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POTENTIAL OF NATURAL SUBSTANCE USAGE IN SOUTH EAST ASIA FOR MEMORY ENHANCEMENT: A REVIEW
Abstract
The use of natural substance-based supplements and treatments for mental wellness is increasingly gaining attention. Southeast Asia, with its rich heritage of medicinal practices and cultural reliance on natural remedies, presents a unique opportunity to explore such interventions. Delightex is actively collaborating with research partners in Southeast Asia to investigate natural substances that may enhance mental well-being and create enriching experiences. Memory, defined as the capacity to record, retain and recall sensory stimuli, events and information, is a fundamental aspect of mental health. Memory loss and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) are significant and growing concerns worldwide, particularly due to aging populations. Nootropics are generally well tolerated and typically mild. However, occasional complications can still occur. Hence, it is important to explore more natural alternatives for memory enhancement or treatment of memory loss. In this review, following an initial comprehensive literature search on mental well-being, we focused on memory improvement, identified and summarized 57 natural substances from 31 families with potential memory-enhancing effects. This review highlights their traditional use in Southeast Asia and examines the scientific evidence supporting their efficacy in enhancing memory and potential as nootropics alternatives.
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Areca catechu L. is a widely cultivated tropical crop in Southeast Asia, and its fruit, areca nut, has been consumed as a traditional Chinese medicinal material for more than 10,000 years, although it has recently attracted widespread attention due to potential hazards. Areca nut holds a significant position in traditional medicine in many areas and ranks first among the four southern medicines in China. Numerous bioactive compounds have been identified in areca nuts, including alkaloids, polyphenols, polysaccharides, and fatty acids, which exhibit diverse bioactive functions, such as anti-bacterial, deworming, anti-viral, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects. Furthermore, they also display beneficial impacts targeting the nervous, digestive, and endocrine systems. This review summarizes the pharmacological functions and underlying mechanisms of the bioactive ingredients in areca nut. This helps to ascertain the beneficial components of areca nut, discover its medicinal potential, and guide the utilization of the areca nut.
In recent years, there has been a significant surge in reports on the health-promoting benefits of winter cherry (Withania somnifera), also known as Ashwagandha. Its current research covers many aspects of human health, including neuroprotective, sedative and adaptogenic effects and effects on sleep. There are also reports of anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardioprotective and anti-diabetic properties. Furthermore, there are reports of reproductive outcomes and tarcicidal hormone action. This growing body of research on Ashwagandha highlights its potential as a valuable natural remedy for many health concerns. This narrative review delves into the most recent findings and provides a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of ashwagandha’s potential uses and any known safety concerns and contraindications.
The current study was planned to assess the neuropharmacological benefits of the Cucurbita maxima seed. These seeds have been conventionally used for the nutritional as well as amelioration of various diseases. However, there was a need to provide a pharmacological basis for such use. Four central nervous system-related functions, that is, anxiety, depression, memory, and motor coordination, were evaluated, and the levels of brain biogenic amines were also assessed. Anxiety was evaluated through selected experimental models, such as light and dark apparatus, elevated plus maze, head dip, and open field test. The head dip test was mainly used to assess exploratory behavior. Depression was assessed by two animal models, that is, the forced swim test and tail suspension test. Memory and learning ability were assessed by the passive avoidance test, stationary rod apparatus, and Morris’s water maze test. Motor skilled learning was assessed by stationary rod and rotarod apparatus. Reversed phase high-pressure liquid chromatography was used to determine biogenic amine levels. Results reveal that C. maxima exhibited anxiolytic and antidepressant effects with memory improvement. There was a reduction in the weight of the animal following chronic administration. Furthermore, no remarkable effects were observed on motor coordination. Norepinephrine was found elevated, which may be linked to its antidepressant effects. These biological effects of C. maxima may be due to the presence of secondary metabolites, such as cucurbitacin, beta-sitosterol, polyphenolic compounds, citrulline, kaempferol, arginine, β-carotene, quercetin, and other antioxidants. The outcomes of the present study authenticate that the chronic use of C. maxima seeds reduces the intensity of neurological problems like anxiety and depression.
Nootropics, also known as “smart drugs” are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized.
Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) is a well-known perennial, creeping herb of the Indian Ayurveda system; it contains numerous bioactive phytoconstituents implicated in the therapeutic management of several life-threatening diseases. This herb was used by Ancient Vedic scholars due to its pharmacological effect, especially as a nerve tonic and nootropic booster. However, to better understand the roles of Bacopa monnieri extract (BME) in neurological disorders and memory-related diseases, it is necessary to understand its active phytochemical constituents and their molecular mechanisms. Several clinical studies suggested that BME have neuroprotective effects, making it worth revising a notable herb. Here we investigated the contours of BME's phytochemistry and pharmacological features, focusing on neuronal disorders. We further analyzed the underlying molecular mechanisms in therapeutic intervention. Various clinical concerns and synergistic potential of BME were explored for their effective use in cognition and neuroprotection. The generation of reactive oxygen species increases neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity and is associated with Tau and amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation, leading to a neurological disorder. Our findings provide deeper mechanistic insights into the neuroprotective roles of BME, which can be further implicated in the therapeutic management of neurological disorders and exerting cognitive-enhancing effects.
Peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) is one of the most consumed oil seeds worldwide. It belongs to the legume family and has spread to other parts of the world from South America. Peanut has been classified as Virginia, Runner, Spanish, and Valencia depending on the seed stagnation, branching pattern, the plant maturation period, and economic growth. People have consumed peanuts as raw, boiled, oil extracted, paste, roasted (snack), in energy bars and candies, and by adding paste to snack foods. Peanut and peanut products positively affect human health with their nutrients (lipid profiles) and bioactive compounds such as phytosterols, phenolic compounds, stilbenes, lignans, and isoflavonoids. These bioactive compounds protect against cardiovascular disease, type two diabetes mellites, and cancer. Peanuts consumption is recommended with the skin because of bioactive ingredients. In the Dietary Approaches Stop Hypertension diet model, peanuts consumption is recommended 4-5 times a week. Moreover, peanut takes place in traditional Mediterranean diet patterns, and its daily consumption is recommended. This review evaluated the relationship between peanut and peanut product consumption and health outcomes.
Background: Given the projected trends in population ageing and population growth, the number of people with dementia is expected to increase. In addition, strong evidence has emerged supporting the importance of potentially modifiable risk factors for dementia. Characterising the distribution and magnitude of anticipated growth is crucial for public health planning and resource prioritisation. This study aimed to improve on previous forecasts of dementia prevalence by producing country-level estimates and incorporating information on selected risk factors. Methods: We forecasted the prevalence of dementia attributable to the three dementia risk factors included in the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 (high body-mass index, high fasting plasma glucose, and smoking) from 2019 to 2050, using relative risks and forecasted risk factor prevalence to predict GBD risk-attributable prevalence in 2050 globally and by world region and country. Using linear regression models with education included as an additional predictor, we then forecasted the prevalence of dementia not attributable to GBD risks. To assess the relative contribution of future trends in GBD risk factors, education, population growth, and population ageing, we did a decomposition analysis. Findings: We estimated that the number of people with dementia would increase from 57·4 (95% uncertainty interval 50·4–65·1) million cases globally in 2019 to 152·8 (130·8–175·9) million cases in 2050. Despite large increases in the projected number of people living with dementia, age-standardised both-sex prevalence remained stable between 2019 and 2050 (global percentage change of 0·1% [–7·5 to 10·8]). We estimated that there were more women with dementia than men with dementia globally in 2019 (female-to-male ratio of 1·69 [1·64–1·73]), and we expect this pattern to continue to 2050 (female-to-male ratio of 1·67 [1·52–1·85]). There was geographical heterogeneity in the projected increases across countries and regions, with the smallest percentage changes in the number of projected dementia cases in high-income Asia Pacific (53% [41–67]) and western Europe (74% [58–90]), and the largest in north Africa and the Middle East (367% [329–403]) and eastern sub-Saharan Africa (357% [323–395]). Projected increases in cases could largely be attributed to population growth and population ageing, although their relative importance varied by world region, with population growth contributing most to the increases in sub-Saharan Africa and population ageing contributing most to the increases in east Asia. Interpretation: Growth in the number of individuals living with dementia underscores the need for public health planning efforts and policy to address the needs of this group. Country-level estimates can be used to inform national planning efforts and decisions. Multifaceted approaches, including scaling up interventions to address modifiable risk factors and investing in research on biological mechanisms, will be key in addressing the expected increases in the number of individuals affected by dementia. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Gates Ventures.
