bakir-Demir et al., 2019; Johnsen & Rydstedt, 2013; Richardson, 2019).

Furthermore, nature connectedness has frequently been suggested as a mediating or

moderating factor in the relationship between nature engagement and the subsequent

positive emotion or mood outcomes (e.g., Capaldi et al., 2014; McMahan et al., 2018; Mena-

García et al., 2020; Wu & Jones, 2022). Contrary to positively perceived emotions, negatively

perceived emotions have been found to have a mixed relationship with nature

connectedness. While some studies suggested that experiencing negatively perceived

emotions (e.g., anger, shame, and fear) correlates with a decrease in nature connectedness

(e.g., Chen et al., 2022), others indicated that negatively perceived emotions (e.g.,

compassion with suffering animals) may enhance nature connectedness by promoting a

deeper understanding and appreciation of the complexities and vulnerabilities of nature (e.g.,

Tam, 2013b).

Research over the past decades has shown that emotions and other affective phenomena

are powerful in explaining and predicting attitudes and behaviors (Dukes et al., 2021).

Similarly, the emotions that people experience during outdoor leisure activities are likely

significant motivators for engaging with nature and partly responsible for experiencing well-

being-related benefits from this engagement or changes in their understanding of the human-

nature relationship. Therefore, treating emotions merely as outcome variables falls short to

capture the full extent of their influence and role in these processes.

Petersen 21 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

2.5.2 Emotions as predictors of well-being and pro-environmental

aspects

Some recent studies have investigated emotions, either as distinct emotions or groups of

emotions, as predictors of environmental attitudes and behaviors. For instance, Moreton,

Arena, Hornsey, et al. (2019) conducted two empirical studies on positively perceived self-

transcendent emotions (see Section 3.3 for explanation of this group of emotions) in the

context of environmental attitude, using a university student sample and an online

convenience sample. The authors were specifically interested in how moral elevation,

induced by videos, could enhance individuals' nature connectedness and environmental

attitude (e.g., intention to purchase environmentally friendly products). While the first study

did not indicate that moral elevation directly or indirectly led to change in pro-environmental

attitude through nature connectedness, the second study identified a significant indirect

effect of moral elevation through self-transcendent positive emotions and connectedness to

nature on environmental attitude. Systematic overviews and meta-analyses on the role of

nature connectedness in human well-being and sustainable behavior and attitude are

available (see Barragan-Jason et al., 2023; Barragan‐Jason et al., 2021).

In contrast to the above-described inconclusive link between moral elevation and pro-

environmental attitudes, the emotion of awe has been associated with various aspects of

pro-environmental behavior intentions. Examples of these include willingness to make self-

sacrifices for environmental protection (Zhao et al., 2018), intentions to purchase

environmentally friendly goods, and supporting environmental policies (Bethelmy & Corraliza,

2019), as well as intentions toward pro-environmental actions, such as recycling or taking

shorter showers (Yang et al., 2018). The latter study found that the relationship between awe

and ecological behavior was mediated by nature connectedness.

Similar to awe, the elicitation of compassion has been linked to increased intentions and

environmental behaviors like recycling, energy conservation, and sustainable purchasing

(Pfattheicher et al., 2016), as well as support for climate change mitigation actions by

governments (Lu & Schuldt, 2016). Interestingly, individuals who showed greater

compassion for others also showed more willingness to alter their lifestyles for climate

change mitigation (Dickinson et al., 2016).

Research on gratitude and sustainability-related attitude and behavior is more limited,

however, a study from Japan showed that students who expressed gratitude towards nature

also showed heightened environmental care and intentions (Naito et al., 2010), and another

more recent study with undergraduate students from the United States found that gratitude,

unlike general positive affect, induced by a recall task, led participants to use fewer

resources in a task simulating natural resource dilemmas (Kates & DeSteno, 2021).

Interestingly, Tam (2022) found, based on four correlational and two experimental studies (of

which five were conducted in China and one with participants from the United States), that

Petersen 22 The role of emotions in connecting in and to nature

gratitude can be conceptually distinguished at both state and trait levels, with the trait version

correlating more strongly with nature connectedness.

In their effort to investigate a group of emotions, Jacobs and McConnell (2022) conducted

three correlational studies to compare whether self-transcendent emotions (awe,

compassion, love) versus self-interested emotions (joy, contentment, pride, amusement)

would predict sustainable behaviors, a change in values, and higher nature connectedness.

In two online questionnaire-based studies with undergraduates and one experimental study

observing recycling behaviors, they found that self-transcendent emotions uniquely predicted

increased nature connectedness, pro-environmental behaviors, biospheric concern, and

increased sustainable values, as well as a decrease in political conservatism. In contrast,

self-interested emotions were linked to greater egoistic concern, less pro-environmental

behavior, and more self-enhancement values and conservative beliefs. The third study

exemplified that self-transcendent emotions, unlike self-interested ones, could predict actual

recycling behavior weeks later.

In recent studies, researchers have also investigated the predictive or mediating role of

emotions on well-being. For example, as described in Article I, Anderson et al. (2018)

conducted a field study with military veterans participating in white-water rafting and

demonstrated that experiencing awe during this nature-based activity significantly improved

well-being a week later. Additionally, in a second study, young people from underserved

communities engaged in daily interactions with nature, and the researchers found that the

emotions of awe, gratitude, and contentment each played a mediating role in enhancing daily

life satisfaction. Løvoll et al. (2020) further emphasized that positively perceived emotions,

when experienced in nature, are linked to general well-being outcomes, and Løvoll and

Sæther (2022) specifically highlighted the potential relevance of experiencing awe in nature

for spiritual well-being. In summary, the number of studies exploring the predictive potential

of emotions on pro-environmental attitude and behavior, and especially well-be