Background
Peanuts are rich in bioactive compounds that may have a positive impact on memory and stress response.
Objective
To evaluate the effect of regular consumption of peanut products on cognitive functions and stress response in healthy young adults.
Design
A three-arm parallel-group randomized controlled trial was conducted in 63 healthy young adults that consumed 25 g/day of skin roasted peanuts (SRP, n = 21), 32 g/d of peanut butter (PB, n = 23) or 32 g/d of a control butter made from peanut oil (free of phenolic compounds and fiber) (CB, n = 19) for six months. Polyphenol intake, cognitive functions, and anxiety and depression scores were evaluated using validated tests. Fecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and plasma and fecal fatty acids were assessed by chromatographic methods. Urinary cortisol was quantified by an enzymatic method.
Results
Comparing the two interventions with the control, a significant reduction in anxiety scores was observed in the SRP compared to the CB group. After the intervention, consumers of SRP and PB had an improved immediate memory (p = 0.046 and p = 0.011). Lower anxiety scores were associated with SRP and PB (p < 0.001 and p = 0.002, respectively) and lower depression scores with SRP, PB and CB (p = 0.007, p = 0.003 and p = 0.032, respectively). Memory functions and stress response were significantly correlated with polyphenol intake, fecal SCFAs, plasma and fecal very long chain saturated fatty acids (VLCSFAs).
Conclusions
Regular peanut and peanut butter consumption may enhance memory function and stress response in a healthy young population. These effects seem to be associated with the intake of peanut polyphenols, increased levels of fecal SCFAs, and unexpectedly, VLCSFAs, which were also present in the control product.
Memory, one of the most vital aspects of the human brain, is necessary for the effective survival of an individual. ‘Memory’ can be defined in various ways but in an overall view, memory is the retention of the information that the brain grasps. Different factors are responsible for the disbalance in the brain’s hippocampus region and the acetylcholine level, which masters the memory and cognitive functions. Plants are a source of pharmacologically potent drug molecules of high efficacy. Recently herbal medicine has evolved rapidly, gaining great acceptance worldwide due to their natural origin and fewer side effects. In this review, the authors have discussed the mechanisms and pharmacological action of herbal bioactive compounds to boost memory. Moreover, this review presents an update of different herbs and natural products that could act as memory enhancers and how they can be potentially utilized in the near future for the treatment of severe brain disorders. In addition, the authors also discuss the differences in biological activity of the same herb and emphasize the requirement for a higher standardization in cultivation methods and plant processing. The demand for further studies evaluating the interactions of herbal drugs is mentioned.
Wild ginseng has better pharmacological effects than cultivated ginseng. However, its industrialization is limited by the inability to grow wild ginseng on a large scale. Herein, we demonstrate how to optimize ginseng production through cultivation, and how to enhance the concentrations of specific ginsenosides through fermentation. In the study, we also evaluated the ability of fermented cultured wild ginseng root extract (HLJG0701-β) to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), as well as its neuroprotective effects and antioxidant activity. In in vitro tests, HLJG0701-β inhibited AChE activity and exerted neuroprotective and antioxidant effects (showing increased catalyst activity but decreased reactive oxygen species concentration). In in vivo tests, after HLJG0701-β was orally administered at doses of 0, 125, 250, and 500 mg/kg in an animal model of memory impairment, behavioral evaluation (Morris water maze test and Y-maze task test) was performed. The levels of AChE, acetylcholine (ACh), blood catalase (CAT), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in brain tissues were measured. The results showed that HLJG0701-β produced the best results at a dose of 250 mg/kg or more. The neuroprotective mechanism of HLJG0701-β was determined to involve the inhibition of AChE activity and a decrease in oxidative stress. In summary, both in vitro and in vivo tests confirmed that HJG0701-β administration can lead to memory improvement.
Garugapinnata Roxb. (Burseraceae) is a medium-sized tree widely available all over the tropical regions of Asia. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam) Oken. (Crassulaceae) is an indigenous and exotic plant grown in tropical regions. Both plants have been used for their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, wound healing, antidiabetic activities, etc. This investigation was designed to explore the result shown by methanolic extract of Garuga pinnata bark and Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves, on cognitive power and retention of the memory in experimental mice along with quantification of phenolic compounds and DPPH radicals neutralizing capacity. The memory-enhancing activity was determined by the elevated plus-maze method in Scopolamine-induced amnesic mice, using Piracetam as allopathic and Shankhpushpi as ayurvedic standard drugs. Two doses (200 and 400 mg/kg p.o.) of both extracts were administered to mice up to 8 consecutive days; transfer latency of individual group was recorded after 45 minutes and memory of the experienced things was examined after 1 day. DPPH assay method and the Folin–Ciocalteu method were employed to determine antioxidant potency and total phenol amount, respectively. 400 mg/kg of the methanolic B. pinnatum bark extract significantly improved memory and learning of mice with transfer latency (TL) of 32.75 s, which is comparable to that of standard Piracetam (21.78 s) and Shankhpushpi (27.83 s). Greater phenolic content was quantified in B. pinnatum bark extract (156.80 ± 0.33 µg GAE/mg dry extract) as well as the antioxidant potency (69.77% of free radical inhibition at the 100 µg/mL concentration). Our study proclaimed the scientific evidence for the memory-boosting effect of both plants.
Cognitive impairment, associated with ageing, stress, hypertension and various neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease and epilepsy, is a major health issue. The present review focuses on Alzheimer’s disease (AD), since it is the most important cause of cognitive impairment. It is characterized by progressive memory loss, language deficits, depression, agitation, mood disturbances and psychosis. Although the hallmarks of AD are cholinergic dysfunction, β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangle formation, it is also associated with derangement of other neurotransmitters, elevated levels of advanced glycation end products, oxidative damage, neuroinflammation, genetic and environmental factors. On one hand, this complex etiopathology makes a response to commonly used drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine and memantine less predictable and often unsatisfactory. On the other hand, it supports the use of herbal medicines due to their nonspecific antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and specific cholinesterase inhibitory activity. The popularity of herbal medicines is also increasing due to their perceived effectiveness, safety and affordability. In the present article, the experimental and clinical evidence have been reviewed for various Indian herbal medicines such as Centella asiatica, Bacopa monnieri, Curcuma longa, Clitoria ternatea, Withania somnifera, Celastrus paniculatus, Evolvulus alsinoides, Desmodium gangeticum, Eclipta alba, Moringa oleifera and Convolvulus pluricaulis, which have shown potential in cognitive impairment. Some commonly available herbal formulations for memory impairment in India have also been reviewed.
Catharanthus roseus (C. roseus) is an important medicinal plant distributed in many countries. It has attracted increasing attention due to it being shown to possess a range of phytochemicals with various biological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic and anticancer properties. Remarkably, vinblastine and vincristine isolated from this plant were the first plant-derived anticancer agents deployed for clinical use. Recently, new isolated indole alkaloids from this plant including catharoseumine, 14′,15′-didehydrocyclovinblastine, 17-deacetoxycyclovinblastine and 17-deacetoxyvinamidine effectively inhibited human cancer cell lines in vitro. Moreover, vindoline, vindolidine, vindolicine and vindolinine isolated from C. roseus leaf exhibited in vitro antidiabetic property. These findings strongly indicate that this plant is still a promising source of bioactive compounds, which should be further investigated. This paper provides an overview of the traditional use and phytochemical profiles of C. roseus, and summarises updated techniques of the preparation of dried material, extraction and isolation of bioactive compounds from this plant. In addition, purported health benefits of the extracts and bioactive compounds derived from this plant were also addressed to support their potential as therapeutic agents.
Extracts or active components from Acorus gramineus Aiton (EAAGA) have been clinically used for cognition impairment more than hundreds of years and are still used in modern times in China and elsewhere worldwide. Previous studies reported that EAAGA improves cognition impairment in animal models. Here, we conducted a preclinical systematic review to assess the current evidence of EAAGA for cognition impairment. We searched 7 databases up until June 2019. Methodological quality for each included studies was accessed according to the CAMARADES 10-item checklist. The primary outcome measures were neurobehavioral function scores evaluated by the Morris water maze test, electrical Y-maze test, step-down test, radial eight-arm maze test, and step-through test. The secondary outcome measures were mechanisms of EAAGA for cognition function. Finally, 34 studies involving 1431 animals were identified. The quality score of studies range from 1 to 6, and the median was 3.32. Compared with controls, the results of the meta-analysis indicated EAAGA exerted a significant effect in decreasing the escape latency and error times and in increasing the length of time spent in the platform quadrant and the number of platform crossings representing learning ability and memory function (all P
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is an evergreen bushy shrub which grows along the Mediterranean Sea, and sub-Himalayan areas. In folk medicine, it has been used as an antispasmodic, mild analgesic, to cure intercostal neuralgia, headaches, migraine, insomnia emotional upset, and depression. Different investigations have highlighted rosemary neuropharmacological properties as their main topics. Rosemary has significant antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumorigenic, antinociceptive, and neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, it shows important clinical effects on mood, learning, memory, pain, anxiety, and sleep. The aim of the current work is to review the potential neuropharmacological effects of different rosemary extracts and its active constituents on nervous system disorders, their relevant mechanisms and its preclinical application to recall the therapeutic potential of this herb and more directions of future research projects. The data were gathered by searching the English articles in PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. The keywords used as search terms were ‘Rosmarinus officinalis’, ‘rosemary’, ‘nervous system’, ‘depression’, ‘memory’, ‘Alzheimer’s disease’ ‘epilepsy’, ‘addiction’, ‘neuropathic pain’, and ‘disorders’. All kinds of related articles, abstracts and books were included. No time limitation was considered. Both in vitro and in vivo studies were subjected to this investigation. This review authenticates that rosemary has appeared as a worthy source for curing inflammation, analgesic, anti-anxiety, and memory boosting. It also arranges new perception for further investigations on isolated constituents, especially carnosic acid, rosmarinic acid, and essential oil to find exquisite therapeutics and support drug discovery with fewer side effects to help people suffering from nervous system disorders.
This study investigated the effect of methanolic leaf extract of Peristrophe Bicalyculata (MEPb) on type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) associated cognitive decline in Wistar rats.
36 male rats weighing 130–200 g were assigned into 6 groups (n = 6) as follows: normal control, diabetic control, pioglitazone-treated diabetic and three MEPb-treated diabetic groups, type 2 diabetes mellitus was induced with low dose streptozocin (STZ) injection following 3 weeks of high fat diet (HFD) intake. Thirty days after diabetes induction, rats exhibited marked and persistent hyperglycemia, animals were treated with MEPb (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) and pioglitazone (10 mg/kg) as standard. Morris water maze (MWM) test and Novel object recognition test (NORT) were used to assess learning and memory. Blood glucose level, oxidative stress makers, pro-inflammatory marker and acetylcholinestarase activities were analysed.
Both MEPb and pioglitazone significantly (P < 0.05) reduced escape latency in treated animals compared to the diabetic control group in the MWM test. Methanolic leaf extract of Peristrophe bicalyculata and pioglitazone also significantly (P < 0.05) increased discrimination index in treated animals compared to the diabetic control group in the novel object recognition test. Serum, brain and liver MDA levels were significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in MEPb and pioglitazone treated rats compared to diabetic control. Serum and liver GSH as well as CAT levels were significantly (P < 0.05) increased while brain GSH and CAT levels shows apparent increase in MEPb and pioglitazone treated rats compared with diabetic control. Treatment with MEPb caused a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in brain nitrite level, interleukin 6 and acetylcholinesterase activity compared to diabetic control group.
We conclude that Methanolic leaf extract of Peristrophe bicalyculata enhanced antioxidant capacity and prevented neuroinflammation, consequently improving brain neuronal cholinergic function in experimental animals.
Cognitive impairment (CI) is among the leading causes of disability in humans. It is estimated that over 35.6 million people are suffering from Alzheimer’s disease- (AD-) associated cognitive deficits globally with these statistics projected to rise over 115.4 million by the year 2050. There is no specific etiology for this cognitive impairment; however, various contributing factors including advancing age (>60 years old), oxidative stress, cerebral injuries, infections, neurologic disorders, and cancer have been implicated. Despite various attempts to manage CI, no curative medicines are yet available. The current drugs used to manage symptoms of AD-associated CI including Donepezil and Rivastigmine among others are only palliative rather than therapeutic. Furthermore, these agents have been associated with undesirable side effects. This calls for alternative and complementary approaches aimed at either preventing or reverting AD-related CI in a curative way without causing adverse events. It is estimated that over 80% of the world’s population utilize herbal medicines for basic healthcare as it is considered safe, affordable, and easily accessible as opposed to conventional healthcare. Various parts of P. thonningii are used in traditional medicine to manage various conditions including CI. However, empirical and scientific data to validate these uses is lacking. In this study, the Morris water maze (MWM) experiment was adopted to evaluate the cognitive-enhancing effects of the studied plant extracts. The malondialdehyde (MDA) profiles in the brains of experimental mice were determined using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test. Moreover, qualitative phytochemical profiling of the studied plant extracts was performed using standard procedures. The results showed remarkable cognitive-enhancing activities which were reflected in significantly shorter transfer latencies, navigation distances, longer time spent in platform quadrant, and lower MDA levels compared with those recorded for the negative control mice (). Phytochemical screening of the studied plant extracts revealed the presence of antioxidant phytocompounds, which may have played key roles in the extracts’ potency. Based on the findings herein, P. thonningii extracts, especially the aqueous ones have a promising potential for the management of AD-associated CI. Further studies aimed at isolating and characterizing specific active compounds for CI from P. thonningii are recommended. Additionally, specific mode(s) of action of active principles should be elucidated. Moreover, toxicity studies should be done on the studied plant extracts to ascertain their safety.
1. Introduction
Cognitive impairment is the overarching phenomenon referring to a continuum of diseases and mental impairments of the brain tissue, which cause abnormalities in learning, memory, and communicative and intellectual abilities of the affected subject. Cognitive impairment is a complex presentation of continuous degeneration of intellectual functions characterized by a plethora of symptoms caused by diseases/disorders affecting the brain [1, 2]. It is estimated that 35.6 million people are affected with AD and associated cognitive deficits, with over half (58%) living in low- and middle-income countries. Annually, 7.7 million new cases are reported and these figures are expected to almost double every 20 years, to 65.7 million in 2030 and 115.4 million in 2050 [3].
Cognitive impairment is one of the major causes of mental disability and dependency among older people and those suffering from AD and other dementias globally. It is not only debilitating to the affected subjects but also to their caregivers and families. There is often a lack of awareness and understanding of cognitive disorders, resulting in stigmatization and barriers to diagnosis, treatment, and management. The impact of cognitive impairment on caregivers, family, and society in general can be physical and psychological [4].
Recent research has shown that oxidative stress, which is the excessive generation of free radicals or their ineffective attenuation, drives cognitive impairment by damaging brain cells [5]. The high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the brain increases its vulnerability to free radicals attack, which, in turn, damage brain cells leading to CI [6, 7]. Lipid peroxidation is thought to be a destructive form of oxidative degradation that impairs cell membranes, thereby generating several secondary products including reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs) that cause neurotoxicity [8]. An increase in the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), which is one of the ROMs, has been recognized as an important lipid peroxidation indicator and a marker of oxidative stress [9, 10].
Oxidative damage to proteins causes impairment to endogenous enzymes, which play important roles in proper functioning of the neural and glial cells in the brain. Damage to critical enzymes in the brain may lead to the downregulation of energy metabolism, which in turn triggers cell damage. Moreover, protein oxidation in the central nervous system exacerbates hyperphosphorylation of the tau proteins with aggregations of β-amyloids, which are hallmark features in cognitive-impaired brains of AD-affected patients [11, 12].
Even though pharmacotherapies seem to slow cognitive impairment events, the advantages are mostly marginal and unreliable [13]. Conventional medicines prescribed for the management of cognitive impairment are only palliative and do not cure the disease as they only manage the symptoms and improve quality of life without altering the result of the underlying condition [13, 14]. Furthermore, due to the diverse constellation of neuropsychiatric and behavioral symptoms associated with cognitive impairment, there may be potential undesirable side effects of conventional drugs, where improving one symptom worsens another symptom, thus rendering the management of this condition an uphill task. As a result, there is an urgent need for arsenal therapeutic agents for the management of AD-associated CI, and medicinal plants’ phytocompounds are a potential source [12, 15–17].
Plants have been used since antiquity for the management of cognitive deficits [18–20]. Various plant secondary metabolites that are responsible for their biological activities have been identified [21]. Some of them include terpenoids, phenolic compounds (flavonoids, phenolic acids, quinones, coumarins, lignans, stilbenes, and tannins), nitrogen-containing phytocompounds (alkaloids, amines, and betalains), and carotenoids. Phenolics have been demonstrated to possess the widest spectrum of bioactivity by acting as potent antioxidants [16, 21, 22]. The beneficial properties exerted by these bioactive components of medicinal plants include the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), modification of Aβ processing, protection against apoptosis, and attenuation of oxidative stress [12, 15, 16]. Therefore, utilization of antioxidants offers a promising potential in the prevention and treatment of AD-associated cognitive deficits as well as other associated neurologic conditions [5, 8, 23].
Various parts of P. thonningii are used in African traditional medicine for the treatment of diverse conditions and diseases. Briefly, P. thonningii is used for the treatment of malaria, leprosy, ulcers, fever, wounds, arthritis, dizziness, coughs, and dementia and memory enhancement among others [24]. Some of the isolated bioactive compounds from P. thonningii include D-3-O-methylchiroinosital which possess antioxidant, analgesic, antidiabetic, antilipidemic, and antipyretic activities. Additionally, C-methyl flavanols, which have anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities, have been isolated from this plant [25]. Furthermore, other antioxidant compounds with broad spectra of activities like β-amyrin (7) [25], quercetin (11), and quercitrin (12) [26], among many others (1-6, 8-10, and 13-15), have so far been isolated and identified [25]. Therefore, this study was aimed at investigating in vivo cognitive enhancing, ex-vivo MDA profile lowering and qualitative phytochemical composition of the aqueous and methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii in the quest for better, safe, cost-effective, and potent novel drugs for the treatment of AD-associated cognitive deficits.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material and Processing
Fresh stem barks of P. thonningii were collected from Cianyi village, Muchomoke sublocation, Gitiburi location, Siakago division, Mbeere North Subcounty in Embu County, Kenya, where the plant grew naturally. This plant was chosen for this study based on its ethnomedical information and use among the locals. The plant was identified primarily by its local name (“Mukuura”) and diseases it treats by the help of a reputable local herbalist. Voucher specimen was prepared, identified, and authenticated (GM001/2017) by a taxonomist at the Department of Plant Sciences, Kenyatta University, and the specimen was deposited for future reference. The collected barks of the plant were then cut into small pieces and spread evenly to dry under shade at room temperature for a period of 14 days. Regular grabbling was done to ensure uniform drying. The dried material was then ground into a coarse powder with the help of an electric plant mill and stored in a well-labeled khaki envelope awaiting extraction.
2.2. Preparation of Methanolic and Aqueous Extracts
Approximately 200 grams of the powdered material- of P. thonningii barks were macerated in 750 ml of methanol (AR grade) in 1-liter conical flask, with regular shaking for 48 hours. The methanolic mixture was carefully decanted and filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filtrates were concentrated in vacuo with the help of a rotary evaporator set at 50°C, transferred into preweighed, clean, dry, and labeled universal glass bottles. They were then kept in a hot-air oven set at 35°C for 5 days to allow for complete drying. The aqueous extract was obtained by boiling 50 g of powdered P. thonningii bark in distilled water for five minutes. The extracts were then cooled to room temperature, filtered, and transferred into clean freeze-drying flasks. The flasks were then fitted into a freeze dryer for lyophilization for a period of 48 hours. The dry and lyophilized extracts were transferred into clean, dry, preweighed, and labeled universal glass bottles. The actual weights of the extracts were calculated by subtracting the weight of the empty bottle from that of the bottle containing the extract. The percentage yields of respective extracts were calculated using the formula described by Harborne (1976) and modified by Afolayan et al. [25] and Truong et al. [27]. The respective extracts were then sealed and stored in a refrigerator at 4°C awaiting biological and chemical assays.
2.3. Determination of In Vivo Cognitive-Enhancing Effects
2.3.1. Experimental Animals
In this study, Swiss-Albino mice (white) aged 4-5 weeks with an average weight of were obtained from the animal breeding house of Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) Nairobi, Kenya. The mice were kept in standard conditions and housed in polypropylene rectangular cages measuring with soft wood shavings as bedding material. They were randomly selected and housed in groups of 3 males and 2 females in separate home cages, provided with standard laboratory animal food (rodent pellets) and tap water ad libitum. They were maintained at a natural 12-hour-day/12-hour-night cycle in a room maintained at , 360 lux lighting, and 65% humidity. They were acclimatized for 72 hours before experimentation. Humane handling and standard protocols/guidelines for laboratory animal care and use were followed in this study according to the National Research Council [25], after Kenyatta University ethical approval and National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation authorization (NACOSTI/P/19/2080).
2.3.2. Preparation of Drugs and Administration
The methanolic and aqueous stem bark extracts of P. thonningii for administration at dose levels of 200 mg/kg bw, 100 mg/kg bw, and 50 mg/kg bw were prepared freshly each day in normal saline according to the guidelines described by [26]. The positive control (Donepezil) was also prepared at a dose level of 1 mg/kg bw in normal saline using the same guidelines. All the drugs were orally administered (p.o) to respective experimental groups of mice at 0900 hrs during the experimentation period. Hyoscine hydrobromide (scopolamine) was prepared in normal saline at a dose of 1 mg/kg bw in the same manner as for extracts and Donepezil. It was administered intraperitoneally (i.p) during the experiment.
2.3.3. Morris Water Maze Setup
The Morris water maze method described by Morris [27–29] was used in this study for determination of in vivo cognitive-enhancing effects of the two medicinal plant extracts. The water maze comprised a white circular tank that formed a pool measuring 110 cm in diameter and 45 cm in height with a featureless inner surface. The circular pool was filled with water, in which 750 g of powdered fat-free milk was mixed, to a height of 30 cm to make the pool opaque. The temperature of the maze was monitored using a calibrated mercury bulb thermometer and maintained at . A white escape platform measuring 10 cm in diameter and 29 cm in height was centered in the northwest (NW) quadrant of the pool. The water level was adjusted to 1 cm below the top surface of the escape platform and later to 1 cm above the escape platform. On the walls of the maze, manila papers of blue, green, pink, and yellow colors were mounted to the west (W), north (N), south (S), and east (E) quadrants, respectively, as local visual cues before introducing the mice. The continuous location of each swimming mouse, from the start position to the top of the platform, was monitored with the help of a digital Sony video camera that was mounted 1.5 meters above the maze linked to Any-Maze tracking software version 6.05 installed in Windows 10 Pro PC [27–29].
2.3.4. Swim Training
In this study, the day prior to the experimentation day was dedicated to training each of the experimental mice to swim for 60 seconds in the presence of the visible escape platform followed by another training session in the absence of the escape platform, with an intertraining break of 20 minutes to allow the mice to rest and recover. This was followed by another training session with the invisible platform in the same manner as the preceding trainings, where each mouse could explore the maze, searching for the hidden platform so as to help it create a spatial map of the surroundings and for proper orientation. The location of the escape platform was in the northwest (NW) quadrant and remained unchanged throughout the training session. The specific starting points were predetermined (the boundaries of each quadrant) as north (N), south (S), east (E), and west (W), respectively, and were changed in every trial and session of experiment.
2.3.5. Acquisition
In the acquisition days, the water level in the maze was adjusted to 1 cm above the escape platform, which was centered in the northwest (NW) quadrant to make it invisible at water level. Mice were subjected to three sessions each day for three consecutive days with an intertrial break of 20 minutes. The starting points were predetermined in the same manner as during the training session and were alternated throughout the experiment.
During each trial, mice were held and gently placed in the water maze facing the wall away from the escape platform. Each mouse could explore the pool, searching for the hidden escape platform for a maximum period of 60 seconds. Once the mouse located the platform, it could remain on it for 10 seconds for further examination of the surroundings. If the mouse did not locate the platform within 60 seconds, it was gently guided to the platform and allowed to rest there for 15 seconds as it explored the surroundings. It was then gently removed from the pool and placed in a holding cage that contained paper towels to dry. This parameter was averaged for each session of trials and for each experimental mouse. Transfer latency (time taken to search for and locate the hidden platform with 60 s cutoff) and the navigation distance (distance covered during the MWM task) for each experimental mouse were recorded by a digital video recorder.
2.3.6. Probe Trial
To assess learning and memory retention, the experimental mice were subjected to a single probe trial on the last day of experimentation (Day 4) by introducing each of them into the maze without the escape platform. This helped assess whether the experimental mice had learnt the task and if they were able to remember the location of the hidden escape platform. They were allowed to explore and search for the escape platform as during the acquisition phase, and the respective times spent in the NW quadrant for each mouse were recorded.
2.3.7. Induction of Cognitive Impairment
Cognitive impairment was induced during the last day of experimentation (Day 4) by an intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of 200 μl of hyoscine hydrobromide (scopolamine) at a dose of 1 mg/kg bw to all the experimental mice except for the normal control mice, to which 200 μl of normal saline was administered intraperitoneally.
2.3.8. Experimental Design
A controlled randomized, laboratory-based study design was adopted, from which an experimental design was drawn. For each of the studied plant extracts, thirty (30) experimental mice were randomly assigned to six treatment groups each consisting of five mice (3 males and 2 females). The grouping protocol was as presented in Table 1.
Treatment groups
Treatment
I
Normal control
Normal saline only (10 ml/kg bw; i.p)
II
Negative control
Normal saline+scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw; i.p)
III
Positive control
Donepezil (1 mg/kg bw; p.o)+scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw; i.p)
IV
Experimental group 1
Extract (50 mg/kg bw; p.o)+scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw; i.p)
V
Experimental group 2
Extract (100 mg/kg bw; p.o)+scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw; i.p)
VI
Experimental group 3
Extract (200 mg/kg bw; p.o)+scopolamine (1 mg/kg bw)
All the administered drugs were prepared in normal saline (0.9% NaCl). Extract: aqueous/methanolic stem bark extracts of P. thonningii; p.o: oral administration; i.p: intraperitoneal administration.
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) are a range of debilitating conditions of the brain involving progressive loss of neurons, many of which are still currently incurable despite enormous efforts on drug discovery and development in the past decade. As NDD is closely linked to old age, the rapid worldwide growth in the aging population contributes to an increasing number of people with one of these incurable diseases and therefore it is considered a significant global health issue. There is an urgent need for novel effective treatments for NDDs, and many new research strategies are centered on traditional medicine as an alternative or complementary solution. Several previous findings have suggested that glutamate toxicity drives neurodegeneration in many NDDs, and the medicinal plants with anti-glutamate toxicity properties can be potentially used for their treatment. In order to obtain data relating to natural products against glutamate toxicity, six candidate plant species of Thailand were identified. Studies utilizing these herbs were searched for using the herb name (Latin and common names) along with the term “glutamate” in the following databases across all available years: PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. This review emphasizes the importance of glutamate toxicity in NDDs and summarizes individual plants and their active constituents with the mechanism of action against glutamate toxicity-mediated neuronal cell death that could be a promising resource for future NDD therapy.
Taxonomy (classification by evise)
Alzheimer's disease, Neurodegenerative diseases, Cell culture, Molecular Biology, Traditional herbal medicine, Oxidative stress, Glutamate neurotransmitter.
The pharmacological properties of Eleutherococcus senticosus leaf have not been clarified although it is taken as a food item. In this study, the effects of water extract of Eleutherococcus senticosus leaves on memory function were investigated in normal mice. Oral administration of the extract for 17 days significantly enhanced object recognition memory. Compounds absorbed in blood and the brain after oral administration of the leaf extract were detected by LC-MS/MS analyses. Primarily detected compounds in plasma and the cerebral cortex were ciwujianoside C3, eleutheroside M, ciwujianoside B, and ciwujianoside A1. Pure compounds except for ciwujianoside A1 were administered orally for 17 days to normal mice. Ciwujianoside C3, eleutheroside M, and ciwujianoside B significantly enhanced object recognition memory. These results demonstrated that oral administration of the leaf extract of E. senticosus enhances memory function, and that active ingredients in the extract, such as ciwujianoside C3, eleutheroside M, and ciwujianoside B, were able to penetrate and work in the brain. Those three compounds as well as the leaf extract had dendrite extension activity against primary cultured cortical neurons. The effect might relate to memory enhancement.
Objective
The present study investigates the effect of Tiliacora triandra leaf extract on spatial learning, memory, and learning flexibility as well as hippocampal choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity in mice.
Materials and Methods
Thirty male ICR mice were randomly divided into three groups including 10% Tween 80, T. triandra 300 mg/kg and T. triandra 600 mg/kg. All administrations were done orally for 18 consecutive days. Spatial learning, memory and learning flexibility were assessed using the Morris water maze. ChAT activity and hippocampal neuronal cell number were assessed by immunohistochemistry and histological methods, respectively.
Results
The results demonstrated that T. triandra leaf extract (300 and 600 mg/kg) significantly enhances spatial learning and learning flexibility. Only 300 mg/kg of T. triandra significantly improved the spatial memory. The hippocampal ChAT activity and total hippocampal cell number were significantly increased in T. triandra-treated groups.
Conclusion
The present study indicated that T. triandra leaf extract improves the spatial learning, memory and learning flexibility, exerts neuroprotective effects on hippocampal neurons and maintains ChAT activity in this brain area.
Objective: To evaluate the effects of inhalation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) essential oil on the cognitive function and mood in healthy female volunteers. Methods: All 30 participants of each group were required to inhale either lemongrass essential oil or a placebo (inactive control oil) for five minutes. Before and after the 5-minuite inhalation period, their cognitive function was assessed with a computerized battery of tests and the mood with a self-rated visual analogue; the blood pressure and heart rate were also measured. Differences in the cognitive function, mood, blood pressure and heart rate between the two groups were analyzed and tested using an independent t-test. Results: After the inhalation, the lemongrass essential oil enhanced their cognitive performance for the domains of the continuity of attention and the quality of memory (P-value = 0.013 and 0.026, respectively), whereas the mood in terms of alertness and calmness was also increased (P-value = 0.001 and 0.035, respectively). However, no significant change in the blood pressure and heart rate was observed. Conclusion: The lemongrass essential oil inhalation could improve the cognitive function and modulate mood of healthy women with no effect on the physiological status. However, the underlying mechanisms of these positive effects still require further studies.
Objective
Several factors lead to memory loss, the most important of which is brain aging that is caused mostly by neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The need of finding preventive treatments of memory impairment in elderly encouraged authors to assess the effect of Acorus calamus on memory loss, anxiety, and antioxidant indices on neuroinflammation rat models.
Materials and Methods
Different fractions of A. calamus were prepared. The subject rats were grouped in 11 groups of 10 each. In the nine treated groups, the extract gavage began 1 week before intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and continued for 2 weeks after the last injection of LPS. Behavioral tests, including passive avoidance and elevated plus-maze (EPM) tests, were run on days 24, 25, and 26 and the subjects were sacrificed on the day after the last behavioral test, and their hippocampus was isolated to measure the oxidative stress markers.
Results
Assessment of oxidative stress markers in hippocampus samples revealed that the amounts of endogenous antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and total antioxidant activity) in the groups that received different fractions were less than their equivalent figures in LPS-control group, and levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) in treatment groups were less than MDA level in LPS-control group. Moreover, the treatment groups with different fractions of A. calamus revealed better performance compared to LPS-control group in shuttle-box test. In EPM test, the groups with different fractions revealed lower stress level in comparison with LPS-control group. The best performance in memory test and the lowest level of stress in EPM was observed in the group with aqueous fraction at 600 mg/kg dose, and the least figures of oxidative stress markers were of the group with aqueous fraction at 600 mg/kg dose.
Conclusion
The oral administration of different fractions of A. calamus, especially aqueous fraction, prevented from memory deficits and stress through controlling oxidative stress and inflammation processes.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of inhaled Achillea biebersteinii Afan. (Asteraceae) essential oil on memory, anxiety and depression in scopolamine-induced amnesic rats. Six groups of adult female Wistar rats (3 months old) were used. These are, control group, Scopolamine - alone- treated group, diazepam alone-treated group, tramadol alone treated group, Sco + A. biebersteinii essential oil 1 % administrated group and Sco + A. biebersteinii essential oil 3 % administrated groups. Memory performances were assessed by Y-maze task and radial-arm maze task. Anxiety and depressive-like behavior were evaluated by elevated plus-maze and forced swimming tasks, respectively. The scopolamine-only administrated group showed impaired spatial memory as evidenced by decrease of the spontaneous alternation percentage in Y- maze test, and increase of the number of working and reference memory errors in the radial arm-maze test. In addition, scopolamine-only administrated group displayed increased anxiety and depressive-like behavior as evidenced by decrease of the exploratory activity, the percentage of the time spent and the number of entries in the open arm within elevated plus-maze test and decrease of swimming time and increase of immobility time within forced swimming test. Achillea biebersteinii essential oil significantly improved memory formation, and reduced anxiety and depression-like behavior in scopolamine-induced rats as compared to scopolamine-alone induced rats. The essential oil of this plant could be a good candidate for complementary therapy against neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s disease.
Ayurvedic medicine is a personalized system of traditional medicine native to India and the Indian subcontinent. It is based on a holistic view of treatment which promotes and supports equilibrium in different aspects of human life: the body, mind, and soul. Popular Ayurvedic medicinal plants and formulations that are used to slow down brain aging and enhance memory include Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) , Turmeric (Curcuma longa) , Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) , Shankhpushpi ( Convolvulus pluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides , and other species), gotu kola (Centella asiatica) , and guggulu ( Commiphora mukul and related species) and a formulation known as Brāhmī Gh ṛ ita, containing Brahmi, Vacā (Acorus calamus) , Ku ṣṭ ha (Saussurea lappa) , Shankhpushpi, and Purāṇa Gh ṛ ita (old clarified butter/old ghee). The rationale for the utilization of Ayurvedic medicinal plants has depended mostly on traditional usage, with little scientific data on signal transduction processes, efficacy, and safety. However, in recent years, pharmacological and toxicological studies have begun to be published and receive attention from scientists for verification of their claimed pharmacological and therapeutic effects. The purpose of this review is to outline the molecular mechanisms, signal transduction processes, and sites of action of some Ayurvedic medicinal plants. It is hoped that this description can be further explored with modern scientific methods, to reveal new therapeutic leads and jump-start more studies on the use of Ayurvedic medicine for prevention and treatment of dementia.
Platycodon grandiflorus (Jacq.) A.DC. (PG) has long been used as an ingredient of foods and is known to have beneficial effects on cognitive functions as well. The present study examined the effect of each PG extract (PGE) from root, aerial part, and seeds on cognitive functions in mice. Changes in spatial learning and memory using a Y-maze test, and markers of adult hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptogenesis were examined. Moreover, changes in neuritogenesis and activation of the ERK1/2 pathway were investigated. Results indicated that mice administered PGE (root) showed increased spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze test and synaptogenesis in the hippocampus. In addition, PGE (root) and platycodin D, the major bioactive compound from the PG root, significantly stimulated neuritic outgrowth by phosphorylation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway in vitro. These results indicate that the PGE (root), containing platycodin D, enhances cognitive function through synaptogenesis via activation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway.
Objective:
The present study was carried out to investigate the neuropharmacological activities of ethyl acetate extract of Mimosa pudica (EAMP) leaves on anxiety, depression and memory in a mouse model.
Materials and methods:
Anti-anxiety potential of EAMP was evaluated by elevated plus maze (EPM), light-dark box (LDB) and social interaction (SI) tests in mice.Anti-depressant potential of EAMP was evaluated by forced swimming (FST), tail suspension (TST), and open field tests (OFT). The behavioral findings were further corroborated with estimation of neurotransmitters and their metabolites from mouse brain homogenate. Effect on learning and memory was evaluated by EPM, passive avoidance (PA) tests. Further, it was confirmed with assessment of acetylcholinesterase and caspase-3 activity in brain homogenate.
Results:
EAMP showed significant anti-anxiety activity by increasing the time spent in open arm of EPM, light box of LDB. Social interaction time was increased significantly (p<0.01) as compared to vehicle control. There was also significant reduction of immobility time in both FST and TST without any changes in locomotor activity in the OFT. Monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine and norepinephrine) concentrations were increased significantly (p<0.01) after 4 weeks of treatment as compared to stress control and substantiated the anti-depressant activity. Step down latency was increased (p<0.01) in PA test and transfer latency was decreased (p<0.01) in EPM test of EAMP-treated mice. Acetylcholinesterase and caspase-3 activity was significantly (p<0.05) changed in mice treated with EAMP (200 and 400 mg/kg).
Conclusion:
The results revealed that EAMP has anti-anxiety, anti-depressant and memory enhancing activities that are mediated through multiple mechanisms.
The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of Cissampelos pariera on learning and memory in mice. Elevated plus maze and passive avoidance paradigm were employed to test learning and memory. Three doses (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) of hydroalcoholic extract were administered for 7 successive days in separate group of animals. The dose of 400-mg/kg p.o. of CPE significantly improved learning and memory of mice. Furthermore, this dose significantly reversed the amnesia induced by scopolamine(0.4 mg/kg, p.o.) and ageing induced amnesia. To delineate the mechanism by which CPE exerts nootropic activity, the effect of CPE on whole brain AChE activity was also assessed. CPE also decreased whole brain acetyl cholinesterase activity. Anti -inflammatory and antioxidant properties of C.pariera may be contributing favorably to memory enhancement effect. Here, Piracetam (200 mg/kg, i.p) was used as a standard nootropic agent. Hence C.pariera appears to be a promising candidate for improving memory and it would be worthwhile to explore the potential of this plant in the management of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. However, further studies are necessitated to identify the exact mechanism of action.
Annona squamosa and its active alkaloid content (-) Anonaine are known for antiepileptic activity on the basis of literature review. The objective of this study was to establish neuroprotection by Annona squamosa and its active alkaloid content (-) Anonaine as an antiepileptic agent by acting on GABA receptor. For neuroprotective assessment, variations of GABA, GABAA, GABAB receptors in the cortex region of the brain in epileptic rats and potential applications of Annona squamosa and its isolated chemical constituent (Anonaine) were investigated by using confocal microscopy. Nootropic activity in epileptic rats was also studied by radial and Y-maze model. GABA receptor binding analysis in the cortex region of epileptic rats showed significant decrease in Bmax (p<0.001) compared to control. Microscopic (confocal) study reveals confirmed decreased GABA receptors in epileptic rats. The extract of Annona squamosa leaves and its isolated constituent-anonaine showed memory boosting and memory regaining effects in radial arm and y-maze model. From the above data and findings, we may conclude that extract of Annona squamosa leaves and its alkaloidal constituent-anonaine improves significant changes in epileptic rat's behavior and their decreased GABA receptors. Both extract and its isolated component in future may be evaluated in further studies.
In an extensive search for bioactive compounds from plant sources, the composition of different extracts of rosemary leaves collected from different geographical zones of Serbia was studied. The qualitative and quantitative characterization of 20 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) samples, obtained by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), was determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS). The high mass accuracy and true isotopic pattern in both MS and MS/MS spectra provided by the QTOF-MS analyzer enabled the characterization of a wide range of phenolic compounds in the extracts, including flavonoids, phenolic diterpenes and abietan-type triterpenoids, among others. According to the data compiled, rosemary samples from Sokobanja presented the highest levels in flavonoids and other compounds such as carnosol, rosmaridiphenol, rosmadial, rosmarinic acid, and carnosic acid. On the other hand, higher contents in triterpenes were found in the extracts of rosemary from Gložan (Vojvodina).
Areca catechu Linn is one of the stimulant masticatory crude materials of Indian system of medicine. The present study was done to evaluate the effect of Areca catechu Linn extract on learning and memory in rats using radial arm maze. The extract used for study was of two different types of Areca catechu namely, wet and dried Areca catechu . Three groups of rats each consisting of seven animals were used for the purpose. Test groups were given 500mg/kg p.o of wet Areca catechu extract and dried Areca catechu extract respectively. It was observed that wet Areca catechu extract showed greater increase in spatial memory and learning in comparison to the control group of rats. Hence increase in spatial memory could be because of higher amount of arecoline present in wet Areca catechu extract. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/icpj.v1i6.10533 International Current Pharmaceutical Journal 2012, 1(6): 128-132
Rheumatoid arthritis has been treated with Hyptis suaveolens (L) poit. seeds. There has been no pharmaceutical assessment for rheumatoid arthritis. A study aims to assess the anti-arthritic properties of aqueous extract of Hyptis suaveolens (L) poit… seeds (AEHS). Standard techniques were used for phytochemical analysis. Tested anti-arthritic potential in-vitro (25-800µg/ml egg albumin) and in vivo (200 and 400 mg/kg egg albumin induced arthritic model). Chemicals such alkaloids, sugars, flavonoids, phenols, and terpenoids were found. Results showed 75% reduction of protein denaturation at 800µg/ml in-vitro. According to the Egg albumin model, AEHS considerably (P < 0.0001) inhibits changes in paw volume, joint diameter, and body weight. It also improves hematological, biochemical, and histopathological levels. The findings confirm the traditional usage of Hyptis suaveolens(L)poit. seeds to treat rheumatoid arthritis.
'Smart drugs' (also known as 'nootropics' and 'cognitive enhancers' [CEs]) are being used by healthy subjects (i.e. students and workers) typically to improve memory, attention, learning, executive functions and vigilance, hence the reference to a 'pharmaceutical cognitive doping behaviour'. While the efficacy of known CEs in individuals with memory or learning deficits is well known, their effect on non-impaired brains is still to be fully assessed. This paper aims to provide an overview on the prevalence of use; putative neuroenhancement benefits and possible harms relating to the intake of the most popular CEs (e.g. amphetamine-type stimulants, methylphenidate, donepezil, selegiline, modafinil, piracetam, benzodiazepine inverse agonists, and unifiram analogues) in healthy individuals. CEs are generally perceived by the users as effective, with related enthusiastic anecdotal reports; however, their efficacy in healthy individuals is uncertain and any reported improvement temporary. Conversely, since most CEs are stimulants, the related modulation of central noradrenaline, glutamate, and dopamine levels may lead to cardiovascular, neurological and psychopathological complications. Furthermore, use of CEs can be associated with paradoxical short- and long-term cognitive decline; decreased potential for plastic learning; and addictive behaviour. Finally, the non-medical use of any potent psychotropic raises serious ethical and legal issues, with nootropics having the potential to become a major public health concern. Further studies investigating CE-associated social, psychological, and biological outcomes are urgently needed to allow firm conclusions to be drawn on the appropriateness of CE use in healthy individuals.
Fabaceae is the third largest family in the plant kingdom which comprises around 19,500 species forming 7% of the total flowering plants. Around 8% of them are oil bearing, on which the world seriously relies on its vegetable oil need. This chapter deals with 10 oil bearing species in which 2 are edible and 8 are non-edible. Among them 7 are mostly obscure with reference to their role on biodiesel production. Such species are also taken into active consideration as biodiesel resource as they are emerging as location-specific complementary energy alternatives. Biodiesel prepared from a portion of the edible oil from groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and soybean (Glycine max) is being in use world over. Among the non-edible sources pongam (Pongamia pinnata) is richly used in biodiesel preparation. Active investigations are pursued during the last one decade on another seven species: African oak (Afzelia africana), babul (Acacia nilotica), diesel tree (Copaifera langsdorffii), mesquite (Prosopis juliflora), shikakai (Acacia concinna), shittim (Acacia raddiana) and brebra (Millettia ferruginea) though large scale economic exploitation is still on progress.
Lamiaceae, also known as the mint family, is a family of plants comprising about 245 genera and 7886 species distributed all over the world. Plants of this family are widely used in folk medicine, cosmetics, spices, and as a flavoring agents in food. With the exception of the coldest polar regions, Lamiaceae species are distributed almost throughout the world, particularly in tropical and temperate areas, including the Mediterranean region and in tropical upland savannas. The Lamiaceae family is known for a wealth of species possessing medicinal properties with a strong history of use since early times and is well known for high essential oil content, for their richness with polyphenolic compounds and terpenoids. All of these classes of compounds are of great interest due to their biological activities. A number of studies conducted on different species of Lamiaceae family and their effects on memory, anxiety, depression, and sleep disorders have been reported. For example, Rosmarinus officinalis has long been known as the herb of remembrance and was proved to boost memory, reduce anxiety and depression, and improve sleep quality. Different salvia species are used to enhance memory, as a sedative and for the treatment of headaches. Evidence for the use of other Lamiaceae species on the central nervous system (CNS), such as Dracocephalum moldavica. Clerodendrum formicarum, Nepeta clarkei has also been reported. Thymol and menthol are examples of the essential oils identified in species from Lamiaceae. It has been reported that thymol and menthol both act as positive modulators on GABAA receptors (the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS acting through a number of pharmacologically and structurally different receptor subtypes). Thymol was reported to have a GABAergic activity and acts as a positive allosteric modulator with a mechanism of action similar to other depressants, such as diazepam. This review aims to survey the current literature on the effect of Lamiaceae family and its use in the treatment of CNS disorders to provide sufficient baseline information that would improve the knowledge and the application of this family as safe therapeutic alternatives.
This review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of ethnobotanical uses, chemical constituents, posology, and toxicology of Hyptis suaveolens, and to address the significant medicinal benefits in order to promote its application. An extensive and systematic review of the literature was undertaken and all relevant abstracts and full-text articles analyzed and included in the review. A wide range of traditional uses are cited in the literature, ranging from uses for malaria, constipation, stomach problems, renal inflammation to external uses in repelling insects and treating injuries such as lacerations and burnrelated damage to skin and tissues. To date, pharmacological studies have demonstrated the significant activities of this plant that support uses such as antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antiulcer, and antiinflammatory. Numerous important phytochemicals, including 6 triterpenes, 8 diterpenes and 1 flavonoid have been isolated, identified and reported. The extracts and phytochemicals isolated from the plants show considerable potential for medicinal exploitation and utilization, including antimitotic, antiproliferative, cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-secretory, hepatoprotective, insecticidal, and acaricidal activities. As a medicinal plant, H. suaveolens is endowed with immense exploitation and utilization value and is widely used worldwide Therefore, further studies to fully elucidate its medicinal potential are warranted. Keywords: Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit, Ulcer Antimicrobial Inflammation, Diterpenes, Traditional medicine, Ethnopharmacology, Lamiaceae
One of the major causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is oxidative stress, which accelerates β-amyloid peptide (AP) plaque and neurofibrillary tangle accumulation in the brain. Pleurotus eryngii is known to be rich in antioxidants, including ergothioneine, adenosine, and polyphenol, which can reduce oxidative stress-related aging. The aim of this study was to investigate the proximate and functional composition of P. eryngii, and evaluate the cognitive effects of low (LPE), medium (MPE), and high (HPE) P. eryngii dosages in an Aβ-induced Alzheimer's disease C57BL/6J mouse model. Mice fed P. eryngii for six weeks showed no adverse effects on body weight gain, food intake efficiency, serum biochemical parameters, and liver and kidney histopathological features. The relative brain weight was significantly lower in Aβ-injected mice (p < 0.05). Further, P. eryngii was shown to delay brain atrophy. Reference memory behavioral tasks showed that LPE, MPE, and HPE significantly decreased escape latency (49-85%) and distance (53-69%, p < 0.05). Probe and T-maze tasks showed that P. eryngii potently ameliorated memory deficit in mice. An AD pathology index analysis showed that P. eryngii significantly decreased levels of brain phosphorylated τ-protein, Aβ plaque deposition, malondialdehyde, and protein carbonyl (p < 0.05). P. eryngii may therefore promote memory and learning capacity in an Aβ-induced AD mouse model.
Polygala japonica Houtt. (PJ) has been reported have positive effect on the nerves system including depression, but the underlying mechanism is needed to be understood. Here we show that PJ counteracts behavioral effects induced by chronic restraint, a model of depression mimicking exposure to stress, through adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) enhancement. Chronic stress increased the immobility time in the tail suspension test (TST) and forced swim test (FST) and decreased the time in the center of elevated plus maze (EPM) relative to controls. Moreover, chronic stress also induced the cognitive deficit in novel object recognition test, object location test and barnes maze. These behavioral alterations were accompanied by the decreased AHN. Treatment with PJ reversed the behavioral and AHN alterations. We also found that PJ had no significant effect on cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation in dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, but it inhibited the apoptosis of the newborn neurons by activation of bcl-2 and phopho-erk1/2 and increased the number of the newborn neurons. Our results demonstrate that administration of PJ to chronic stress mice alleviates depression-like behaviors and normalizes the deficit in hippocampal neurogenesis with inhibiting newborn neuron apoptosis.
In this study, the effects of Nigella Sativa (NS) hydro-alcoholic extract on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced learning and memory impairments, hippocampal cytokine levels, and brain tissues oxidative damage were investigated in rats. The rats were grouped and treated: (1) control (saline), (2) LPS (1 mg/kg i.p.), and (3–5) 100, 200, or 400 mg/kg NS hydro-alcoholic extract 30 min before LPS injection. The treatment was started since 6 days before the behavioral experiments and continued during the behavioral tests (LPS injection 2 h before each behavioral experiment). Finally, the brains were removed for biochemical assessments. In Morris water maze (MWM) test, LPS increased the escape latency and traveled path compared to control group, whereas all doses of NS hydro-alcoholic extract decreased them compared to LPS group. In passive avoidance (PA) test, the latency to enter the dark compartment in LPS group was shorter than control group while in all treated groups it was longer than LPS group. LPS increased tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, and decreased thiol content, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) in the hippocampal tissues compared to control group while NS hydro-alcoholic extract decreased MDA and NO metabolites and increased thiol content, SOD, and CAT compared to LPS group. Findings of the current study indicated that the hydro-alcoholic extract of NS improved the LPS-induced learning and memory impairments induced by LPS in rats by improving hippocampal cytokine levels and brain tissues oxidative damage.
Objective
To evaluate the effects of oral rosemary on memory performance, anxiety, depression, and sleep quality in university students.
Methods
In this double-blinded randomized controlled trial, the 68 participating students randomly received 500 mg rosemary and placebo twice daily for one month. Prospective and retrospective memory performance, depression, anxiety and sleep quality of the students were measured using Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory at baseline and after one month.
Results
The scores of all the scales and subscales except the sleep latency and sleep duration components of Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory were significantly decreased in the rosemary group in comparison with the control group after one month.
Conclusions
Rosemary as a traditional herb could be used to boost prospective and retrospective memory, reduce anxiety and depression, and improve sleep quality in university students.
This book introduces readers to nearly 600 common weeds. In addition to essential information, each chapter includes photos for a specific type of weed to show its morphology in different growth periods, such as seedling, root, flower, fruit, and mature plant. The book also discusses control measures, including agricultural, chemical, physical, biological, and comprehensive methods. The Volume2 mainly focuses on fern and 216 species of weeds of magnoliids or dicotyledoneae.
With the development of society and economics, weeds have become a recurring problem. In particular, the exotic, invasive, and quarantine weeds have spread dramatically and rapidly. On the other hand, many people, even those who are engaged in weed control, do not (or cannot) distinguish between weeds. Thus there is significant demand for illustrations of weed morphologies, as well as information on their control measures. This book offers a valuable, practical guide for all those working in the fields of crop cultivation, plant protection and quarantine management.
Introduction
The “nootropic” or simplified as a “smart drug”, is a common term that will tag along with the compound responsible for the enhancement of mental performance. Certain individuals with a history of mental or substance use disorders might be particularly vulnerable to its adverse effects.
Methodology
A review was conducted aiming to clarify the mechanisms associated of how these drugs increase mental functions including memory, motivation, concentration, and attention; and which kind of individuals are at risk of developing adverse effects when taking these drugs. The literature search was conducted in PubMed data reviewing articles dating between 2015 and 2016.
Results
– Glutaminergic Signalling, Cholinergic System, Amyloid Precursor Protein and Secondary Messenger may be related to the cognitive enhancement achieved by Nootropics. Others, like insulin and angiotensin receptor may involved too.
– Some of them, like Ginkgo biloba, seem to have neuroprotective effects observed in human and animal models, acting as antioxidant and antiapoptotic, also inducing inhibition effects against caspase-3 activation and amyloid-aggregation toward Alzheimer's disease.
– Synthetic nootropics, a lab created compound such as piracetam, especially in people with history of drug abuse, may be associated with psychiatric exacerbations of some patients.
Conclusions
Young adults all over Europe, especially university students, are starting to use nootropic drugs to improve their academic results. Some of them seem to have beneficial effects over mental health but others are sometimes related with sudden and unexplained exacerbations in stable psychiatric patients. It is important to early identify symptoms and to treat them properly.
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the memory enhancing activity of Lawsonia inermis Linn. leaves against scopolamine induced amnesia by elevated plus maze and Y-maze test. The Powdered leaf materials were extracted with 95% ethanol. The dried extract was subjected to phytochemical analysis and free radical scavenging activity. Acute oral toxicity was performed as per OECD guidelines 425. A dose level 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg were selected for pharmacological screening. Swiss albino mice of male sex were divided into ten groups of six animals each. Five groups were subjected to evaluation by elevated plus maze and remaining by Y-maze model. Immediately after evaluation, the whole brain of each animal was subjected to determination of acetyl cholinesterase (AChE), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Extract at dose levels of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg showed a significant increase in inflexion ratio in elevated plus maze and increase in percentage alternation in Y-maze model compared to negative control animals in respective models. A significant decrease in brain AChE and MDA with a significant increase in GSH, CAT and SOD levels were noted in animals treated with extract in both models. The preliminary analysis of extract showed the presence of phenolics, tannins, flavonoids and a potent invitro free radical scavenging activity. These findings suggest that, the memory enhancing effect of Lawsonia inermis leaves might be due to enhancement of cholinergic neurotransmission through inhibition of AChE activity and by stabilizing the antioxidant system.
